AA BPG S02 GUIDELINE FOR THE VIBRATION DESIGN OF ISSUE 0

STRUCTURES 04 MAY 2012

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GUIDELINE FOR THE VIBRATION DESIGN OF
STRUCTURES

1  Scope 5 

2  Definitions, Notation and Properties 6 

2.1  Definitions 6 

2.2  Notation and Units be Used 8 

2.3  Section Properties 11 

3  Vibration design procedure. 12 

3.1  Step 1: Necessary Data and Information 12 

3.2  Step 2: Clarify Details of the Structure to be Designed 12 

3.3  Step 3: Build a Computer Model 12 

3.4  Step 4: Assess the Results 13 

3.5  Step 5: Prepare Structural Design Calculations and Drawings 13 

4  General Concepts and Theory 13 

4.1  Dynamic and Harmonic Loads 13 

4.2  Dynamic Characteristics of Structures 15 

5  Loads 23 

5.1  Rotating Unbalance 24 

5.2  Loads Applied to the Structure 27 

5.3  Impact Loads 33 

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5.4  Ground Motion from Blasting and Piling 36 

6  Structural Modelling and response 37 

6.1  Modelling the Structure 37 

6.2  Composite Beams and Floors 43 

6.3  Approximate Methods of Frequency Calculation 45 

6.4  Confirming the Accuracy of the Model 47 

6.5  Modelling Machinery on Structures 48 

6.6  Calculation of Dynamic Response 49 

6.7  Dynamic Analysis Computer Programmes 50 

7  Vibration Limits 52 

7.1  Introduction 52 

7.2  Human Sensitivity 52 

7.3  Equipment and Machine Sensitivity 57 

7.4  Structural Sensitivity 58 

8  Design Guidance For Specific Equipment and Structures 59 

8.1  Crushers 59 

8.2  Rotating Tubes 64 

8.3  Vibrating Screen and Feeders 66 

8.4  Rock Breakers 70 

8.5  Design of Grizzly Bars 71 

8.6  Vessel Agitation 73 

8.7  Wood Chippers 76 

9  Practical guidelines for foundations 76 

9.1  Traditional Rules of Thumb 76 

9.2  Simple Rules 76 

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9.3  Modelling Foundations 77 

10  Practical Details for tertiary Structural Elements 82 

10.1  Individual Members 82 

10.2  Walkways and Hand Railing 84 

10.3  Sheeting Rails 85 

10.4  Plating on Chutes, Bins and Underpans 86 

10.5  Bracing Systems 89 

11  Practical Details for Connections 90 

11.1  Bolted Connections 90 

11.2  Welded Connections 90 

11.3  Beam-to-beam Connections 90 

11.4  Bracing Connections 91 

12  Fatigue Life 91 

12.1  Situations Requiring Fatigue Life Calculations 91 

12.2  High Cycle, High Stress Range Fatigue 92 

12.3  High Cycle, Low Stress Range Fatigue 92 

12.4  Low Cycle, High Stress Range Fatigue 92 

13  Vibration Measurements 93 

13.1  What Should be Measured? 93 

13.2  Measuring Equipment 94 

13.3  Recording Measurements 95 

13.4  Relating Measured Displacements to Implied Stresses 95 

13.5  Baseline Vibration Measurement Guide 96 

14  Trouble Shooting and Structural 99 

14.1  Interpreting and Using Measurements 99 

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14.2  Changes to Applied Loads 99 

14.3  Structural Modifications 100 

14.4  Common Concerns of Site Personnel 100 

Appendix A: Referenced documents 102 

Appendix B: Record of Amendments 102 

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1 SCOPE
The purpose of this guide is primarily to assist with understanding the concepts on which
structural dynamics is based, and provide guidance in the practical implementation of
dynamic design. The following concepts need to be understood:

a) Natural frequencies, resonance and damping.

b) Mass, force and inertia force.
c) Degrees of freedom and computer modelling.
d) Evaluation of member section properties and end constraints.
e) Dynamic loading, dynamic reactions from vibrating equipment.
f) Assessment of allowable amplitudes and fatigue life.

Warning: Do not attempt dynamic analysis and design of any structures unless you
understand these concepts. Too often
the powerful computer analysis packages available today are simply “thrown” at a dynamic
design problem and it is assumed that a satisfactory structure will simply pop out. This
does not happen.

This guide covers the full spectrum of the design procedures to be adopted for general
structures carrying equipment that generates dynamic loads. It is not intended to cover
design to resist environmental dynamic loads such as wind or earthquake, nor is it intended to
cover the design of unusual structures such as tall masts or long bridges.

Dynamic analysis and design of structures is aimed at ensuring three important criteria.

a) There should not be resonance.

b) The amplitudes of vibration should not exceed predefined limits.
c) The structure should have an adequate fatigue life.

In order to achieve this, the Designer must understand the dynamic behaviour of structures,
must know the dynamic loads acting on the structure, must be able to model and analyse the
structure, and finally must be able to understand and assess structural behaviour against the
predefined limits. The guide is thus divided into the following eight sections:

a) A basic presentation of the theory of the response of structures to dynamic loads. This
is not intended as a detailed or comprehensive coverage of dynamic analysis theory,
but rather a simple treatment to assist in understanding some fundamental concepts.
For a fuller treatment of dynamic analysis theory it will be necessary to consult one of
many excellent books on the market, a few of which are listed under the bibliography.
b) Discussion of the dynamic loads that may be applied to industrial structures.
c) Guidance with modelling of structures for computer analysis. This section includes a
brief presentation of the computer programs used by ATD Structural engineering for
dynamic analysis of structures. This is not intended to replace the respective manuals,
but to provide guidance in their appropriate use.
d) Description of the limits placed on vibration severity.

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e) A step by step practical guide to the design of some structures that must often be dealt
with by ATD Structural Engineering, including supporting structures for crushers,
screens, feeders, etc.
f) Some guidance for the appropriate design of tertiary structural members.
g) Discussion of how to deal with problems that arise on specific installations. This
includes some comments regarding vibration measurements, typical problems that have
been experienced, and guidance regarding fixing problems.
h) A bibliography which includes the relevant codes and specifications as well as
additional material for anyone wanting more detailed information.

Warning: Throughout the document various warnings are given. It is important to take
note of these as they are areas where experience has shown that mistakes tend to be
made.

2 DEFINITIONS, NOTATION AND PROPERTIES

The notation used throughout this guideline document is listed below for ease of reference.

2.1 Definitions

Algorithm
: Logical arithmetic or computational procedure for solving a
problem.

Amplitude : The maximum value of any harmonic quantity, ie force,

acceleration, velocity, or displacement. It is equal to half the peak-
to-peak value.

Damping : Dissipation or absorption of energy. Damping is usually assumed

to be “viscous damping” which means that it is proportional to the
velocity.

Dynamic : This is the ratio of the dynamic displacement amplitude of a

Magnification structure to the static displacement if the same structure is
Factor subjected to a static load equivalent to the applied dynamic load
amplitude.

Frequency : This is the rate at which a harmonic quantity varies with time. It is
important to distinguish between a cyclical frequency, f, which is
measured in cycles/second, and radial frequency, ω, which is
measured in radians/second. These are directly related by:
ω = 2π f

Frequency Ratio : The ratio of the frequency of an applied harmonic load to the
natural frequency of the structure, ie ωE/ ωN.

Harmonic : Any quantity that varies with time according to: Q = Qo sin (ωt +Φ).
Many of the loads applied by industrial equipment are harmonic
loads.

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Inertia Force : The force required to accelerate the mass of a specified portion of
a structure.

In-Phase : These terms describe the relationship between two or more

harmonic quantities. If the quantities are in the same direction, and
Out-Of-Phase
attain their maximum or minimum values at the same time, they are
said to be in-phase, and their phase angles are the same, i.e. Φ1 =
Φ2. If the two quantities act in opposite directions and one attains
its maximum value when the other attains its minimum value, they
are said to be out-of-phase, and their phase angles differ by π, i.e.
Φ1 = Φ2 + π.

Model : A model is a representation of a complex object. In dynamic

design a model typically refers to a computer representation of a
real structure.

Mode Shape : A natural shape in which a structure will vibrate. This is

mathematically referred to as an “eigenvector”.

Natural Frequency : The frequency at which a structure will naturally vibrate in the
absence of any applied force.

Peak-To-Peak : The difference between the maximum and minimum values of a

dynamic quantity. When the quantity is harmonic the peak-to-peak
value is twice the amplitude. The peak-to-peak displacement of
vibrating equipment is sometimes referred to as the “throw”.

Periodical : Changing in time according to a regular pattern that repeats itself.

Period : The period of a harmonic quantity is the time taken for one
complete cycle. Thus:
1 2π
P= =
f ω

PPV : This is the peak particle velocity, generally used to describe the
severity of ground motion generated by blasting or other
disturbance.

RMS : This is the “root mean square” value of a dynamic quantity. It is

mathematically defined as:

1T 2
a RMS = ∫ a ( t )dt
T0

When the quantity is harmonic, its RMS value is 0,707 times the
amplitude.

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2.2 Notation and Units be Used

The recommended units are given below for each symbol. It is highly recommended that
these units are used for all calculations, or serious errors can be introduced.

Warning: If these recommended units are not used for any reason, it is necessary to
reduce all calculations to the basic units of mass, length, and time in order to ensure the
accuracy of calculations. This problem usually arises because the relationship between
force and mass is determined by the gravity constant. In static design calculations this
does not matter, because we are always using forces, never mass, so whatever gravity
constant we use we get the same answer as long as we are consistent. In dynamic design
calculations we use mass and force, so the correct gravity constant is crucial. If we choose
millimetres as our length unit, then the gravity constant is 9810 mm/s2, and not 9,81 m/s2.
As one example, consider the elastic modulus of steel.
(a) If we are using metres as our unit of length:
E = 200x103 MPa = 200x109 Pa = 200x109 N/m2 = 200x109 kg.m/s2/m2.
(b) If we are using millimetres as our unit of length, we should use:
E = 200x109 kg.m/s2/m2 = 200x106 kg.mm/s2/mm2
But, because we tend to forget the effect our choice of units has on the gravity constant,
we are inclined to incorrectly use:
E = 200x103 MPa = 200x103 N/mm2 = 200x103 kg.m/s2/mm2.
This gives a stiffness which is too low by a factor of 1000, leading to completely wrong
results.

Symbol Units Description Comment

A m Linear dimension, distance from
ground impact
aM m/s2 Linear acceleration
ao m/s2 Linear acceleration amplitude
bx m Spacing of x-direction stiffeners in
orthotropic plating (m)
by m Spacing of y-direction stiffeners in
orthotropic plating (m)
A m2 Cross sectional area See SAISC Red Handbook
b M Linear dimension
B M Deflection of beam or post
c m Axial displacement of steel coil spring
under permanent loads only
C N.S/M Damping constant
CC N/M3 Soil uniform compression modulus
CV N/M
3 Soil uniform shear modulus
Cφ N/M3 Soil uniform rotational modulus

D M Displacement
do M Amplitude of displacement
dC M Depth of beam or slab

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Symbol Units Description Comment

d1,d2 M Width of plates
dw M Diameter of steel coil spring wire
D M Diameter of steel coil spring or rubber
buffer
DMF Dynamic magnification factor
Dv NM2/M Shear rigidity of stiffened plate
Dx NM2/M Flexural rigidity of stiffened plate
about x-axis
Dy NM2/M Flexural rigidity of stiffened plate
about y-axis
E M Eccentricity of rotating mass
E N/M2 Elastic modulus of material 200x109 N/ m2 for steel
ECstat N/M2 STATIC ELASTIC MODULUS OF 30x109 N/ m2
CONCRETE
ECdyn N/M2 DYNAMIC ELASTIC MODULUS OF 34x109 N/ m2
CONCRETE
F Hz General cyclical frequency
fE Hz Exciting frequency, i.e. frequency of
applied dynamic force
fN Hz Natural frequency
f1 Hz First natural frequency
f2 Hz Second natural frequency
F(t) N Applied load
FA N Axial load applied by equipment
FB N Breaking load on rock breaker
FI N Inertia force
FM Nm Bending moment applied by
equipment
FP N Pushing load on rock breaker
Fo N Amplitude of applied load
FQ Nm Torque applied by equipment
FV N Shear load applied by equipment
G m/s2 Acceleration due to gravity 9,81 m/s2
2 9 2
G N/ m Shear modulus of material 78x10 N/ m for steel

12x109 N/ m2 for concrete

h m Free (unloaded) height of steel coil
spring. Height through which a falling
body falls before impact
hCG m Height of machine above centre of
gravity of base
Ib kg.m2 Mass inertia of machine and
foundation
Im kg.m2/m Mass inertia per unit length See section properties below
Ix m4 Moment of inertia about x-axis See SAISC Red Handbook
Iox m4 Moment of inertia of stiffener and plate
about x-axis
Iy m4 Moment of inertia about y-axis See SAISC Red Handbook
Ioy m4 Moment of inertia of stiffener and plate
about y-axis
J m4 Torsion constant See SAISC Red Handbook

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Symbol Units Description Comment

K Dieckmann “K” value for determination
of vibration severity in terms of human
sensitivity
k N/m Stiffness of structure
KH N/m Horizontal stiffness of steel coil spring,
rubber buffer, or machine base
KV N/m Vertical stiffness of steel coil spring,
rubber buffer, or machine base
KΦ Nm/rad Rotational stiffness of machine base
L m Length of the member
m kg/m Mass per metre See SAISC Red Handbook
M kg Mass
MB KG Mass of machine base
MR KG Mass of rotating or moving part of
machine
MS KG Mass of stationary part of machine or
body impacted by moving body
N Number
P S Period of harmonic quantity
R Frequency ratio
rx M Radius of gyration about x-axis See SAISC Red Handbook
ry m Radius of gyration about y-axis See SAISC Red Handbook
T s Time elapsed
t m Thickness of plate
V m/s Linear velocity
vo m/s Amplitude of linear velocity
vP m/s Peak particle velocity (ppv)
vS m/s Linear velocity after impact between a
moving body and a stationary body
w kg or J Mass of explosive per delay or ground
impact energy
x(t) m Displacement of a degree of freedom
with time
ΔH m Measured horizontal deflection at top
of portal column
ΔV m Measured vertical deflection at centre
of beam of slab
 Damping ratio
Symbol Units Description Comment
Φ rad Phase angle
ρ kg/m3 Density of the material 7850 kg/m3 for steel

2450 kg/m3 for concrete

μ Poisson’s ratio for the material
ω rad/s General radial frequency
ωE rad/s Radial frequency of applied harmonic
load
ωN rad/s Radial natural frequency of structure

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Note that the values for elastic modulus, shear modulus and density for concrete quoted
above are typical values only. The use of specific aggregates may lead to different values.

