Unit 2: Chromatography

Introduction to Gas Chromatography

• Gas chromatography (GC) is one of the most versatile and ubiquitous analytical techniques in the laboratory. It is widely used
for the determination of organic compounds.
• There are two types of GC: gas–solid (adsorption) chromatography and gas–liquid (partition) chromatography. The
more important of the two is gas–liquid chromatography (GLC), used in the form of a capillary column.
• chromatography that use the column mode where the stationary phase is packed into glass or metal columns. The nature of the
stationary phase depends upon the particular form of chromatography. It is generally an adsorbent, in other words, a resin or a
gel.

The stationary phase is applied to a glass, plastic or metal foil plate as a uniform,
thin layer and the sample is applied at the top edge of the layer using a micro-
pipette or syringe.
• the sample is converted to the vapor state (if it is not already distributes between the stationary phase and the carrier gas. Gas-phase equilibria
are rapid, so resolution (and the number of plates) can be high. a gas by injection into a heated port, and the eluent is a gas (the carrier gas).
• generally a nonvolatile liquid or a liquid-like phase supported on or bonded to a capillary wall or inert solid particles such as diatomaceous
earth.
• The most important factor in gas chromatography is the selection of the proper column (stationary phase) for the particular separation to be
attempted. The nature of the liquid or solid phase will determine the exchange equilibrium with the sample components; and this will depend
on the solubility or absorbability of the analytes, the polarity of the stationary phase and sample molecules, the degree of hydrogen bonding,
and specific chemical interactions.
• Separation occurs as the vapor constituents equilibrate between carrier gas and the stationary phase. The carrier gas is a chemically inert gas
available in pure form such as argon, helium, or nitrogen.
• Area under the peak is proportional to the concentration, and so the amount of substance can be quantitatively determined. peak height can be
compared with a calibration curve prepared in the same manner
• The two types of columns used in GC are packed columns and capillary columns. Capillary columns are more commonly used today, but
packed columns are still used for applications that do not require high resolution or when increased capacity is needed.
• Typical packed columns are 1 to 10m long and 0.2 to 0.6 cm in diameter. Well-packed columns may have 1000 plates/m, and so a
representative 3-m column would have 3000 plates. Short columns can be made of glass or glass/silica-lined stainless steel, but longer
columns may be made of stainless steel or nickel so they can be straightened for filling and packing.
• increased number of plates in a narrow open-tubular column with the stationary phase supported on the inner wall. Band broadening due to
multiple paths (eddy diffusion) would be eliminated. In narrow columns, the rate of mass transfer is increased since molecules have small
distances to diffuse. Higher flow rates can be used due to decreased pressure drop, which decreases molecular diffusion.
• These columns are made of thin fused silica (SiO2) coated on the outside with a polyimide polymer for support and protection of the fragile
silica capillary.

Typical gas chromatogram of

unleaded gasoline, a complex
mixture, using a capillary
column.
Stationary Phase

• The polysiloxanes have the backbone. The R functional groups

determine the polarity, and include methyl (CH3), phenyl, cyanopropyl
(CH2CH2CN), and trifluoropropyl etc.
• Those with cyano functions are susceptible to attack by water and by
oxygen. The carbowaxes must be liquid at operating temperatures.
Incorporating either phenyl or carborane groups in the siloxane polymer
backbone strengthens and stiffens the polymer backbone.
• This inhibits stationary-phase degradation at higher temperatures, and
results in lower column bleed (loss of stationary phase by vaporization.
• Uniquely, they are inert to O2 and H2O.

