CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY

Geology – geo means Earth and logos means discourse.

1. Physical Geology – examines the materials composing Earth and the processes that operate
beneath and upon its surface.
2. Historical Geology – pushes to understand the origin of Earth and its development through time.

On the field: based on measurements, observations and experiments

In the laboratory: computer simulations

Natural process becomes geologic hazard when people try to live where these processes occur.

Geology deals with the formation and occurrence of resources but also with maintaining supplies and the
environmental impact of their extraction and use.

HISTORICAL NOTES ABOUT GEOLOGY

Aristotle believed that rocks were created under the influence of stars and that earthquakes
occurred when the air in the ground was heated by central fire and escaped explosively.

James Ussher – determined that Earth was created in 4004 BC.

Catastrophism – emerged during the 17th to 18th century, states that Earth’s landscapes were shaped by
great catastrophes.

Shortly after Ussher, Dr. John Lightfoot determined that Eart was created on October 26, 4004 BC
at 9:00 AM.

James Hutton – published the Theory of the Earth in 1795 and is the Father of Modern Geology and
Uniformitarianism.

Uniformitarianism – the physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today also operated in the
geologic past. “The present is the key to the past”.

James Hutton’s most famous statement: “The result, therefore, of our present enquiry is, that we
find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end”.

Before the discovery of radioactivity, a geologic time scale was developed using principles of
relative dating. In 1896, radioactivity was discovered and in 1905, it was used for dating.

Relative dating – events are placed in sequence without knowing its age.

Fossils – remains or traces of prehistoric life.

Law of superposition – the older rocks are found at the bottom and younger on top.

Law of fossil succession – the age of a strata can be identified by the succession of its occurrence and
deposition.

Law of lateral continuity – sediments extend laterally in all directions until its supply is depleted.

Law of original horizontality – sediments are deposited horizontality under the action of gravity.

Law of inclusion – the body that is included is older than the body that surrounds it.
Law of cross-cutting relationship – the body or fracture is younger than the body that was intruded.

NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Hypothesis – a tentative or untested explanation based on facts and principles.

The verification process requires that predictions be made based on the hypothesis being considered and
that the predictions be tested by comparing them against objective observations of nature.

One of the best discarded hypotheses is the Earth-centred model of the universe-supported by
the apparent daily motion of the sun, moon and stars around Earth.

Jacob Bronowski: Science is a great many things, but in the end they all return to this: Science is
the acceptance of what works and the rejection of what does not.

Scientific theory – a well-tested and widely accepted view that the scientific community agrees best
explains observable facts.

Scientific method – the process in which scientists gather facts through observations and formulate
scientific hypotheses.

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS INVOLVE:

1. Collection of scientific facts through observation and measurement.

2. Formulation of questions that relate to the facts and the development of one or more working
hypothesis.
3. Development of observations and experiments to test the hypotheses.
4. Acceptance, modification or rejection of the hypotheses based on extensive testing.

Eratosthenes calculated close to the Earth’s circumference of 4,075 km.

EARTH’S SPHERES

Earthrise – photo by Bill Anders, Apollo 9 – December 1968

The Blue Marble – photo by Apollo 17 – December 1972

EARTH’S MAJOR PARTS:

1. Hydrosphere – dynamic mass of water: 97.2 ocean, 2.15 glaciers, 0.62 groundwater and 0.024
lakes and atmosphere.
a. Global ocean – 71% of Earth’s surface; 3,800 m average depth.
2. Atmosphere – life-giving gaseous envelope; ½ lies below an altitude of 5.6 km and 90% occurs
within just 16 km of Earth.
3. Biosphere – includes all life on Earth.
4. Geosphere – solid Earth; 6,400 km depth.

EARTH AS A SYSTEM

System – any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole.
TYPES OF SYSTEM:

1. Open system – energy and matter flow into and out.

2. Close system – only energy can flow into and out.

Earth’s average surface temperature increases by 0.6C since 1970; by 21 st century it may increase
by 2C to 4.5C.