Warning: Drawings, particularly those from European equipment manufacturers often give
dynamic forces in units of kgf. This must be multiplied by 9 81 to convert to units of N,
which can then be used in further calculations.

2.3 Section Properties

Member section properties are generally obtained from standard handbooks of section
properties, but some necessary properties are not often listed by these handbooks. The
elusive properties are defined here, for simple hand calculation if required.

Im is the mass inertia per unit length of the member. This should not be confused with the
moment of inertia, nor the bending moment. This value is not always immediately available,
but it can be calculated from section properties quoted in the SAISC Red Handbook as:

m
Im = (I + I ) or Im = ρ(I x + I y )
A x y

For open sections, J may be approximated by:

diti3
J=∑
3

d2

t2
d1
t1

For closed rectangular sections with uniform wall thickness, J may be approximated by:

2ta2b2
J=
a+b

b t

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3 VIBRATION DESIGN PROCEDURE.

3.1 Step 1: Necessary Data and Information

Get all the relevant data (using any means necessary!). The data must include:

a) The shape, size and mass of the equipment.

b) Whether the equipment is supported directly on the floor, or by means of some kind of
springs or dampers. The type, stiffness and damping constant, of any spring supports
or dampers.
c) The magnitude of the dynamic loads applied by the equipment. Don’t always just
believe the Suppliers on this one. Do your own check calculations.
d) The direction of the dynamic loads applied by the equipment. A screen is generally
assumed to apply a vertical load and a horizontal load at each spring. A vertical
crusher applies a load that sweeps around 360 degrees in the horizontal plane.
e) The time dependence of the dynamic loads applied by the equipment. By time
dependence is meant whether the dynamic load varies harmonically, whether it is
suddenly applied and remains constant for a while before it is just as suddenly
removed, or whether it is a short duration impact load.
f) Whether there are any special conditions regarding the allowable amplitudes. For
example, is there is any vibration sensitive equipment in the area, or is there an office
on a floor structurally connected to the vibrating floor? Ensure that all Suppliers of
equipment to be located in the vicinity of vibrating equipment provide written statements
of the vibration their equipment can withstand, or ensure that they are informed in
writing what vibration their equipment is required to withstand.

3.2 Step 2: Clarify Details of the Structure to be Designed

This means both the obvious aspects, such as whether floors will be grating or concrete, the
exact positions where columns and beams are required, etc, and the not so obvious aspects,
such as where exactly is access necessary preventing the use of bracing. All these may
seem simple but it is always surprising how much time is wasted when this type of information
has not been obtained from the start.

This step also includes getting information about the supports, in order to calculate the spring
constants.
3.3 Step 3: Build a Computer Model

Make sure you have read, and digested Sections 6, 8, 9 and 10. You are now ready to build
a computer model. Preliminary sizing of members can be done using static design for all
members remote from the actual vibrating equipment. For members providing immediate
support to vibrating equipment use the equations given in Section 10 to select members
having a sufficiently high individual natural frequency.

Before proceeding, check that the model looks right. Check the frequencies, check the mode
shapes.

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3.4 Step 4: Assess the Results

Make sure you have read, and properly understood Section 7 and the implications of (f)
above. You are now ready to assess the results being spat out by your computer model.
3.5 Step 5: Prepare Structural Design Calculations and Drawings

Make sure you have read, and can rationally apply Sections 10 and 11. You are now
ready to start preparing structural design calculations and approving what has been put
onto structural design drawings.

4 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND THEORY

4.1 Dynamic and Harmonic Loads

A load has the right to call itself dynamic if, and only if:

a) Its magnitude changes in time.

b) The acceleration is big enough to produce significant inertia forces.

FI = Ma M

Examples of dynamic loads, shown in Figure 4.1, are:

a) The load produced by a boulder hitting a grizzly bar.

b) The load applied by a screen on its supporting structure.

Harmonic
force Motor

Height Screen
of fall
Springs
Grizzly bar

Harmonic Loads
Impact Loads

Figure 4.1: Typical Dynamic Loads

A dynamic load is called "harmonic" if it varies in time according to:

F = Fo sin(ωt + φ)

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The values defining this harmonic movement are shown in Fig. 4.2

The relationships between the values of the respective amplitudes used in the analysis of
harmonic loads are:

Displacement amplitude do (m)

Linear velocity amplitude doω (m/sec)
2
Acceleration amplitude a o = do ω (m/sec2)
Applied load amplitude Fo (N)
2
Inertia force amplitude Maoω (N)

Amplitude
Peak-to-Peak

RMS
Time

RMS
Amplitude

Period

Figure 4.2: Harmonic Load

Warning: Some people loosely use the term "amplitude of displacement" when they
mean peak to peak movement (or stroke). Many people also think in terms of
“displacement amplitude only”, but amplitude can refer to any harmonic entity. It is
prudent to check what the person you are talking to means by the word amplitude.

See Figure 4.3 for an example of out of phase movements. (Note that in Figure 4.3 the
difference of phase is shown in terms of time).

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Difference of phase

Figure 4.3: Oscillations out of phase

4.2 Dynamic Characteristics of Structures

4.2.1 The Single Degree of Freedom System

The most basic dynamic system is one which can move in only one way, or only one
direction. This is called a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system. The SDOF system
is the only one that we completely understand. However, Murphy's law being what it is,
very few of the structures that we analyze can be accurately represented by a single
degree of freedom model. See Figure 4.4 for examples of models for any single degree
of freedom system (ignoring damping, and replacing mass and stiffness by the real
values).

M M
48 EI
k=
L3

k
k
M

These three single degree of freedom

models are mathematically equivalent

Figure 4.4: Single Degree of Freedom Models

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We shall establish a series of rules and laws for the single degree of freedom system.
Then we will extrapolate these data for multi degrees of freedom systems.

The fundamental characteristics of the single degree of freedom system are:

Mass, M (kg)

Stiffness, k (N/m)

Damping, C (Ns/m)

Then the basic “equation of motion” for the single degree of freedom system can be
written as:

Mx + Cx + kx = F( t )

A structure subjected to an impact and then left alone will vibrate until the cumulative
effects of damping will stop it. Without damping the structure will go on shaking until the
end of time. This type of movement, vibration when the applied load is zero, is called
"free vibrations". If we initially consider “free vibration”, then the equation of motion is:

Mx + Cx + kx = 0

The solution for this equation will be left to keen students and textbooks. The
frequencies of the free vibrations are called natural frequencies. These frequencies are
what the structure sort of prefers to vibrate at. The basic information to be derived from
this equation is the natural frequency, given below for under-damped structures, i.e.
where  is less than 1,0.

k C 2
ωD = -( )
M 2M
ωD = ω 1 - ξ 2
C
ξ=
C CR

The damping ratio, , actually very seldom exceeds 0,1 for normal structures, and it may
be as low as 0,01 for fully welded steel structures. When  = 0,1 (the maximum likely
value), the above equation gives ωN = 0,995ω. This means that for all practical purposes
the damped natural frequency may be taken to be the same as the ω. The final
important dynamic characteristic of the system, the natural frequency, is thus given by:

ω 1 k
f= =
2π 2π M

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4.2.2 Response to Harmonic Excitation

The solution of the equation of motion with zero applied force helps us to understand the
dynamic system, but our real aim is to understand how structures respond to applied
loads. The simplest applied load is one which varies harmonically.

Mx + Cx + kx = F0 sin ωt

The final solution is complicated enough, so we will not attempt here to show how it is
obtained. The value of x(t) can be shown, (see textbooks) is:

F0
sin(ωt - φ)
-ξωt
(A cos ωt + B sin ωt ) + k
x( t ) = e
(1 - r 2 )2 + (2ξr )2
The first part of this equation is only of interest during start-up or shut-down of the
machine because it dies away quickly with time, and we are generally not too worried
about these as they generally happen quickly, without causing significant fatigue damage
or psychological disturbance to personnel. So what we are interested in is usually only
the second part of the equation, i.e.:

F0
sin(ωt - φ)
k
x( t ) =
(1 - r 2 )2 + (2ξr )2
In most cases, we are only really interested in the amplitude of x, which is:

F0
k
xo =
(1 - r 2 )2 + (2ξr )2
4.2.3 Resonance and Tuning

In the technical literature one encounters the concept of a dynamic magnification (or
sometimes amplification) factor, DMF. An understanding of this factor is the key to
grasping the dynamic performance of any structure, even a very complex one. This
factor is a way of describing the response of the structure to a harmonic applied load.
When the system is resonant, i.e. when the exciting frequency, ωE, equals its natural
frequency, ωN, the magnification factor may be extremely high (of the order of 40 for
welded steel structures, or 12 for concrete structures), whereas it may also drop well
below 1,0 when the exciting frequency is much higher than the natural frequency.

xo 1
DMF = =
Fo
(1 - r ) + (2ξr )2
2 2
k

The diagram in Figure 4.5 represents the dynamic magnification factor as a function of

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the damping and the frequency ratio.

10
Dynamic Magnification Factor 9
Damping
8 Ratio
7
0.05
6 High Low
tuning tuning 0.08
5
0.2
4
3 0.5
2
1
0
Resonance

0 1 2 3 4
Frequency Ratio

Figure 4.5: Dynamic Magnification Factor

Tuning is the action by which a structure is designed in a way that would insure that its
natural frequency complies with certain conditions. The most usual condition is for the
natural frequency to be different from the exciting frequency. If the natural frequency is
lower than the exciting frequency, then the system is low tuned, and the frequency ratio
is greater than 1,0. A frequency ratio too close to 1,0 still gives a very high dynamic
magnification factor, so we generally only talk of a low tuned structure if the frequency
ratio exceeds 1,4. If the natural frequency is higher than the exciting frequency, then the
system is high tuned and the frequency ratio is less than 1,0. A frequency ratio too close
to 1,0 still gives a very high dynamic magnification factor, so we generally only talk of a
high tuned structure if the frequency ratio is less than 0,7.

The dynamic magnification graph shown in Figure 4.5 shows that for very low tuning the
dynamic magnification factor becomes very small. This does not automatically mean
that the amplitudes of a low tuned system will be necessarily smaller that the amplitudes
of a high tuned system. A low tuned system is a lot more flexible than a high tuned one.
The quantity that it amplifies is normally far bigger than in a high tuned system. That
quantity can be a displacement, an acceleration, a force, in fact almost anything.

The single degree of freedom system is the only one for which the dynamic magnification
factor has an immediate physical meaning. The notion itself can be defined in multi
degrees of freedom systems, but its physical meaning will be buried under tons of
equations.

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When the exciting frequency equals the natural frequency the factor above tends
towards infinity. This is referred to as “resonance”. The displacements and related
values also tend towards infinity. They would reach it, or more probably die trying that is,
if not for the effect of damping. Resonance is the situation in which the response of a
structure to a dynamic excitation has its maximum value, which for a damped system is
inversely proportional to the damping ratio. At resonance r = 1, so that:

1
DMF =
2ξ

The effect of damping at resonance is shown in Figure 4.6. When there is no damping
present, the amplitude of vibration response to any applied harmonic load keeps
increasing indefinitely. When there is damping present, the amplitude of the vibration
response increases up to a specific maximum value, then remains constant at that value.

4.2.4 Damping

Damping is the property of materials to absorb energy by internal friction. Contrary to

conventional wisdom, damping is not an unconditional blessing; when close to
resonance it reduces the dynamic forces, but when far from resonance in the low tuning
range, damping actually increases forces. Its effect is like a slight stiffening of the
springs on which the equipment is supported.

There are many ways to model the damping. None is perfectly accurate. The most
popular seems to be to model the damping effect as a force proportional to the linear
velocity. This is called viscous damping. Accurate or not, it will have to do. We will use
this model from two reasons. First, for our purposes it is accurate enough. Second,
using a more accurate damping model would lead to horrifyingly complex mathematical
developments.

There is another significant value that has to be defined: the critical damping. It means
the highest damping value that allows the system to oscillate. At more than critical
damping the system becomes so sluggish that it is no more able to follow the oscillations
of the exciting force. It just tries to sort of slowly crawl back to its initial position. Critical
damping is not very important for us. Steel damping is very much smaller. For a single
degree of freedom system the critical damping is:

C R = 2 kM

Damping is primarily a characteristic of the material, and the connections. For each type
of structure the damping can be expressed as a fraction (or percentage) of the critical
damping. For steel the damping is between 1% and 6%. For concrete it is between 6 %
and 10%. For rubber it is about 30%, but then structures are not made of rubber.

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50
40
30
20
Response
10
N o d a m p in g
0
W it h d a m p in g
-1 0 0 2 4 6
-2 0
-3 0
-4 0
-5 0
T i m e (se c o n d s)

Figure 4.6: Resonance with and without damping

A widely spread misconception about damping is to assume that if a structure is made

from a material with high damping then that damping will automatically influence all
dynamic deflections of that structure. This is not necessarily true, as damping only
becomes effective when there is movement.

For example, consider a structure consists of a square concrete floor supported by four
concrete columns, one in each corner, as shown in Figure 4.7. It can be described as
some kind of upside down pendulum, with the columns representing the beam of the
pendulum and the whole mass of the floor as a lumped mass at the end of the pendulum.
This structure supports equipment that produces horizontal dynamic forces. The
horizontal amplitudes are unacceptable. What can be done about this?