R1
O Si
n

R2
There are three types of open-tubular columns. Wall-
coated open-tubular (WCOT) columns have a thin
liquid film coated on and supported by the walls of the
capillary. In support coated open-tubular (SCOT) Three generations in gas
columns, solid microparticles coated with the chromatography. Peppermint oil
stationary phase (much like in packed columns) are separation on (top) 0.25-in. × 6-
attached to the walls of the capillary. The third type, ft packed column; (center) 0.03-
porous layer open-tubular (PLOT) columns, have in. × 500-ft stainless steel
solid-phase particles attached to the column wall, for capillary column; (bottom) 0.25-
adsorption chromatography. mm × 50-m glass capillary
column.
These columns, like packed GSC columns, are useful for separating permanent gases, as well as volatile hydrocarbons. The resolution efficiency of open-tubular
columns is generally in the order: WCOT > SCOT > PLOT.
Device
Gas Chromatography Detectors
• The original GC detector was the thermal conductivity, or hot wire, detector (TCS), are inexpensive and exhibit universal response, but they
are not very sensitive. As a gas is passed over a heated filament wire, the temperature and thus the resistance of the wire will vary according to
the thermal conductivity of the gas. Typically it is deployed in a referenced configuration.
• gas is passed over a heated filament wire, the temperature and thus the resistance of the wire will vary according to the thermal conductivity of
the gas.
• Most organic compounds form ions in a flame, generally cations such as CHO+.
• Hydrogen and helium carrier gases are preferred with thermal conductivity detectors because they have a very high thermal
conductivity. This forms the basis of an extremely sensitive detector, the flame ionization detector (FID).
• The response depends on the number of carbon atoms in the sample and on the oxidation state of the carbon. compounds with
the greatest number of low oxidation state carbons produce the largest signals.
• Detectors gives the measurement of components in the ppb concentration range. The FID is about 1000 times more sensitive
than the TCD.
• Samples of pure liquids are generally restricted to 0.1 μL or less. flame ionization detector is insensitive to most inorganic
compounds, including water, and so aqueous solutions can be injected (but only if you have a compatible column).
• When sulfur and phosphorus compounds are burned in an FID-type flame chemiluminescent species are produced that produce
light at 393 nm (sulfur) and 526 nm (phosphorous).
• The catalytic combustion detector (CCD) responds much like an FID in regard to the type of compounds it responds to and
has the sensitivity of a TCD. It is sufficiently hot for hydrocarbons to be rapidly oxidized (burn) in the presence of the air and
the catalyst.
• Care should be taken for this type detector, not to inject too much sample; too much heat will destroy the sensing filament.
• The flame thermionic detector is essentially a two-stage flame ionization detector designed to give an increased specific
response for nitrogen- and phosphorus containing substances, also known as a nitrogen–phosphorous detector (NPD).
Methods for evaluating protein pharmaceuticals
• Various analytical approaches used throughout to
characterize, study, protein quality control, purity and
potency. These steps could be chemical, physical, biological,
immunological and functional study.

• Liquid chromatography such as high performance liquid

chromatography (HPLC), reverse phase HPLC, size exclusion
and ion exchange HPLC.

• These are highly used due to their precision, high resolving

power, reliability, flexibility of the equipment , availability of
different column packing, faster development time, high
throughput with reproducibility.
 Reverse Phase HPLC
• Principle is based on tuning the hydrophobic interactions of
protein and stationary phase.
• Mobile phase is prepared with a specific pH with organic solvent
such as acetonitrile.
• Protein elution occurs as a result of change in polarity in mobile
phase. These can be programmed in a pump controller.
• The column material is silica based packing's capped with (C4 to
C8) altering hydrophobicity.
HPLC CHROMATOGRAM
Application of HPLC
1. Pharmaceuticals industry
• To control the drug stability
• Quantity of drug determination from
pharmaceutical dosage forms, ex. Paracetamol
determination in panadol tablet
• Quantity of drug determination from biological
fluids, ex: blood glucose level

2. Analysis of natural contamination

- Phenol & Mercury from sea water

3. Forensic test
- Determination of steroid in blood, urine & sweat.
- Detection of psychotropic drug in plasma
Application of HPLC
4. Clinical test
- Monitoring of hepatic chirosis patient
through aquaporin 2 in the urine.

5. Food and essence manufacture

- sweetener analysis in the fruit juice
- preservative analysis in sausage.
 advantages

1. Needs a small sample with a high accuracy and precis

2. Non-destructed sample during operation compared to
GC.

Disadvantages
• Need a skill to run the instruments
• Solvents consuming
 Size exclusion and Ion exchange Chromatography
• SEC also renamed as gel permeation chromatography, separate
protein sample based on molecular size while having mobile
phase through porous and inert packing.

• Mobile phase has a defined pH and ionic strength. Protein or

molecule with higher molecule larger than the pore size is
excluded and eluded first with solvent font. Thus it can separate
the protein based on molecular size.

• IEC is based on the retention of the protein based on the charge

on protein at the pH of the mobile phase and interacting a
counter ion covalently bound to the stationary part of the
column packing.

• Stationary resin could be cations or anion and select the elution

of the protein varying ionic strength.
 Optical Spectroscopy
• Typically for protein characterization and quantification is
done by using UV absorbance 280 nm.
• Other options are fluorescent microscopy, matrix assisted
laser desorption time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass
spectroscopy, LC-MS, CD spectroscopy, , IR and Raman
spectroscopy, electrophoresis and light scattering.
• 230-300 nm range is determined by aromatic side chains.
• Difference in spectra is generated by difference in spectra is
a convenient way of monitoring conformational change in
protein.
 Electrophoresis
• Mobility of a protein through a porous gel based on their size or
charge when an external electric field is applied.
• For example, SDS gel electrophoresis separate protein based on
molecular size and useful to determine the purity of the protein
or any degradation, aggregation or fragmentation happened or
not.
• Protein is heated in presence of SDS and SDS forms a complex
with protein while binding in a fixed mass to charge ratio.
• The matrix used is called SDS-PAGE and can be prepared at a
fixed concentration or as a gradient. After the electrophoresis is
completed, the protein gel is stained with Coomasie Brilliant
blue or silver stain.
 Continued
• Isoelectric focusing is another approach based on isoelectric
point.
• Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is an important and most
commercially available sophisticated instrument.
• In CE, the protein is separated across small bore fused silica
capillary.
• Advantage over other electrophoresis is its automated, high
resolution, detection sensitivity and shorter analytic time.