FEEDBACK MECHANISMS:

1. Positive feedback mechanism – work to enhance or drive change

2. Negative feedback mechanism – work to maintain the system as it is

THE ROCK CYCLE: ONE OF EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS

Rock – most abundant material; consolidated minerals and/or organic matter.

Nebular theory – states that the bodies of our solar system evolved from an enormous rotating cloud
called solar nebula. This is proposed by Immanuel Kant in 1755 and modified by Pierre Laplace in 1796.

Big Bang happened 13.7 Ga, a large expansion that sent all the matter of the universe flying outward at
incredible speeds. In time, the debris from this explosion (H,He) began to cool and condense into the first
stars and galaxies.

The Big Bang Theory – proposed by Georges Lemaitre in 1927, is the idea that the universe began as just
a single point, then expanded and stretched to grow as large as it is right now—and it is still stretching!
Nearly 5 Ga, this huge cloud of gas and minute grains of heavier elements began to slowly contract due to
the gravitational interactions among its particles. The collapse could have been triggered by a shockwave
traveling from a supernova – a catastrophic explosion which is the last stage of a star’s life.

Astronomers believe it is assumed to be a disk because similar structures have been detected
around other stars.

During the collapse, gravitational energy was converted to thermal energy (heat) causing the nebula’s
temperature to rise. At these temperatures, the dust grains broke up into molecules and extremely
energetic atomic particles. However, at distances beyond the orbit of Mars, the temperatures remained
low. At -200C, the tiny particles in the outer portion of the nebula were covered with a thick layer of
frozen water, CO2, NH4 and CH4 with low amounts of He and H.

Some of the residues in the outermost of the solar system are called – Oort cloud.

The formation of the Sun marked the end of the period of contraction and thus end gravitational heating.
Temperatures in the region where the inner planets now reside began to decline which caused high-
melting substances to condense into tiny particles that began to coalesce. Rock-forming minerals are
composed and formed metallic and rocky clumps that orbited the sun. Repeated collisions caused these
masses to coalesce into larger asteroid-size bodies called planetesimals which accreted into terrestrial
planets. Not all of these clumps of matter were incorporated into planetesimals. Those rocky and metallic
pieces that remained in orbit are called meteorites when they survive an impact with Earth.

Asteroid – the term used when clumps of rocky and metallic pieces are still in the outer space.
Meteor – term used as an asteroid enters the Earth’s atmosphere.

Meteorite – term used when a meteor hits the Earth’s surface.

Solar wind – a stream of energized, charged particles (plasma) flowing outward from the Sun (900 km/s
and 1,000,000C).

Inner planets – also known as Terrestrial Planets: Mercury to Mars.

Outer planets – also known as Jovian Planets: Jupiter to Neptune.

At the same time, the outer planets are forming and because of their low temperature, these planets
contained high percentages of gas and ice.

Jupiter and Saturn can hold H and He

One-light year is 9.5 trillion km (9.5x10^12) or 5.8 trillion mi

As materials accumulated to form Earth, the high-velocity impact of nebular debris and radioactive decay
caused the temperature of Earth to steadily increase. Due to intense heating, Fe and Ni began to melt
that sank toward the centre of the Earth.

The early period of melting formed buoyant masses of molten rock that rose toward the surface and
solidified to produce a primitive crust.

A consequence of this chemical differentiation is that large quantities of gaseous materials were allowed
to escape. Through this process, a primitive atmosphere evolved.

Continental crust gradually formed over 4 Ga (found at Northwestern Territories of California)

Crust – thin rocky outer skin

Oceanic Crust Continental Crust

7 km 35 km
Basaltic Granitic ¬ Granodiorite
3.0 g/cm3 2.7 g/cm3
Younger Older
The upper crust is granodiorite in composition and the uppermost mantle is peridotite

Mantle – solid rocky shell

Upper Mantle Lower Mantle

Lithosphere – rigid shell Strengthens due to pressure, however, it is
capable of gradual flow
Asthenosphere – weak sphere and partial melting
occurs at the top
Olivine, Pyroxene, Garnet Bridgmanite and Ferropericlase

Core – Ni-Fe alloy with an average density of 11 g/cm3

Outer Core Inner Core

Liquid layer that generates the magnetic field Solid layer due to immense overlying pressure
Composition: Liquid Iron Alloy Composition: Solid Iron Alloy