Dynamic Force

Concrete Floor

Figure 4.7: Effect of Additional Mass

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Conventional wisdom would suggest that some concrete could be added to the floor so
that the damping characteristics of the concrete can reduce the amplitudes. The part
about damping is complete nonsense. Damping is caused by the internal friction within
the material. For damping to act the element has to deflect. In the example in Figure 4.7
the floor and the additional concrete are moving horizontally like a rigid block. Since
there is effectively no deflection of the concrete floor, damping is almost completely
inactive, and it can hardly play any role.

This example intends just to clarify the concept of damping. It does not matter what
action has to be taken to improve the performance of the system nor if increasing the
mass has a favourable effect or not.

4.2.5 Multi Degree of Freedom Systems

A general structure can move in many different ways, and in many different directions.
This is called a multi degree of freedom (MDOF) system. The basic concepts described
for SDOF systems can be transported to MDOF systems as well. By writing the
equations of motion for each degree of freedom we obtain a system of linear differential
equations that describes the movement of the model under harmonic forces, and whose
solutions describe the motion at every degree of freedom. If we put the condition that the
exciting forces are all equal to zero then we end up with a system of equations giving us
the free vibration of the structure.

The mathematical condition for this system to have non-trivial solutions is that the
determinant of the characteristic matrix be zero. If the number of degrees of freedom is
n then we have to solve an equation of the nth degree.

The solutions are the n eigenvalues. We replace the eigenvalues in the system and find
the n eigenvectors. The eigenvalues are the radial natural frequencies, the eigenvectors
are the mode shapes.

Remember that the exciting forces have been set to zero. The non-trivial solutions, the
eigenvectors, or mode shapes, are ratios of displacements, describing the shapes in
which the structure will vibrate when no force is applied. Thus the mode shapes do not
give actual displacements in any physical units.

There are as many natural frequencies as there are degrees of freedom. In free
vibration, the structure will tend to vibrate with the fundamental (i.e. the lowest) natural
frequency. If there are some applied dynamic forces then the structure will try to vibrate
according to the mode shape whose natural frequency is closest to the frequency of the
dynamic forces, and the frequency will always be the frequency of the exciting forces. A
structure subjected to a periodical dynamic loading will vibrate with the same frequency
as the loading. That frequency is called the exciting frequency, or the forcing frequency.
Harmonic loading is the most common example of periodic loading.

4.2.6 Mode Shapes and More about Natural Frequencies

It would be "comfortable" to express a MDOF model in terms of a number of SDOF

models, which are easy to solve, as shown in Figure 4.8. Then solve them, add up the
results and find the solution for the complete structure. This is where the mode shapes
come in. Each mode shape is such an imaginary single degree of freedom system.
Solve them, add up the results (amplitudes) from each one and you have the total results

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for your structure! Is it truly that simple?

It is basically true but far from being simple. So put your thinking cap on and keep
reading. Consider a MDOF system or model. Imagine a set of links that will force the
displacements of each node to have always a fixed ratio to the displacements of each
other node. For example, if the displacement of node 5 is 2,0 and the displacement of
node 7 is 2,5 then the ratio (2 / 2,5 = 0,8) will stay true, no matter what the magnitude of
each displacement is. If node 5's displacement is, say, 1,7 then the displacement of node
7 will be 1,7 x 0,8 = 2,13. The displaced position of the transformed system can then be
defined by single parameter. As stated earlier, this means that the new system has only
one degree of freedom.

9
8
7
6 Mode 1
Height (m)

5 Mode 2
4 Mode 3
3 Overall

2
1
0
Mode Shape

Figure 4.8: MDOF System Represented as Several SDOF Systems

The computer will calculate the ratios between displacements and will print the results.
This is done according to certain rules. Those rules are not relevant for us. The result
will be a number of shapes equal to the number of degrees of freedom.

These are the mode shapes, also known as the eigenvectors. Each mode shape comes
with its own unique, personal and confidential natural frequency (also known as an
eigenvalue). The intractable multi-degrees-of-freedom system has been magically
transformed in a sum of comfortable single degree of freedom systems. The natural
frequencies associated to each mode shape are the natural frequencies of the system.

The next step is to calculate the responses of each of the single degree of freedom
system and to sum them up. The result will be the response of the complete structure.
To apply this method manually is not as simple as it seems. However, at this stage the
problem is to understand the concepts, not yet to apply them.

The figure above is not really correct, since it gives the impression that the amplitudes
are the sums of the mode shapes. The components of the mode shapes are not
"displacements". They are just non-dimensional ratios.

The method just described is called modal analysis. It can be summarized as follows:

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The big, ugly, mean and hairy MDOF system is broken down into a number of cute
SDOF systems. The SDOF systems are solved one by one and the results are summed
up. The messy job of calculating eigenvalues and eigenvectors and then summing them,
is done by the computer. The designer just types in the data in whatever format the
program requires.

By comparing the mode shapes with the pattern of the amplitudes one can grasp
intuitively which modes are important in the response and which are not. It also
becomes clear what shapes must be changed. It is true that a modification to a mode
shape will usually influence other modes as well. The structure will be tuned by a series
of successive approximations. It still beats groping in the dark.

5 LOADS
The dynamic loads applied to structures are sometimes quite easy to obtain, from simple
equations or from the equipment Suppliers. Other dynamic loads must be dragged out,
kicking and screaming, from the equipment Suppliers or somewhere else. To get the
dynamic reactions from a Supplier is arguably the most frustrating action in structural
dynamic design. The amount of weird data that sometimes floods us in answer to
technical questions is hardly believable. The following conversation is absolutely
authentic:

Q: What forces does your equipment apply to the supporting structure?

A: Well, our machine works very quietly. You can put a glass of water on top of it and
you will hardly notice a few ripples on the water surface.

Q: So the dynamic reactions are so low that they could be ignored?

A: Well, we specify a vertical dynamic force of about 150 kN at 1000 rpm.

(It is doubtful that even Fort Knox could withstand this kind of loading. The ripples would
be on the surface of the planet, not on the water in a glass)

Some guidance to determination of dynamic loads is thus provided here.

Warning: Do not simply accept the loads specified by Suppliers of equipment. Local
Suppliers are often only agents for equipment sourced from overseas so they may not
be Engineers there may be confusion of units from overseas countries etc. It is
always prudent to check that the loads specified make sense. Only then should they
be used as if they are accurate.

The vibration induced by various types of machinery is frequently of concern in the

structural design of buildings, in particular industrial and mining buildings. The
magnitudes of these vibrations are determined by the nature of the machines themselves
and how they are supported on the structure. Both of these influences will be considered
below.

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5.1 Rotating Unbalance

Rotating machines are designed to run at a constant speed for a long period of time. In
the case of some machines the intention is that eccentricity should be eliminated if
possible. These include turbines, axial compressors, centrifugal pumps, generators,
electric motors and fans. In the case of other machines, eccentricity is deliberately
introduced in order for the machine to function. These include vibrating screens, and
vibratory feeders.

5.1.1 Motors and Turbines

Theoretically, it may be possible to eliminate all unbalance, but in practice it is

impossible. Static unbalance occurs when the centre of mass of a machine rotor does
not coincide with the axis of rotation. The term "static" refers to the fact that static forces,
eg gravity, can pinpoint this condition. Gravity will usually cause the out-of-balance rotor
to rotate to a position of static equilibrium in which the "heavy" side of the rotor is at the
bottom.

Dynamic unbalance occurs when two or more masses in different planes on the rotor,
produce a moment when the rotor is rotating. In the simplest case of two masses at 180o
to each other, in different planes, the rotor may be statically balanced, but will tend to
rock in the bearings when rotating.

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Figure 5.1 : Rotor Unbalance to ISO 1940

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Table 5.1 : Quality Grades for Different Machines to ISO 1940

Balance
Quality Rotor Equipment Types
Grade G
G 4000 Crankshaft drives of rigidly mounted slow marine diesel engines with uneve
number of cylinders
G 1600 Crankshaft drives of rigidly mounted large two-cycle engines
G 630 Crankshaft drives of rigidly mounted large four-cycle engines
Crankshaft drives of elastically mounted marine diesel engines
G 250 Crankshaft drives of rigidly mounted fast four-cylinder diesel engines
G 100 Crankshaft drives of fast diesel engines with six or more cylinders
G 40 Crankshaft drives of elastically mounted fast four cycle engines (petrol
diesel) with six or more cylinders
G 16 Drive shafts (propeller shafts, cardan shafts) with special requirements
Crankshaft drives of engines with six or more cylinders, under spec
requirements
G 6.3 Marine main turbine gears
Fans.
Flywheels
Pump impellers
Normal electrical armature
Individual components of engines under special requirements
G 2.5 Gas and steam turbine, including marine turbines
Medium and large electrical armature with special requirements
Small electrical armature

Both static and dynamic unbalance manifest themselves as vibration at the running
speed of the rotor. The reason for this is simply that in both cases the centrifugal force
due to the eccentric mass is rotating at the running speed. The actual amount of
unbalance present may be difficult to ascertain, as manufacturers are often reluctant to
admit that their machinery has any unbalance. ISO 1940 provides some guidance on the
balance quality of rotating machines, giving the residual unbalance mass as a function of
speed, as shown in Figure 5.1. Different curves in this figure are appropriate for different
quality grades, which apply to different types of machine, as listed in Table 5.1. The
eccentricity to be used in a particular design may be obtained from the Supplier of a
rotating machine, but failing this, the ISO approach, using Table 5.1 and Figure 5.1, can
be used to give an appropriate design value.

The forces due to this unbalance are given by:

Fx ( t ) = Meω 2 sin(Ωt ) 0o transverse to rotor axis Equation 5-1

o
Fy ( t ) = Meω 2 cos(Ωt ) 90 transverse to rotor axis Equation 5-2

These two forces will always act at the same time, as the rotor turns.

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5.1.2 Vibrating Equipment

Vibrating screens and vibratory feeders typically consist of a mesh or solid bed within a
rigid frame which is supported on a number of springs. They rely on motion of the bed in
order to operate. Eccentricity, which has the same effect as unbalance, is thus
deliberately introduced on motors mounted below the bed, usually in the form of two
semi-circular masses, as shown in figure 2. These masses can be set at varying
positions to give different values of eccentricity, and hence different force amplitudes.

Most commonly, two electrically coupled motors are used, running in opposite directions.
This has the result that the forces applied transverse to the axis of the machine by the
two motors exactly oppose each other, giving a nominally zero resultant. The forces
applied parallel to the axis of the machine by the two motors reinforce each other,
doubling their effect. Thus:

Fl ( t ) = 2Meω 2 sin(ωt ) (longitudinally)

Ft ( t ) = 0 (transversely)

5.2 Loads Applied to the Structure

Warning: The loads defined here are in general NOT the loads applied to the
structure. They are applied to the machine which responds dynamically. Go on to the
next section before assuming you know all about vibration loads.

5.2.1 Data Required From the Equipment Supplier.

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An assumption as popular as it is wrong is that the dynamic reactions of a screen

supported on springs or buffers are parallel to the exciting force produced by the screen's
vibrator. This means that if the exciting force is applied at, say, 30 degrees then the
dynamic reaction will also be applied at 30 degrees. This is usually not true because the
springs supporting the screen have different stiffnesses in the vertical and horizontal
directions, leading to different dynamic magnification.

Another popular superstition is that the dynamic reactions equal the weight of the
machine times some “safety factor” up to 10. This nonsense comes from confusing
something called "equivalent static load" with a dynamic reaction. An equivalent static
load is used mainly cover up ignorance or laziness, or sometimes to check a foundation
for overturning. A dynamic reaction is a periodical quantity, more often than not
harmonic. An equivalent static force is an imaginary STATIC loading.

So what do we need from the equipment Supplier in order to design the supporting
structure?

a) Either the direction, size and position of the forces applied by the equipment
b) Or appropriate data to enable us to calculate them.

For (a) above, we need the:

1. working frequency of the equipment

2. dynamic reactions of the equipment
3. mass of the equipment
4. mass moment of inertia and position of the centroid

For (b) above, we need the:

1. working frequency of the equipment

2. mass of the equipment (kg)
3. mass moment of inertia and position of the centroid
4. static loads at each corner (N)
5. spring constants (vertical and horizontal) (N/m)
6. magnitude, position and direction of the exciting force (N)

Warning: It is extremely important to have the Supplier approve the loads we have
calculated. If the loads we use in design are not approved by the Supplier then we
could be left holding the baby. As soon as that screen as little as hiccups for whatever
reason everybody could shrug and say "Not my problem! I told you so. What do you
intend to do to fix it?" We cannot let them say this. This is our line.

In both cases, general data for the equipment may be required as well, not necessarily
for dynamic analysis.

5.2.2 Calculation of Spring Stiffness

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But sometimes the Supplier is unable to provide the spring constants. They can be
calculated from the following equations:

a) Steel springs

The axial stiffness for steel coil springs is given by:

Gd 4w
kV = Equation 5-3
8D 3 n

The horizontal stiffness for steel coil springs is given by:

kV
kH = Equation 5-4
h
0,385α[1 + 0,77( ) 2 ]
D

where:

n is the number of free coils as shown in Figure 5.3

α is a coefficient obtained from Figure 5.4
Other symbols are as defined in the symbols list.

Figure 5.3: Steel Coil Springs

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p = Pitch, d = Diameter of wire, n = Number of free coils

Plain ends Plain Squared Squared and

and ends ground
ground
Total coils n n n+2 n+2
Solid length (n+1)d nd (n+3)d (n+2)d
Free length np+d np np+3d np+2d

Figure 5.4: Values of α for Equation 5-4

b) Rubber buffers
buffer height (mm)
diameter (mm)
characteristics of the rubber used

Note: It is good practice to check rubber buffer characteristics with the Supplier
because rubber properties are known to vary widely from batch to batch. The
dynamic stiffness of rubber buffers is significantly higher than the static one. A
study done by Anglo American Corporation in cooperation with VELMET showed
that the dynamic stiffness may be as much as 60% more than the static stiffness.
(REPORT RAB/83/02 21 JULY 1983 "DYNAMIC STIFFNESS TESTS ON VELMET
SCREEN SUPPORT SPRINGS: VERTICAL STIFFNESS"). The horizontal
stiffness of a rubber buffer is typically about one third of the vertical stiffness.