Discontinuities Found at
Conorod discontinuity Upper and Lower Crust
Mohorovicic discontinuity Lower Crust and Upper Mantle
Repiti discontinuity Upper and Lower Mantle
*Transition zone (410-660 km) Ringwoodite, Wadsleyite, Majorite
Guttenberg discontinuity Lower Mantle and Outer Core
*D” layer (2600-2900 km) Post-perovskite
Lehmann discontinuity Outer and Inner Co

THE FACE OF THE EARTH

PRINCIPAL DIVISION OF EARTH’S SURFACE:

1. Continents – flat features that lie close to sea level with average elevation of 800 m.
2. Ocean basin/floor – flat features that has an average depth of 3.8 km.

MAJOR FEATURES OF CONTINENTS:

1. Mountain belts – most prominent feature; if young, it tends to be long and narrow.
a. Island arc – active mountainous regions composed of volcano and deformed
sedimentary rocks.
2. Stable interior – undisturbed regions for more than 600 Ma.
 a. Shields – are within stable interiors, these are expansive, flat regions composed of
deformed crystalline rocks.
b. Stable platform – highly deformed rocks covered by thin veneer of sedimentary rocks.

MAJOR FEATURES OF OCEAN BASIN:

1. Continental margins – portion of the seafloor adjacent to major land masses.

a. Continental shelf – flooded extensions of continents that extends seawards from the
shore; found at the margins of continents.
b. Continental slope – boundary between the continents and deep-ocean basin; has steep
drop-off that extends from the outer edge of the continental shelf to the seafloor.
i. Submarine canyons – is a steep-sided valley cut into the seabed of the
continental slope that is formed by river erosion and turbidity currents.
c. Continental rise – less steep continental slope; consists of a thick accumulation of
sediments that moved downslope from the continental shelf to the deep ocean floor;
found in regions where trenches are absent.

2. Deep-ocean margin – lies between the continental margin and oceanic ridges
a. Abyssal plain – flat features of ocean basin
b. Deep ocean trenches – these are the extreme depressions in the ocean floor
c. Volcanic island arcs – chain of volcanoes formed above a subducting plate that is fuelled
by rising magma
d. Seamounts – submerged volcanic structures dotting the ocean floor
 3. Oceanic ridges or Mid-ocean ridge – most prominent feature on the ocean floor and consists of
fractured igneous layers that has been uplifted.

Guyots – also known as “tablemount”, is an isolated underwater volcanic mountain.

Coastal plain – flat, low-lying piece of land next to the ocean.

Earth’s surface area is composed of 60% ocean basin, 40% continent

Some trenches are located adjacent to young mountains that flank the continent.

DYNAMIC EARTH

Continental Drift Theory – continents moved over geologic time and was first put forward by Abraham
Ortelius

Theory of Plate Tectonics – the first comprehensive model of Earth’s internal working; the lithosphere
was broken into numerous plates which are in continual motion; first proposed by Alfred Wegener in
1912

Hot less dense mantle rises and cool dense mantle sinks. This is the reason why the lithosphere is
still in motion.

Divergent boundaries – plates move apart resulting in upwelling from the mantle to create new seafloor
(apparent along oceanic ridges); known as Constructive boundaries; Topography: Ridge/Rift

Convergent boundaries – plates move together to create a mountain system; known as Destructive
boundaries; Topography: Trench

Transform fault boundaries - plates grind past each other; known as Conservative boundaries;
Topography: No major effect
 Divergent
and Convergent boundaries has an occuring volcanic activity.

Earth’s total surface area will always remain constant.

Plates move by 5cm/year driven by unequal distribution of heat within Earth.

Subduction zone – plate margins where oceanic crust is being consumed.

Spreading centers – it is the zone of seafloor spreading.

Major Plates (ANSAPAE) Minor Plates (No Car Can JPAS)

African Pacific Nazca Arabian
North American Antarctic Caribbean Scotia
South American Eurasian Cosco Juan de Fuca
Australian Philippine Sea
None of the plates is entirely defined by the margins of a continent.