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c) Special springs

consult the spring Supplier.

It also sometimes happens that the Supplier is unable to provide the magnitude of
the exciting force. In this case, the desired dynamic reactions can be calculated as
demonstrated in the following examples:

Warning: Even when the stiffness of the springs is given by the Supplier we cannot
automatically assume that they are correct. The Suppliers often underestimate the
horizontal stiffness of a steel spring. It is prudent to check the information supplied!
5.2.3 Example 1

Information provided by Supplier:

Torque: T = 21 kgf.m = 206 Nm

Mass of screen: M = 3000 kg

Weight of screen: W = 3000x9,81 = 29430 N

Steel springs, two springs per corner

Spring wire diameter: d = 0,020 m, height, h = 0,260 m

No of free coils: n = 7,5

Spring outer diameter = 0,144 m

Spring diameter: D = 0,144 – 0,020 = 0,124 m

Exciting force at 65 º to horizontal

a) Step 1: Calculate spring constants

The axial stiffness for one spring is:

78 x10 9 x0,02 4
kV = = 109 x10 3 N/m
8 x0,124 3 x7,5

The static compression of a spring is:

W /8 29430/8
c= = = 0,0338 m
KV 109 x10 3
c 0,0338
= = 0,13
h 0,260
h 0,26
= = 2,09
D 0,124

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The horizontal stiffness for one spring is:

109 x10 3
kH = = 43,0 x10 3 N/m
0,26 2
0,385 x1,5[1 + 0,77( ) ]
0,124

b) Step 2: Calculate the stroke, S (the peak to peak displacement of the screen at 65
degrees)

T 206
S= = = 0,007 m
W 29430

The amplitude of displacement at 65 º is: d0 = S/2 = 0,0035 m

The vertical amplitude of displacement is: d0V = d0 sin(65) = 0,00317 m

The horizontal amplitude of displacement: d0H = d0 cos(65) = 0,00148 m

c) Step 3: Calculate the dynamic reactions per corner (2 springs):

Rv = 2x109x103x0,00317 = 691 N (vertical dynamic reaction)

Rh = 2x43x103x0,00148 = 127 N (horizontal dynamic reaction)

5.2.4 Example 2

Consider the same screen as that in Example 1. Assume that this time we know the
exciting force FO, and not the torque T. The other data stay the same. The information
from the Supplier is:

FO = 90456 N (at 65 º)

The exciting screen runs at 900 rpm.

ωE = 94,25 rad/sec

Spring data is the same as above.

a) Step 1: Calculate the vertical and horizontal components of FO.

FOV = FOsin(65) = 81981 N

FOH = FOcos(65) = 38228 N

b) Step 2: Calculate vertical and horizontal natural frequencies of the screen on

springs. Work with total mass of screen and with all 8 springs. Do not attempt to
split these – they all form one single screen. KV and KH have been calculated in
Example 1 above.

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8k V 8 x109 x10 3
ω NV = = = 17,05 rad/s
M 3000
8k H 8 x 43 x10 3
ω NH = = = 10,71 rad/s
M 3000

c) Step 3: Calculate the dynamic reactions on corner (2 springs)

FOV / 4 81981 / 4
RV    693 N
 94,25 2 2
[1 ( E ) 2 ] 2 [1 ( ) ]
 NV 17,05
FOH / 4 38228 / 4
RH    125 N
 94,25 2 2
[1 ( E ) 2 ] 2 [1 ( ) ]
 NH 10,71

The results are practically the same as the results of Example 1.

Note that the angle of the total dynamic reaction (i.e. the resultant of RV and RH) to the
horizontal is quite different from the angle of the exciting force to the horizontal, because
of the different dynamic magnification in the two directions.

Angle of exciting force = 65 º

Angle of dynamic reaction = atan(RV/RH) = 79,8 º

What if the Supplier doesn’t know the applied torque, the exciting force, or the mass of
the equipment? The Supplier has to know something!
5.3 Impact Loads

Impact loads are defined as those loads which are applied to structures for a short time
only, or which are suddenly applied to the structure.

5.3.1 Types of Impact Loads

The first possible source of impact is motion. The motion may be the movement of some
vehicle, which causes impact for example when a train collides with a station stopping
device. Alternatively, it may be due to a mass falling onto a structure below, such as for
example, when a conveyor belt breaks and its tensioning counterweight falls.

The important variables in determining the magnitude of this force are:

a) The impact velocity, v. This may be well known in certain instances, but in other
cases it may be necessary to make reasonable assumptions.
b) The distance over which the moving body is stopped, D. This is determined either
by the spring stiffness of the structure or buffer, or, in the case of plastic
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deformation of either the structure or the moving body, by the extent of the plastic
deformation.
5.3.2 Energy Equations

It is usually appropriate to use energy considerations to calculate motion impact forces.

The equations are given in Table 5.2. The information in Table 5.2 gives the deflection
under impact and the maximum impact force. It is also often convenient to define an
impact factor, as:

F

Mg

If the impact factor, α, is known then the impact force is:

F  Mg

Impact energy absorption may be either elastic or plastic strain energy. Where the
energy is absorbed by elastic strain energy, there is no permanent deformation of the
buffer. Where the energy is absorbed by plastic strain energy, the energy is absorbed
mainly as work done in causing the plastic deformation. There will also inevitably be a
certain amount of elastic strain energy, but this is usually small enough to be neglected.
As the deformation is plastic, it may be assumed that the force remains constant, at the
yield strength of the deforming member

Table 5.2: Energy Equations for Impact

Equations Motion Impact Falling Impact

Impact energy Kinetic Energy = 1
Mv 2 Potential Energy = Mg (H  D )
2

Elastic Energy Absorption (i.e. no permanent deformation)

Absorbed energy Strain Energy = 1 kD 2
2

CONSERVATION 1
2
2
Mv  kD1
2
2
Mg (H  D )  12 kD 2
OF ENERGY
 
1  1  2kH
M Mg
DURING IMPACT D v D 
EVENT k k  Mg 
 
Impact force F  Dk F  Dk
 v Mk  2kH 
F  Mg 1  1  
 Mg 
 
Impact factor v k 2kH
  1 1
g M Mg
2H
1 1
S
Plastic Energy Absorption (i.e. permanent plastic deformation)
Absorbed energy Strain Energy = FD
Impact force F is defined by the plastic strength of the buffer

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Conservation of 1
Mv 2  FD Mg (H  D)  FD
2
energy during H
impact event Mv 2 D
D F
2F -1
Mg
Impact force Mv 2  H
F F  Mg 1  
2D  D
Impact factor F v2 F H
 or  or 1 
Mg 2Dg Mg D

This impact factor is plotted in Figure 5.5, for different ratios of the drop height to the
static deflection, H/S.

6
5
Impact factor

4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Drop height to Deflection ratio, H/S

Elastic impact Plastic impact

Figure 5.5: Impact Factors for Falling Bodies

5.3.3 Moving Mass Hits Stationary Mass

A final impact problem is the elastic impact force, and the resulting velocity when a
moving mass impacts a stationary mass, and both masses continue in motion at a
reduced velocity.

The new, reduced velocity is:

Mv
v S  1,5
M  MS

The force applied at the point of impact is:

MS k
F  vS
2

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5.4 Ground Motion from Blasting and Piling

5.4.1 Basic Equation

The ground motion generated by blasting, piling or other ground impact condition, is
approximately described empirically by the following equation:

W Cb
v P  Ca ( )
a

where:

a is the distance away from the point of blast or ground impact

Ca is a site constant defined below

Cb is a site constant defined below

vP is the ground peak particle velocity (m/s)

W is the mass of explosive per delay (kg) or the impact energy (J)

5.4.2 Blasting

The following values may be used for blasting in typical ground conditions:

W Mass of explosive per delay (kg)

Ca 1,000
Cb 1,667

5.4.3 Piling

The following values may be used for piling in typical ground conditions:

W Energy of falling pile hammer (J)

Ca 0,001
Cb 0,770

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6 STRUCTURAL MODELLING AND RESPONSE

6.1 Modelling the Structure

The time has come to introduce a few new concepts related to taking a real, physical
continuous structure of steel and concrete, with paint, bolts, spillage and pigeons, and
turning it into something that a computer can deal with in discrete chunks. This is
generally referred to as “modelling the structure”.

6.1.1 Models

The first thing to recognise is that any real structure is an infinite continuum. It could thus
take quite a while, i.e. an infinity, to solve for each structure. That's where the model
kicks in. A model is a simplified mathematical representation of the real structure. The
use of models is not exclusive to dynamic analysis. They are used in static analysis as
well. When we calculate the bending moments in a straight beam we assume that the
beam only has one dimension, i.e. length. There is no such thing in nature. It is we who
create this imaginary entity, the model, in order to approximate stresses, displacements
etc in the real structure.

The only difference between a static model and a dynamic model is that the dynamic one
has to include the effect of mass and sometimes damping. It is a difference of detail, not
of essence. The concept is the same.

6.1.2 Degrees of Freedom

The deflected state of a structure is defined by certain parameters, usually the

displacements and rotations at joints, or nodes in the model. Each of these defined
parameters is called a “degree of freedom”. The simplest structure conceivable has one
degree of freedom. Real, useful structures may have hundreds or even thousands, of
degrees of freedom. The minimum number of independent parameters that completely
defines the deflected structure is the number of degrees of freedom.

Consider, for example, a pendulum with three masses lumped along its length, as shown
in Figure 6.1. If the beam of the pendulum is infinitely rigid then one parameter, the
rotation about the pinned support, will completely define the displaced position of all the
masses. The correct model will have one degree of freedom. If, however, the beam has
a finite stiffness then one parameter is not enough to completely describe the deflected
shape. Considering the pendulum in 2D, each mass can move sideways, and vertically,
and rotate. Each mass thus has three degrees of freedom, and the full model has nine
degrees of freedom. Generally, structural members are far more flexible in bending than
axially, so we may decide that for the purposes of analysing this pendulum, we can
justifiably assume that the links are infinitely rigid axially, but flexible in bending. In this
case, each mass has only two degrees of freedom, sideways movement and rotation, so
the complete model will have six degrees of freedom. If we believe that it is necessary to
analyse the behaviour of this pendulum in 3D, then each mass has six degrees of
freedom (i.e. displacement along, and rotation about, each of the three principal axes).
The complete model would then have eighteen degrees of freedom.

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The first model has one degree of freedom. The second has up to eighteen. Both
represent the same structure. Which one to use is a matter of engineering judgement. It
is YOU who have to decide. There is no single reliable fool-proof rule that can solve this
problem. Having said this, it is only fair to add that in most cases a normal dose of
common sense should be enough to solve the problem.

Infinitely Flexible links.

rigid links.
Up to nine
One degree degrees of
of freedom. freedom.

Figure 6.1: Simple Pendulum Degrees of Freedom

A degree of freedom refers either to a joint displacement or to a joint rotation. If it refers

to a displacement then the quantities involved are length and mass. If it refers to a
rotation then the quantities are angle and mass moment of inertia. The bigger the mass,
the bigger the force required to impose a given linear acceleration. In a similar manner,
the bigger the mass moment of inertia, the bigger the moment required to impose a given
angular acceleration.

There is no mathematical or other difference between these two types of degrees of

freedom. They are conceptually identical. Do not confuse moment (force x length) with
mass moment of inertia (mass x length2). Although they are almost homonyms, they are
also completely different animals.

Warning: When modelling any structure THINK! When you have finished thinking ask
some questions then THINK AGAIN!

6.1.3 Modelling Structural Geometry

Now that we understand what a degree of freedom is, we need to figure out where to put
them. Wise men (wise guys?) have conceived many mathematical algorithms and rules
to enhance the similarity between model and physical structure, and several packages
now automatically arrange the nodes within the structure. These in-built rules are a great
help, but they only apply after the Designer has decided upon questions such as which
parts of the structure should the model include, and whether to put nodes along the span
of each beam.

The first thing to remember is that a simple structure is easy to understand, whilst a
complex structure is complex. As the power of computers has increased, almost all
packages now run 3D models, rather than 2D models, and it is often assumed that this

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gives better results. In general it doesn’t, because models are inevitably much more
complex now, so the predicted behaviour may be difficult to understand. If your package
offers the possibility of doing a 2D model, in most cases this will give better results,
because you will understand them.

The second thing to remember is to sit back, relax, look at the structure and decide how
it is going to respond to the applied dynamic loads. If this doesn’t help, then stick to
static analysis and design, and find someone who can visualise the response. Any part
of the structure that is moving and bending must be modelled as a member with accurate
mass and stiffness. Any part of the structure that is moving but not bending must be
modelled with accurate mass, but stiffness is irrelevant. Any part of the structure that is
neither moving nor bending is irrelevant, and it can be ignored, or modelled as a support
to the structure if necessary.

Generally, cladding and flooring on structures is not modelled, but remember that this
has implications. Floor beams and sheeting rails in a physical structure cannot move
sideways, because the cladding or the floor prevents this. However, if the cladding or
the floor is not modelled, the model allows these very laterally flexible members to flop
around at rather low frequencies, the structure cannot be high tuned, and so Designer
panic sets in. There is a simple solution to this dilemma. Don’t model sheeting rails or
secondary floor beams either, but remember that the cladding, floors and secondary
steelwork do have some mass that must be modelled as lumped masses. When
creating a 3D model, also remember that a concrete or steel plate floor has very
significant diaphragm stiffness, whose omission may allow the model to develop bogus
modes of behaviour. It may be necessary to introduce some imaginary cross bracing
into the model to protect against this happening.

6.1.4 Modelling Mass

There are generally two approaches to modelling mass in structures. The simpler one,
the lumped mass method, simply calculates the mass of each element of the model, and
puts half of that mass at each end. It is no problem to model the lumped masses that
physically appear in the real structure.

This is accurate for blobs of material that physically occur at one place, but it is less
accurate for mass distributed along the element, mainly because the rotational effect of
the mass about the joints is ignored. This leads to the introduction of "consistent mass"
method, which is based on mathematical procedures that recognise the actual location of
mass throughout the structure, but are beyond the scope of this guide. This generally
gives the best model of the real masses in a structure, but it does take more computer
memory and more time for the analysis. However, with a modern computer, the time
required for the analysis will be similar for each of the three methods. Well, the
difference could be 2000%, but this would mean 40 ms (milliseconds) instead of 2 ms.
One must really be in a hurry for this to matter. Almost all commercial dynamic analysis
packages now use the consistent mass method.

The thoughtful Designer will now be realising that the imposed loads generally applied to
structures have an associated mass, and will be asking whether this must be included in
the model. Absolutely maybe! A sound dose of engineering judgement is required here.
First, remember whether the structure is high tuned or low tuned. Where a structure is
low tuned, much of the force causing the vibration is being resisted as an inertia force,
accelerating the mass. Extra mass is thus beneficial, and will reduce the dynamic
amplitudes. However, if the intention is to high tune a structure, extra mass will make it

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more difficult to achieve high tuning. Then having achieved high tuning, extra mass will
move the structure towards resonance, leading to an increase in the dynamic
amplitudes. The normal recommendation is that if a structure is high tuned, then lumped
masses equivalent to approximately 20 % of the specified imposed load should be used,
but if the structure is low tuned, then no additional mass should be added. However, this
is not a hard and fast rule.

6.1.5 Modelling Materials

The choice of characteristics for the material being used is the next issue to resolve.
Steel, being a reasonably agile material reacts fast to stimuli, so its dynamic properties
are generally very similar to its static properties.

Concrete, on the other hand is in a different category. Concrete is more of a laid-back

material, so it takes a harder push to get it going. The dynamic stiffness of concrete is
thus higher than its static stiffness, by about 10 % to 20 % for the frequency ranges
typically encountered in mining type structures. So always add VAT to the elastic
modulus of concrete to get the dynamic elastic modulus to use.

E Cdyn = 1,14xEcstat
Equation 6-1
6.1.6 Modelling Connections

There are six possible movements at each connection, i.e. displacement along, and
rotation about each of the three axes, as shown in Figure 6.2. The fixity of the

Z -axis

Y -axis

X -axis

connection relating to each possible movement must be established.

Figure 6.2: Possible Movements at Each Connection

Generally the dynamic displacements we deal with are small, and under these conditions
most connections behave as if they are rigid connections, but not in all cases.
Recommendations for different types of connection are given in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Recommended Connection Fixity

Connection type Displacement Rotation about:

along:

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X Y Z X Y Z
Simple 2 bolt shear connection, with thin
Free Rigid Rigid Rigid Free Free
end plate free of flanges
Simple shear connection with more than
Free Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid
2 bolts, and thin end plate free of flanges
Simple shear connection, with stiffened
Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid
end plate
Full moment connection Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid
6.1.7 Modelling Floors

Three types of approximation are routinely made by practically everyone when designing
a steel floor supporting screens, feeders, or other materials handling equipment:

a) The stiffness and mass moment of inertia of the underpans, chutes and similar
stuff are often ignored, but they should be considered. Logically, these items
should be modelled in the same way as other equipment, but this requires
awkward calculations such as establishing the mass moments of inertia and
stiffness of the chute. An acceptably accurate analysis will result if the chute mass,
with or without contents, is modelled as lumped at its centre of gravity and
connected to the support points by rigid links, pinned at their ends. If the structure
is high tuned, then the chutes and under pans should be modelled with their full
operational contents. If the structure is low tuned, then the chutes and under pans
should be modelled empty.
b) A floor may be modelled accurately as a plane grid. What a computer program
means by plane grid may sometimes be subtly different from what a mere human
assumes. Here is a reminder of what the machine is doing:
1. Any horizontal translations are ignored
2. No horizontal loads can be modelled
3. Any moments about the vertical axis are ignored
4. The supports restrict vertical translations and/or rotations about the horizontal
axes

c) The model must use both the elasticity of the columns and the masses outside the
model but supported by those columns. The column stiffness (spring constant) is:

Warning: As far as the computer is concerned the quantities ignored are NOT
zero. They simply do not exist. If a designer thinks that horizontal vibrations are
significant for his structure then he must not use a grid but some other type of
structure
usually a 3D frame!

k = EA / H

where: E is the elastic modulus

A is the column area
H is the column height

To ignore it is not acceptable, especially when using a modern computer. To

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decide what masses to consider supported on that column may be quite complex
and involve more engineering judgement than rational assessment.

For the initial sizing of a beam supporting vibrating equipment, the following
formula can serve as a first shot at the depth:

L2 L2
<D<
45 000 35 000

where: D is the depth of the beam (mm)

L is the span of the beam (mm)

Sectional properties are generally calculated as they would be calculated for static
analysis. The only exception to this may be where composite sections (concrete
floors on steel beams) are used. See Section 8.2.

When building a computer model, the definition of member releases is crucial to its
success.

Full deph end plate

3
A A
1 2 Do not release

B B
Moment connection

Do not release

Partial depth end plate

Do not release
Release Release one side only
Block rotation of all
beams supporting floors Section A-A Section B-B

Figure 6.3: Typical Floor Grid Connections

If two beams 1 and 2 are framed at the same point into another beam 3 using
pinned connections as shown in section B-B in Figure 6.3, then only one of the two
must be released. The release must be in the direction of the relevant rotation. If
no release is given then the machine will assume that the two beams are
continuous over the support. If both are released then the machine will assume
that the beam they are framing into is not supported against rotation, and it will put
a rotational degree of freedom that is not really there.

Beams 1 and 2 are physically identical, you may argue, so why is it correct to
model beam 2 as simply supported while beam 1 is fixed to beam 3? The answer
is that, for open section beams, the torsional moment of inertia is very much

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smaller than the bending moment of inertia. Therefore the restraint imposed by
beam 3 on beam 2 is negligible. However, beam 2 does effectively restrain beam
3 against torsional rotation. It does not matter whether the beam released is 1 or 2.
If beam 3 were to be a closed box section, then it has a much higher torsional
stiffness, and its effect on the end conditions of beams 1 and 2 would have to be
considered.

A similar situation occurs when there are nodes placed along the span of a beam
(to provide amplitudes of vibration at those points), or when the computer model
uses a consistent mass formulation. The computer will insert a rotational degree of
freedom wherever it can, and unsupported beams will completely mess up the
image of the eigenvectors and eigenvalues, producing phantom modes that
actually do not exist. This is not a real situation, because the floor will physically
restrain the beam from vibrating in rotation about its own axis. The solution is to
define fictional supports, restraining only the direction of the appropriate rotation.
6.2 Composite Beams and Floors

This is an uncertain area, because concrete is not as well behaved as steel, and the
connection between concrete and steel may, or may not, transmit vibration stresses.
Within ATD Structural Engineering, we use an adaptation of the SANS 10162-1 code of
practice, Section 17 “Composite Beams”. This has the advantage of being both user-
friendly and accurate enough.

Warning: It can be bad news to use concrete in low tuned structures. Concrete work
is less accurate than steel. Contractors are required to produce concrete slabs of at
least a minimum thickness, and having a cube strength of at least a certain amount.
The mass increases in proportion to the thickness, but the stiffness increases in
proportion to the cube of the thickness. The elastic modulus of concrete, unlike steel,
increases with increasing cube strength. At the low amplitudes typical of industrial
vibration, the friction between the concrete and the steel beams is likely to transmit
vibration strains, even in the absence of shear connectors, leading to an effective
stiffness that may be well above what was predicted and used in the computer model.
These factors mean that the actual frequency of the as built beast may be well above
the neat computer prediction. Think and plan your modelling carefully!

The components of a general composite structure are shown in Figure 6.4

Internal slab Edge slab

W1 W 2
T
X A

C1 C2 C3 S

Figure 6.4: General Composite Structure

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In the analysis of a structure with composite beams, we first need to assess the effective
section properties to be used. This is done by the following three steps:

a) Determine the width of concrete that will act compositely with the steel. One of two
cases will apply:

Case 1 – Internal Slab (slab extends on both sides of the steel beam)

1. The active slab width should not be taken to be more than a quarter of the
beam span (i.e. S/4)
2. The active slab must not extend more than half the distance between the
steel beams on each side of the beam being considered (i.e. C1/2 or C2/2).

Case 2 – Edge Slab (slab extends on one side of beam only)

1. The active slab width should not taken to be more than one tenth of the beam
span (i.e. S/10)
2. The active slab must not extend inwards by more than half the distance to
the next steel beam (i.e. C2/2)
b) Determine the effective thickness of the concrete slab.

The slab thickness is taken as the overall slab thickness T, provided that:

1. The slab has a flat underside, or

2. The slab has corrugated steel forms where the height of corrugations does
not exceed ¼ of the slab thickness, or
3. Where ribbed slabs are used, the rib width W1 is at least 125 mm, the rib
height A does not exceed 40 mm or 0,4T, and the width between ribs W2
does not exceed 0,25T or 0,2W1.

In all other cases, the slab thickness is taken as the depth of the slab minus the
height of the ribs (i.e. T-A)

c) Calculate the section properties for the composite section.

Most commercially available structural analysis packages can calculate the section
properties for sections of a single material, and some include composite sections
but most do not. Only the section properties about the X-X axis are required,
because a beam supporting a concrete slab will not vibrate laterally (i.e. about the
Y-Y axis) nor will it vibrate torsionally. Any assumed large values of IY and J

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should may be entered.

Generally, it is assumed that there is full shear connection between the concrete
and the steel beam, meaning that there is no slip at all. Where the composite slab
is low tuned, it is recommended that full shear connection should always be
assumed, even if very few shear connectors are used. Where the slab is high
tuned, a reduced value of the moment of inertia IXE should be calculated for the
composite section, as specified in SANS 10162-1 Section 17.3.1 (a), i.e.:

IXE  IS  0,85p0,25 (IX  IS )

where: IS is the moment of inertia of the steel beam only

IX is the moment of inertia of the composite beam as calculated from the

assumption of full shear connection

p is the fraction of full shear connection being used

This is a conservative assessment of the moment of inertia of the composite

section, as it will give a high estimate of the frequency where the floor is low tuned,
and a low estimate of the frequency where the floor is high tuned.
6.3 Approximate Methods of Frequency Calculation

There are approximate methods for calculating structural frequencies that give
approximately correct results, and then again there are approximate methods that give
exactly wrong results.

6.3.1 Rayleigh Method

A useful approximate method of obtaining the fundamental natural frequency of any

structure is the so-called Rayleigh’s method. In this method, the deflections obtained by
applying loads equivalent to the self weight of the structure, applied in an appropriate
direction (i.e. vertically for floor vertical vibration, horizontally for overall building sway)
are calculated.

The loads are: The deflections are:

W1 = m1g y1

W2 = m2g y2

. .

. .

Wn = mng yn

The fundamental frequency is then given by:

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N
g Wi y i
1  N
i 1

 Wi y i
2

i 1

W 1 = m 1g

W 2 = m 2g

W 1 = m 1g W 2= m 2g W 3= m 3g W 4 =m 4 g

6.3.2 The CW (Common Wrong) Method

The CW method is a simplified, but unfortunately wrong, rip-off of Rayleigh’s method. In

the CW method, it is assumed that:

15,7
f
y

where: f is the frequency in Hz

y is the deflection in mm due to self weight applied in an appropriate direction as with

Rayleigh’s method.

This result is based on the simplified assumption that for a single degree of freedom
structure:

1 k
f mg yk
2 m and y  m
k g

1 k 1 g 1 1000.g 15,8
f   
2 yk 2 y 2 y (in mm) y
g

However, the same calculation for a cantilever gives:

0,56 EI
f mgL4 8EIy
L2 m and y  m
8EI gL4

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0,56 EI 0,56 gL4 1000.g 19,6

f  2  0,56 
L4 8EIy L 8y 8y (in mm ) y
gL4

With the powerful computer packages available to even the least powerful engineer
these days it is unnecessary to make wrong simplifying assumptions!

6.4 Confirming the Accuracy of the Model

How do we know that the response of the model to dynamic loadings will be reasonably
close to the response of the real structure? We don't! On the well established principle
of “garbage in, garbage out” a computer package will give us whatever follows from our
input. There are, fortunately some aids to help the careful Designer determine whether
the results from the model look reasonable or not.

a) Look at the first few mode shapes. Do they make sense, or are there members
flying off into space, at all sorts of crazy angles? If you understand what you are
looking at, the mode shapes will tell you most of what you want to know about the
performance of your model.
b) Use the Rayleigh approximate method.
c) Calculate some key values by hand, or with a static structural analysis package
you understand well. Yes, believe it or not, in today’s computer era there is still
value in doing some simple hand calculations! The first key value you can
calculate is the ratio of dynamic displacement to static displacement. If the
structure is high tuned (frequency ratio less than 0,7) then this ratio should be
between 1,0 and 2,0. If the structure is low tuned (frequency ratio more than 1,3)
then this ratio should be greater than zero, and less than 2,0. The second key
value you can calculate is the inertia force amplitude on the portion of the structure
directly supporting the machine. This is calculated by the formula:
FI =do ω E2 M Equation 6-2

If the structure is high tuned, the inertia force amplitude should generally be quite small,
and it must be less than the amplitude of the applied dynamic force. If the structure is
low tuned the inertia force amplitude should approach the amplitude of the applied force,
and it must be greater than the amplitude of the applied dynamic force.

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Warning: Build a computer model and look at the mode shapes before going any
further. Mode shapes with understanding will tell you more about the accuracy of the
model than any other factor. Many a stupid slip in modelling would have been
identified early had the interpretative value of the mode shapes been realised and
utilised.

6.5 Modelling Machinery on Structures

A question frequently encountered when modelling structures supporting vibrating

machinery is whether the mass of the vibrating machinery itself must be included in the
model. The answer to this question is based on - you guessed it - frequency ratios. The
first frequency required may be called the machinery frequency, ωM. This is the lowest
natural frequency at which the equipment sitting on its springs or mounting pads will
vibrate, if its springs are rigidly supported. The second frequency required is the lowest
natural frequency of the structure without the equipment on it, ωS. The important
frequency ratio is the ratio between these two frequencies, RF = ωM / ωS.

Three different ranges of the ratio RF must be considered. The modelling of these three
ranges is illustrated in Figure 6.5

Warning: Where machinery is supported on structures do not forget that it has a

significant mass. Where necessary this mass must be considered in the structural
model.

a) RF < 0,25

In this low range, the machine has a low frequency relative to the supporting
structure. This means that the machine will tend to move on its supporting springs
independently of vibration of the structure. In this case the mass of the machine
can safely be omitted from the structural model, and the model is simply subjected
to the loads applied through the supports of the machine. Generally, where
machinery relies on vibration for its function, such as vibrating screens, vibratory
feeders, etc, the supporting springs are generally very flexible, so that this
frequency ratio condition is easily met.

b) 0,25 < RF < 1,50

In this intermediate range, the machine has a frequency similar to that of the
supporting structure. This means that there is a dynamic interaction between the
machine and the structure. In this case the mass of the machine must be modelled
as one or more separate degrees of freedom, connected to the structure through
its mounts. Generally, this condition does not occur because machinery is either
mounted on flexible springs (case (a)) or it is almost rigidly fixed to the structure
(case (c)).

c) RF > 1,50

In this high range, the machine behaves as if it is essentially rigidly fixed to the

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structure. This means that the machine will tend to oscillate together with the
structure with very little relative movement. In this case the mass of the machine
can safely be added to the structural model as a lumped mass, and the model is
then subjected to the loads applied on the machine. Generally, where machinery
does not rely on vibration for its function, such as would be true for pumps,
winders, crushers, etc, there is practically no flexibility in the supports, so that this
frequency ratio condition is easily met.

Warning: Where we are working in this high range and machinery is treated as a
lumped mass it is important to understand the influence of the geometric location of
the centre of gravity of the machine. Where the centre of gravity is above the
supporting structure as is almost always the case the lumped masses must include
lumped mass inertias to account for the height of the centre of gravity or the lumped
mass must be added at a node at the centre of gravity which is then connected to the
structure by means of rigid links pinned at their ends.

Mass of machine Mass of machine Mass of machine

ignored modeled on supports added to structure

Low range Intermediate range High range

Figure 6.5: Modelling the Mass of Machinery

6.6 Calculation of Dynamic Response

6.6.1 General

Having built the model of the structure, it is generally necessary to use it to calculate the
response of the structure to one or more applied dynamic loads.

The required dynamic response is generally two different quantities.

a) Displacement or acceleration amplitudes are required to assess human and

machine sensitivity levels.
b) Stress amplitudes are required to calculate the fatigue life of the structure.

6.6.2 Significant Modes

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The most important question faced by the Designer is how many modes should be
included in the response calculation. The default answer would typically be “All of them”,
but there may be times when the use of fewer modes gives a quicker result, which is
sufficiently accurate. The decision, as with much of vibration analysis, depends on
frequencies. Assuming that an accurate calculation of response is required, the
minimum number of modes that can be used is determined by including all modes with
natural frequencies up to at least 1,5 times the operating frequency of any vibrating
equipment supported on the structure.

Where a structure is high tuned, all natural frequencies are higher than the operating
frequency of the equipment supported on the structure. So, when a structure is high
tuned, a good prediction of the dynamic response will be given if only a small number of
modes are used in the analysis.

However, if a structure is low tuned, there may be many modes whose frequencies are
lower than the operating frequency of equipment supported on the structure. If the
equipment is a screen, say, running at 16 Hz, and the natural frequency of the 10th mode
is, say, 9 Hz, then the use of 10 modes in the response analysis will give completely
wrong results. The wrong results will always predict too low a response, so the error is
dangerous, and not conservative. For a low tuned structure with a screen operating at
16 Hz, say, it may be necessary to use 20, or 30, or 100 modes to ensure that all modes
with frequencies up to at least 24 Hz are included in the analysis.
6.7 Dynamic Analysis Computer Programmes

This section provides some advice regarding the use of the dynamic analysis
programmes available within ATD. This is not intended as a manual – all the
commercially available packages have manuals, but rather it provides some pointers
regarding what works and what doesn’t work, and what the programmes can, and can’t,
do.

6.7.1 ROBOT V6

This is generally a very good program.

Warning: We have been advised by ROBOT V6 programmers that we could modify

the density of the elements supporting a distributed mass in such a way as to include
the added distributed mass.
Example. If a 406x178x60 UB vibrates together with a distributed mass of 100
kg/m then the total mass per metre would be 59,8 + 100 = 159,8 kg/m. The density of
steel is 7850 kg/m3. To get the new mass of 159,75 kg/m with the same area
7,611x10-3 m2 requires a modified density of 20990 kg/m3 for this particular beam.
One minor problem with this method: it does not work! The program does not seem
to understand it, and the results are erratic.

Lumped masses. In ROBOT the lumped masses are input in force units. The program
will make the necessary transformations. It does not matter if it is logical or not (it
probably isn’t!), but we are stuck with this approach whenever we use ROBOT. Just
make sure that the forces (that are really masses) are given in all the directions in which
the respective joint can translate or rotate in the real structure, otherwise the result could
be wrong.

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Distributed masses. ROBOT does not yet have the capacity to handle additional
distributed masses on the span of a beam.

6.7.2 PROKON.

PROKON is the one of the more common packages used within South Africa at present.
PROKON is written using several defaults or computer-specific settings, which must be
understood and altered if necessary. The following defaults must be noted:

a) Application of Defaults

PROKON uses defaults set in the computer, not in the specific programme file.
This means that defaults set for a particular run will not be transferred if the data
file is sent to another computer, or even if it is later brought back into the same
computer after the defaults have been altered for different requirements on another
project. Always check settings when using PROKON.

b) Mass

The default is that load case number 1 is taken as the self weight of the structure.
Load case 1 is thus assumed by default as the load case defining the structural
mass. Any lumped masses included in other load cases must be indicated.

c) Modes used to Calculate Response

By accepting the default settings, only the first 10 modes are used to calculate the
structural response. This is probably sufficient for high tuned structures, but it is
very likely to be insufficient for low tuned structures. Refer to section 5.4.2, and
adjust this default accordingly.

Warning: The files for a structural model may sometimes have to be transferred
from one computer to another for some reason. BEWARE when this is done
with PROKON. All default parameters revert to their default values when files
are transferred to another computer
because default values are a function of the computer settings
and not the individual model. All default values must be checked and reset
where necessary.

6.7.3 Common Errors with Computer Vibration analysis

Warning: The list below records common errors encountered when using computer
packages for vibration analysis. Take note! Be warned!
1. Too many member/joint releases.
If too many releases are specified, a member or a node may end up
unrestrained in a particular direction. For example, if both ends of a member
have rotation about the member axis released, then the member is free to spin.
Or if all members framing into a particular node have their end rotation about
any global axis released, then the node is free to spin about that axis. These will
lead to zero divisions in the solution, which mathematically is not a nice thing to

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do. The programme may refuse to work, or you may get very strange results.
Check your member and node releases.
2. Wrong shear resistance.
Commonly, frame analysis packages are used where the structure has concrete
floors or shear walls. Because the package does not have any finite elements to
handle this slab construction, it is modelled as several lumped masses. This is
fine as far as mass is concerned, but these slabs have very high shear stiffness.
Do not ignore this. Wherever slabs are modelled as lumped masses, some
phantom stiff bracing members must also be added in the appropriate directions
to ensure adequate shear stiffness.

3. Too few modes in response calculation.

Several computer packages allow the user the right to define how many modes
are used to calculate the structural response to any applied dynamic load. If,
say 10 modes are specified, only the lowest 10 modes will be considered in the
analysis. This is tempting, as it can speed up the analysis significantly. Allow
yourself to be tempted, but with care! ALWAYS USE ALL MODES WITH
FREQUENCIES UP TO, AND WELL BEYOND, THE HIGHEST OPERATING
FREQUENCY OF ANY EQUIPMENT ON THE STRUCTURE.
4. Model too complex
A computer model that is too complex is confusing. It has too many modes,
many of which are irrelevant, but which are calculated anyway. The Engineer
must always stay in control of the analysis, not let the computer take over.

7 VIBRATION LIMITS

7.1 Introduction

Setting appropriate limits to vibration is one of the most vague and uncertain parts of
dynamic analysis and design. We need to consider how people respond to vibration,
how equipment and machinery are effected by vibration, and how the structure itself is
likely to suffer under the influence of continued vibration. The greatest degree of
uncertainty lies in the vibration limits which people can tolerate. It does not refer much to
the fatigue calculations, although they do have a high level of conservatism built into
them, so it is quite likely that a structure having a calculated fatigue life of, say, 5 years,
will survived unscathed for 10 years or more. When considering machines, the greatest
uncertainty is again people, this time how people forget to specify things, and then duck
and dive looking for scapegoats when something goes wrong.
7.2 Human Sensitivity

Human tolerance to vibrations varies not only from person to person, but the same
person may today be quite happy with a situation, complain bitterly tomorrow and wonder

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the day after tomorrow why this structure is so bulky and heavy, since it does not vibrate
at all. The tolerance of the owner of a building who must foot the bill for remedial work,
or someone who thinks there must be an insurance claim, or a worker who is disgruntled
because salaries are too low, or a Consultant who can get paid for fixing the problem,
are all very different. Check out BS 6611 or SANS 2631 (ISO 2631), in which a “Motion
Sickness Dose Value” is defined for tolerance to low frequency vibration. This is related
to the percentage of people who will get seasick and vomit. The Designer’s decision is
whether that percentage of people vomiting is acceptable.

The codes of practice of the V.D.I. (Union of German Engineers) deny that there is such
a thing as allowable amplitudes and define something that represents the perceptibility of
the vibrations: almost perceptible, clearly perceptible etc.

However, we do need some criteria to determine the allowable amplitudes, so here goes.

There are three significant limits in human reaction to vibrations. These were defined by
earlier versions of ISO 2631 (which were probably more useful than the current version) as:

a) 1.-Limit of comfort – the “Reduced Comfort Boundary”

b) 2.-Limit of efficiency – the “Fatigue Decreased Efficiency Limit”
c) 3.-Limit of health and safety – the “Exposure Limit”

The Fatigue Decreased Efficiency Limits for vertical and horizontal vibrations are shown
in Figure 7.1 and 7.2 respectively. In both Figure 7.1 and 7.2 the limits are shown as a
function of frequency in (a), and as a function of exposure time in (b). In all cases, the
Reduced Comfort Boundary is obtained by dividing the Fatigue Decreased Efficiency
Limit accelerations by 3,15. The Exposure Limit is obtained by multiplying the Fatigue
Decreased Efficiency Limit accelerations by 2,0.

100
RMS Acceleration (m/s2)

10 1 minut
1 hour
4 hours
8 hours
1 1 day

0.1
1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)

(a)

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100

RMS Acceleration (m/s2)

10
1 Hz and 16 H
2 Hz and 11 H
4 Hz to 8 Hz
50 Hz
1

0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Exposure time (hours)

(b)

Figure 7.1: Fatigue Decreased Efficiency Limit for Vertical Vibration

100
RMS Acceleration (m/s2)

10 1 minute
1 hour
4 hours
8 hours
1 1 day

0.1
1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)

(a)

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100

RMS Acceleration (m/s2)

10
1 Hz to 2 Hz
4 Hz
12,5 Hz
50 Hz
1

0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Exposure time (hours)

(b)

Figure 7.2: Fatigue Decreased Efficiency Limit for Horizontal Vibration

These limits are expressed in different ways by different codes. It is possible to become
very sophisticated about evaluating human sensitivity, as many of the more recent codes
do, but it is doubtful whether this is actually useful. ISO 2631 (earlier versions) and BS
6472 give specific numerical guidance regarding acceptable vibrations. Other earlier
codes use a factor typically called "K". K takes into account the direction (horizontal or
vertical), magnitude and frequency of the vibrations, position of the body and other
variables. The K factor is a function of the RMS value of the acceleration. K can be
expressed as a function of the amplitude (of displacement, acceleration etc).

The Specification AAC114001 adopts this K value approach. Table 7.1a gives the K
values used by Specification AAC114001. Table 7.1b gives the same K values based on
displacement, rather than acceleration.

Table 7.1a: K value Definition adopted by Specification AAC114001

Frequency (Hz) Horizontal Vertical Undetermined

1 TO 2 28aH 10aVf0,5 28a
2 to 4 33,5af0,25
4 to 8 20aV
8 to 80 56aH/f 160aV/f 160a/f

In the above Table 7.1a, aH and aV are the horizontal and vertical RMS accelerations in
mm/s2, and f is the exciting frequency in Hz.

Table 7.1b: K value Definition based on Displacement

Frequency (Hz) Horizontal Vertical Undetermined

1 TO 2 1100dHf2 400dVf2,5 1100df2

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2 to 4 1300df2,25
2
4 to 8 800dVf
8 to 80 2200dHf 6300dVf 6300df

In the above Table 7.1b, dH and dV are the horizontal and vertical RMS displacements in
mm, and f is the exciting frequency in Hz.

Table 7.2 shows the K interpretation (limits of comfort) based on VDI 2057 Part 2 (1987)

Table 7.2: Interpretation of K Values

According to: According to

ISO 2631 (updated in 1982) & K VDI 2057 Part2 (1987)

VDI 2057 Part 2 (1986)

Reduced Comfort Boundary Degree of perception

1 minute …………………………….. 17.7

16 minutes ………………………….. 13.4

25 minutes ………………………….. 11.1 Very strongly perceptible

1 hour ……………………………….. 7.5

6.3

2.5 hours…………………………….. 4.4

4 hours ..……………………………. 3.2 Strongly perceptible

8 hours ……………………………… 2.0

1.6

16 hours……………………………… 1.3 Very well perceptible

24 hours…………………………….. 0.9

0.4 Just Perceptible

0.1 Under limit of perception

The Specification AAC114001 allows the following K values:

a) Less than 4 hours exposure, i.e. where access is only required for short periods, K
≤7
b) Up to 8 hours exposure, i.e. where access is required for an entire shift, K ≤ 4,2

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c) Up to 12 hours exposure, K ≤ 3,5.

An EXCEL spreadsheet giving a graphic representation of these limits is available at

g:/ENGINEERING/se/DESIGN AIDS “Vibration limits”.

Where there is vertical and horizontal vibration simultaneously, these must be combined
using the following equation:

K EQUIV = K H 2 + K 2V

where: KV = the K value for vertical vibration

KH = the K value for horizontal vibration

KEQUIV is then checked using the limits for vertical vibration.

As a matter of policy, if an outside Contractor feels that the allowable K should be

increased or decreased then he must contact ATD Structural Engineering for approval.
7.3 Equipment and Machine Sensitivity

Believe it or not, equipment and machines are also sensitive to vibration. An interesting
fact of life seems to be that when discussing a purchase with Suppliers, the equipment
can accommodate almost any vibration that will be thrown at it, but once a purchase has
been made, and there is any malfunction of the equipment in service, the same Suppliers
claim that it is of course the ambient vibration that has caused the problem.

Warning: When negotiating the purchase of any equipment or machinery that will
operate in an environment that includes vibrating equipment
ALWAYS insist that potential Suppliers specify (in writing
before any contract is signed) the level of vibration that their equipment can tolerate.
This must then be checked against structural vibration analysis prior to any
construction work commencing. It can also be used afterwards if there is any dispute
regarding performance of the equipment.

In our experience, the most sensitive equipment likely to be located in a vibration

environment is electrical switchgear, particularly “soft start” units, and area lighting.

Sensitivity of Spring Mounted Equipment

Experience has demonstrated that equipment supported on springs, such as vibrating

screens and vibratory feeders, may be sensitive to lateral vibration of the supporting
structure. The equipment is typically not designed to withstand lateral motion or lateral
forces, so fatigue cracking may result if the structure vibrates laterally.

Typically, the lateral vibratoin induced by this equipment is limited, because there is
nominally no lateral force. However, where the supporting structure is not symmetrical,
or other vibrating equipment also operates on the same structure, a lateral component of
vibration may be introduced. In order to ensure that there is little likelihood of damage to

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this equipment, the lateral vibration must not exceed 10 % of the in-line vibration.

7.4 Structural Sensitivity

There are two aspects of structural sensitivity that require the Designer’s attention. The
first is brittle construction materials or finishes, where vibration at higher frequencies can
lead to cracking or dislodging of the material. The second aspect is the possibility of
fatigue damage or even failure due to the high number of stress cycles.

7.4.1 Brittle Finishes

Brittle finishes are not generally our concern in the mining environment. They include
things like tiled floors and walls, glazing, and poorly constructed brickwork. Research
into the likelihood of damage occurring to brittle finishes has tended to concentrate on
the ground motion leading to damage to building finishes. This work has determined that
the likelihood of damage is more closely related to ground velocity than to either ground
acceleration or ground displacement. A general, conservative rule of thumb, applied by
some design codes is that the ground velocity should not exceed 5 mm/s. This is
conservative, so if the ground velocity is less than 5 mm/s, think no further. Brittle
finishes will not be damaged. For more specific guidance, although still somewhat
conservative, use Figure 7.3.

The structural vibration velocities at which initial damage to brittle finishes may be
expected collected from various sources, and are given in Table 7.3. It should be noted
that observations of damage vary very widely. Damage is unlikely at velocities below
those in Table 7.3, but in many cases where the velocity was more than double these
values there was no observed damage. These values should thus not be taken as a
hard-and-fast rule, but as general guidance.

30
Peak ground velocity

25

20
(mm/s)

15

10

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Frequency (Hz)
General masonry - Impact
Freestanding and brittle masonry - Impact
General masonry - Continuous
Freestanding and brittle masonry - Continuous

Figure 7.3: Ground Velocity Limits for Brittle Structures

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Table 7.3: Structural Velocities at which Damage to Brittle Finishes may Occur

Type of Structure Damage Peak Structural

Velocity (mm/s)
Brick building Appearance of first cracks 50
Brick building Deep cracks 150
Brick building Falling plaster 200
Concrete structure Appearance of first cracks 200
Any Appearance of cracks in tiles 30

7.4.2 Fatigue Life

Fatigue life is calculated in terms of structural design standards. This guide will not
attempt to teach the reader how to use SANS 0162 or BS 7608. This just serves as a
friendly reminder that, like it or not, fatigue exists. Wherever vibration is encountered,
the fatigue life of the structure must be calculated, to ensure survival. Vibration stresses
are often low, but stress cycles quickly mount up to huge numbers.

There is just one word of warning! Computer analysis, and for that matter hand analysis,
give the maximum stress in one direction. Under vibration conditions, the vibration
stress varies between a positive maximum, and a negative minimum with the same
absolute value. The fatigue stress range is thus twice the stress calculated.

Warning: The fatigue stress range is usually twice the maximum vibration stress
calculated.

See Section 12 for more3 detailed information on fatigue life calculations.

8 DESIGN GUIDANCE FOR SPECIFIC EQUIPMENT AND

STRUCTURES
Warning: The loads given in this Chapter are given for guidance only. Loads must
always be obtained from Suppliers. If what you are given looks suspicious get the
Supplier to check and explain!

8.1 Crushers

There are crushers and then there are CRUSHERS. Some produce negligible dynamic
loads. Others produce loads so big that it is impossible to support them on a
conventional structure. It is a big and crushing world out there.

8.1.1 Modelling Crusher Support Structures

Very few crushers are supported on springs. Most are supported directly on a
suspended floor or a concrete foundation. Others are supported not on proper springs or
buffers but on some funny little pieces of rubber or stuff. The single most important
difference between a crusher support model and a conventional model is that the mass
of the crusher must be included in that model, with mass moment of inertia and all the
trimmings.

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The simplest way to model a crusher for a dynamic program is to define an element that
would have the same outline as the machine (normally a cylinder or a box-shape) and to
determine the mass such that the full crusher element would have exactly the same
mass as the real crusher. This automatically takes care of all the mass moments of
inertia.

Figure 8.1: Cone

Crusher

8.1.2 Loads Applied by Crushers

The loads applied by crushers to the structures allocated the hazardous job of supporting
them depend on the type of crusher.

a) Cone Crushers

Cone crushers consist primarily of a cone rotating and tilting about a vertical axis
inside a cylinder. See Figure 8.1. The cone is mounted eccentrically with respect
to the cylinder, so that as it rotates it crushes rock falling between it and the
cylinder. The rotation speed is generally slow, in the region of 2 Hz to 4 Hz, but the
cone mass is relatively high because the cone is heavily constructed, and the
eccentricity is quite high or rock will not be crushed.

The centrifugal load will be more-or-less horizontal and sweeping 360 degrees.
The simplest (and acceptably accurate) way to handle it is to analyze the structure
under two separate horizontal harmonic loads, applied at 90 degrees from each
other. The results will then be evaluated using engineering judgement. It is
important to recognise that the centre of gravity of crushers is above their support
point, so these forces will inevitably and unavoidably induce dynamic moments

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(reflected as vertical support forces) as well. Remember!

Figure 8.2: Cone Crusher

Example:

Crusher power: 520 kW

Throughput: 500 to 600 tons/hour
Feed size: - 250 mm
Discharge size: - 25 mm
Total crusher mass: 68 000 kg
Cone size: 3,1 m high x 2,0 m diameter

Forces:

m1 15111 kg
m2 474 kg
m3 122 kg
r1 0,013 m
r2 0,0318 m
r3 0,4286 m
Speed 220 rpm, i.e. 220/60 = 3,667 Hz
Speed (ω) 3,667x2π = 23,04 rad/s

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F1 15111x0,013x23,042 = 104280 N
F2 474x0,0318x23,042 = 8001 N
F3 122x0,4286x23,042 = 27757 N
Total F1 + F2 - F3
horizontal
force = 104280 + 8001 – 27757 N

= 84524 N
Distances below bearing:
Crusher 2566,5 mm
support
m1 1085,3 mm
m2 2784,8 mm
m3 2717,3 mm
Total F1(2,5665-1,0853) + F2(2,5665-2,7848) - F3(2,5665-2,7173) Nm
overturning
moment = 104280(2,5665-1,0853) + 8001(2,5665-2,7848) – 27757(2,5665-
2,7173) NM

= 156899 Nm

b) Jaw Crushers
Jaw crushers consist primarily of a fixed steel plane and a moving steel jaw. See
Figure 8.3. The moving jaw is pivoted at its base, and is thrust towards and away
from the fixed steel plane by an eccentric mass or an eccentric shaft. The motion
is primarily horizontal. Rock falls between the jaw and the fixed plane as the jaw
moves away from the fixed plane, and it is crushed as the jaw moves back towards
the fixed plane. The speed is generally slow, in the region of 1 Hz to 4 Hz, but the
moving jaw mass is relatively high because it is heavily constructed, and the
eccentricity is quite high or rock will not be crushed.

The dynamic load generated by the action of jaw crushers is essentially horizontal,
and may be idealised as a single harmonic load, applied in the direction of jaw
motion.

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Figure 8.3: Jaw Crusher

c) Roller Crushers and Mineral Sizers

Roller crushers and mineral sizers consist primarily two contra-rotating rollers, with
rotation about a horizontal axis. See Figure 8.4. Rock falling between the rollers is
crushed as it passes through the narrowest passage between the two rollers. The
rotation speed is generally slow, in the region of 0,5 Hz to 3 Hz, but the roller mass
may be relatively high because the rollers are heavily constructed. The rollers are
nominally concentric to their axes.

The dynamic load applied by a roller crusher to its supporting structure is small,
because the operation of the crusher does not rely on any eccentric motion of
heavy components. Because the rollers are contra-rotating, any dynamic loads
from the two rollers will tend to compensate horizontally, but be additive vertically.
A relatively small vertical dynamic load should be anticipated on the support
structure for roller crushers. It may conservatively be assumed that the eccentricity
due to construction tolerance and wear will be of the order of 1 % of the roller
radius. This results in a dynamic load amplitude that is generally less than 10 % of
the weight of the rollers.

Figure 8.4: Roller Crusher

d) Flywheels
Remember also that crushers use heavy flywheels. These are rotating masses,
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where the intention is that the mass is concentric. However, due to manufacturing
tolerances, this will not be the case, so flywheels should be treated in the same
way as motors and turbines.
e) Dynamic Loads due to Breaking Rocks
Breaking rock causes additional random loads to be applied to the crusher
supporting structure. However, because these loads are random, and they are
generally relatively small, they are usually not considered.

8.2 Rotating Tubes

A range of equipment is essentially composed of rotating tubes, supported by rollers at

each end or along the sides. The equipment includes mills, scrubbers, trommels,
cement kilns, and peletizers.

8.2.1 Types of Load Generated

In the ideal world (wherever that might exist!) these pieces of equipment are circular, and
just turn neatly about their axis, without imposing any vibration loads onto their
supporting structure. However, in the real world, things are never so simple. There are
several sources of vibration loads that may be applied by rotating tubes.

a) Ovalling of the tube

Where the construction of the rotating tube is fairly light, and allows a small
distortion of the circular tube into an oval or some other shape, there is a vibration
load applied as the longer axis transfers the weight of the equipment and contents
from one roller to the other, as shown in Figure 8.5.

The frequency of this vibrating load is determined by the number of lobes in the
imperfect shape multiplied by the rotational speed of the equipment. See Figure
8.6. Generally, the number of lobes will be determined by the construction details
of the tube.

The amplitude may be as much as the nominal reaction at the relevant roller,
because in the extreme the load may vary from zero up to twice the nominal
reaction. Our experience, however, suggests that a realistic assumption is that the
load varies between 50 % and 150 % of the nominal constant load. This leads to a
dynamic load with an amplitude of 50 % of the nominal load. It must be
remembered that the load applied to the support rollers must go through the centre
of the bearings, so it has a vertical component and a horizontal component. Don’t
think that just because this is a dynamic load it will let you off easily! Resolution of
forces still applies. If the loads on both rollers are equal, the net horizontal load is
zero. However, if the two loads are not equal, there is a resulting horizontal
dynamic load app-lied to the supporting structure.

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Figure 8.5: Ovalling of the Tube

4 lobes 2 lobes 3 lobes

Figure 8.6: Different Numbers of Lobes on the Tube

b) Material falling off lifters

Some mills and trommels have “lifters” mounted on their inside surface to lift and
mix the contents thus ensuring adequate processing. As material falls off the
lifters, there is some tendency to generate oscillatory loads on the tube.

The frequency of this load is well defined by the number of lifters and the rotation
speed of the tube. The amplitude of the load is more difficult to define. However,
unless there is resonance between the lifting frequency and some natural
frequency, this is unlikely to be a problem load, so avoiding resonance is the key
design consideration.

c) Misalignment of girth gear or cutting errors in girth gear or drive gear

Misalignment of the girth gear or the motor drive shaft, or poor cutting of the teeth
on either the girth gear or the drive gear may lead to vibration at the frequency of
gear teeth intersections. This is commonly in the frequency range of 25 Hz to 60
Hz.

8.2.2 Specific Equipment

a) Mills

Mills are typically heavy pieces of equipment that are usually mounted directly onto
a heavy concrete foundation, composed of a thick base slab and a thick plinth at
each end to support the mill.

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Experience shows that as an approximate general rule of thumb, the fundamental

natural frequency of pitching (i.e. rocking in the mill axis longitudinal direction) and
of rolling (i.e. rocking transverse to the mill axis direction) should both not be less
than 3,0 Hz, when calculated with the mill carrying its normal full load of material.

8.3 Vibrating Screen and Feeders

8.3.1 Basic Requirements

Vibrating screens and vibratory feeders are simple eccentric mass machines. They are
supported on flexible springs to beams below, or on cables and flexible springs to beams
above, as they rely on vibration to function, and flexible springs enable vibration without
imparting large forces to their supporting structures. This means that vibrating screens
and vibratory feeders are low tuned, leading to large displacements when they are shut
down.

The shut down displacements should be obtained from Suppliers, and adequate
clearances must be provided to avoid vibrating screens and vibratory feeders striking
surrounding objects. The clearance should never be less than 100 mm.

Warning: Always check shut down displacements with Suppliers and ensure
adequate clearance around vibrating screens and vibratory feeders. Don’t believe
they can’t give it to you!

As a rough guide, the peak-to-peak displacement of vibrating screens is typically in the

range from 6 mm to 10 mm, a little less for vibratory feeders. This means that the
vertical amplitude of motion is about 2 mm to 3 mm, and the horizontal amplitude is
about 2 mm to 4 mm. The total dynamic load (sum of loads at all four corners) applied
by vibrating screens and vibratory feeders to supporting structures is typically a few
percent of the weight of the screen or feeder. If the total dynamic load is given as less
than 1 %, don’t believe it. If the Supplier shows that this is correct, then check the static
deflection of the springs, because they will have to be VERY flexible. If the total dynamic
force is greater than 10 % the screen or feeder will shake the teeth out of the structure
too quickly, although with rubber blocks or buffers the total dynamic force may actually
approach this level.

When working with vibrating screens or vibratory feeders, the following aspects may
cause difficulties, and should be checked:

a) The dynamic loads given on drawings of screens or feeders are usually given per
spring, or per corner. Check that you are satisfied which has been specified. If
there is any doubt, check with the Supplier. Small screens and feeders typically
have one spring at each corner. Large screens or feeders may have two, three, or
even more springs at some corners. Frequently, on large screens and feeders,
there are more springs at the feed end, where material drops onto the screen or
feeder, than at the discharge end.
b) The excitation load to screens and feeders can usually be adjusted, by setting the
eccentricity of the eccentric masses. Increasing this load is a possible way of
improving throughput, or setting it correctly may be overlooked during

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commissioning, so excessive vibration may result from incorrectly adjusted

eccentric masses.

c) Rubber blocks typically last much longer than steel coil springs, so coil springs may
be replaced by rubber blocks. As rubber blocks are much stiffer than steel coil
springs, this leads to much higher dynamic loads being applied to the structural
supports. On numerous occasions, this has been found to be at least in part
responsible for reported high vibration levels.

8.3.2 Design and Use of Sub-Frames

a) General

A sub-frame is a mechanical device that absorbs part of the energy transmitted

from the equipment to the supporting structure. The reason for using sub-frames is
to reduce the dynamic reactions. A typical sub-frame looks more or less as shown
in Figure 8.7. The physical shape of the sub-frame is often determined by process
considerations, such as underpans and chutes. This reduces the options of
structural optimization.

Screen outline
dotted

Sub-frame

Springs supporting
sub-frame on structure

Fig 8.7: Schematic Layout of Typical Sub-frame

b) Reactions On the Sub-frames and the Structure

The screen reactions on the sub-frame and the sub-frame reactions on the
supporting structure are determined by the dynamic behaviour of the screen and

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sub-frame assembly. A model of the screen and sub-frame must be created to

determine this dynamic behaviour. The approach for this is generally the same as
for a conventional structure.

1. Use ROBOT or PROKON. The model must contain the screen, the springs
between the screen and the sub-frame, the sub-frame, and the springs
between the sub-frame and the support structure.

2. The springs can be modelled as spring elements in ROBOT, or as bar

elements in PROKON. To model the springs as bar elements, the effective
properties must be calculated either by hand or using the spreadsheet
“Design Aid DA11 Equivalent Spring Dimensions for Modelling Screens”
which may be found at G:/ENGINEERING/se/DESIGN AIDS. Use of the
spreadsheet is self-evident.
3. In order to model the screen itself one must:

Either approximate the position of its centre of gravity, and lump the whole mass of the
screen there, then calculate the mass moment of inertia of the entire screen about its
centre of gravity. A single node at the centre of gravity of the screen is then given this
mass and mass moment of inertia, and is connected to the springs by using rigid links
pinned at their ends.

Warning: There are some restrictions in the use of rigid links. The restrictions depend
upon the specific program. Consult the manual!

Or the screen can be modelled (using some good deal of engineering nouse, i.e. good
sense and judgement) as a grid of beams connected to the springs. This grid of beams
must be braced to represent the diaphragm action of the screen, and their mass and
mass of moment of inertia must accurately represent the whole screen structure.

Warning: Check the implications of tolerances and spillage on the operation of sub
frames. Get it wrong, and a sub frame may lead to the vibration loads applied to the
supporting structure being substantially larger, not smaller.

The forces in the springs between the sub-frames and the supporting structures are the
loads finally applied to the structure.

When using sub-frames, it is crucial to investigate the influences of tolerances and other
effects. The steel from which sub-frames are generally constructed has rolling
tolerances of up to 4%. There is also a strong likelihood of a certain amount of spillage
accumulating on the sub-frame quite quickly. The springs supplied have tolerances in
their stiffnesses. Now, the point is this. The effective operation of sub-frames depends
all of these factors. It is recommended that the Designer should check the effects of the
following “what ifs”:

1. Mass of the sub-frame oversize and accumulated spillage increasing the sub-frame
mass by 20 %, and the springs having a stiffness of 10 % less than specified.
2. Mass of the sub-frame is unlikely to be undersize, so do not reduce the sub-frame

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mass, but use springs having a stiffness of 20 % more than specified.

The structure must then be designed for the highest loads arising from the nominal
design conditions or either of these “what if” scenarios.

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8.4 Rock Breakers

Rock breakers are mean beasts! The loads they can exert are big. Their main purpose
is to break rocks that are too big to fit through grizzlies, but their Operators will use them
to push large rocks around on the grizzly as well. The Operators also try to push large
rocks into a corner of the bin, so that they can be broken by hammering them where they
can’t escape! It is thus important to know the magnitude of the loads (FB the breaking
force, FP the pushing force, and FQ the slewing torque) that they can apply in the various
different directions shown in Figure 8.8. The breaking load FB is also made up of two
different components, a quasi-static load and a hammer load, as shown in Figure 8.9.
(Note that the actual magnitude of the loads given in Figure 8.9 only applies to one
specific quite small rock breaker. The actual values must be established in each
particular case).

FQ
FB
FP

Figure 8.8: Loads Applied by a Typical Rock Breaker

70

60
Rock breaker force (kN)

50

40 Quasi-static force
Ham m er force
30 Total breaking forc e FB

20

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Tim e (se conds)

Figure 8.9: Breaking Load FB

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So, when working with rock breakers, it is important to talk in detail to the Supplier. At
least the following information must be obtained and included in design considerations:

a) The hammer load.

b) The maximum push that can be exerted vertically and horizontally, from which the
quasi-static component of the breaking load and the push load can be obtained. If
the Supplier cannot provide this information, it can be calculated from the
maximum thrust of the hydraulic cylinders controlling the boom, which the Supplier
should be able to provide.
c) The maximum slewing moment.

It is not generally the Structural Designer’s task to check or ensure integrity of the rock
breaker, but all of these loads induce reactions onto the supporting structure, whose
integrity is the Structural Designer’s responsibility.

Our experience suggests that the most frequent problems encountered with rock breaker
support structures are the following:

(a) The H.D. bolts around the front of the rock breaker fail due to fatigue. These bolts
are normally torqued to induce a fairly high pre-tension in the bolts. It is then
assumed that the hammer force does not cause significant force fluctuation in the
bolts. However, the Operators ensure that there is in fact a fluctuating force in the
bolts, by pushing down onto rocks and thus overcoming the pre-tension as shown
in Figure 8.9. Bolts in tension are weaklings in fatigue when it comes to resisting
fluctuating forces.
(b) When the rock breaker is supported on a plinth or post projecting above a base
lower down, the plinth or post is vulnerable to high bending moments due to the
horizontal components of the rock breaking load.

8.5 Design of Grizzly Bars

The function of grizzlies is to keep oversize material out of crushers and off conveyor
belts. Grizzlies are one of the structures Structural Designers have to cope with that
really take a pounding. Large rocks (the “how big” question is often not satisfactorily
answered) fall from the back of haul trucks or LHDs (Load Haul Dumpers used
underground), a few metres above the grizzly with frightening amounts of energy. This
Section describes an approximate evaluation of the maximum stress produced by a
mass that hits one beam at mid-span with a known speed.

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Figure 8.10: Large Rock destined for Grizzly!!

The stress is calculated by assuming that the kinetic energy of the hitting mass is
transformed into strain (deformation) energy. By equating the two energies it is possible
to calculate the force that, if applied statically at the point of impact, would produce strain
energy equal to the kinetic energy of the hitting mass. See Section 5.3.

An EXCEL spreadsheet, “Grizzly impact”, is available in ATD to perform the necessary

calculations. The operation of the spreadsheet is self-explanatory. This spreadsheet
allows the use of billets, or other structural sections for the grizzly bars. It also allows for
loss of energy due to fracturing of the rock during impact. The spreadsheet allows any
amount of energy loss, but it is recommended that this should never be set at more than
10 % energy loss.

The most important thing with the design of grizzlies is that a lot (A LOT!) of engineering
judgement must be used when evaluating the results. The following assumptions are
made in the spreadsheet “Grizzly impact”:

a) The equations used for the programs assume that the falling mass is completely
stopped by the grizzly bar, unless the grizzly is angled at more than 45º above the
horizontal. This is obviously not true, as can easily be proved by watching a grizzly
at work for as little as about 10 seconds.
b) The grizzly bars do not collapse when the yield stress is reached. The Designer
must thus check the compactness of whatever structural section is chosen.
c) No overall lateral torsional buckling is possible under this type of loading. This is
generally true when the grizzly has a rectangular grid of bars, but may not be true if
the bars run in one direction only. The Designer must ensure an adequate
structural design.
d) The conditions are known. There is always the requirement for interaction between
the Structural Designer and the Mine to get as close as possible to this
assumption, but there are still difficulties. Questions that still arise include:
1. What is the height of the lip of the haul truck bucket when rocks fall? Is it the
closed height or the fully tipped height, or somewhere in between?
2. How big are the biggest rocks?
3. Are rocks generally dumped onto the clear grizzly, or onto a pile of other rock

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on the grizzly?

8.6 Vessel Agitation

8.6.1 Applied Loads

Agitation of fluids in circular vessels is used in numerous processes in mining and paper
production. Flotation cells in mining applications are a typical example. The rotation
speed of the agitators is usually quite slow, of the order of 60 rpm (1 Hz) or even less.
However, experience in ATD has shown that the need for various services below the
vessels leads to little bracing being used in support structures which are thus rather
flexible laterally. This, linked to the relatively high mass of the vessels contents leads to
quite low natural frequencies, and the distinct possibility of resonance. Light walkways
are also often provided for access to machinery above the vessels, which may well also
have quite low natural frequencies.

Warning: When taking measurements of vibration induced by vessel agitation watch

the minimum frequency range of the instruments used. The RION VA10 instrument
available in ATD Structural Engineering does not give accurate measurements below
3 Hz because of built in high pass filters. The RION SA78 instrument available in ATD
Structural Engineering measures down to 1 Hz with accuracy.

The agitators frequently have three or four blades (or paddles) and there are vanes, or
baffles around the perimeter of the tank. This may lead to a higher “vane passing”
frequency, which is given by the agitator rotation frequency multiplied by the number of
vanes. Experience in ATD, however, suggests that this higher frequency is seldom the
culprit in vibration problems related to vessel agitation.

A typical agitator shaft has a torque and an axial force applied, and it may well also have
a bending moment applied. All of these forces should be obtained from the Supplier of
the agitator, but the description below allows approximate values to be determined if
necessary.

a) Torque
The torque FQ arises from the need to swirl and mix the liquid in the tank.
Normally, it is derived from the power of the drive motor. The maximum value of
torque is about three times the motor power divided by the agitator speed ωE,
because electrical motors do strange things on start-up.

Power Power Power

FQ ≈ 3 =3 ≈ 29
ωE 2πfE rpm

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LB

Two
β blades

Figure 8.11: Vessel Agitation

a) Axial Load
The axial force FA arises from the length and angle of the blades, the applied
torque and turbulence in the fluid. The axial force will be directed upwards or
downwards, depending on the blade angle and the direction of rotation. An
approximation for the axial force may be obtained from the equation:

FQ
FA 
L B tan 

where: LB is the length of the blade

β is the angle of twist of the blade
b) Bending Moment and Shear Load
The bending moment FM applied by agitators to their support structure is difficult to
determine, because it is determined by the very complex fluid-blade interaction.
Also, broken or damaged blades, and misalignment of the agitator shaft will tend to
significantly increase the bending moment. Typically, the bending moment is a
similar order of magnitude to the applied torque. The shear force FV is equal to the
bending moment divided by the vertical distance between the blades and the
underside of the gearbox.
8.6.2 Design Requirements

The loads defined above are the maximum quasi-static loads to be used for ensuring
adequate strength of the agitator support structure. However, there are also varying
loads due to operation of the agitator. ATD has experience of several cases of fatigue
damage induced by these loads, and some experience of unacceptable low frequency
vibration of the tanks on their supporting structures.

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a) The following quasi-static loads should be considered for strength design:

Torque: Maximum load specified by Supplier

Bending Moment: Maximum bending moment specified by Supplier

Lateral Load: Maximum bending moment divided by length of shaft from

gearbox to blades

Axial Load: Maximum load specified by Supplier

b) The following fluctuating loads should be considered for fatigue design:

Torque: Actual peak startup torque, or 50 % of maximum load

specified by Supplier, applied once for each startup

Bending Moment: 50 % of maximum bending moment specified by Supplier,

applied once for each rotation of agitator shaft

Lateral Load: Bending moment divided by length of shaft from gearbox to

blades

Axial Load: Operating axial load specified by Supplier, 50 % of maximum

load specified by Supplier, applied once for each startup

c) The following dynamic loads should be considered for vibration assessment:

Bending Moment: Load amplitude equal to 50 % of maximum bending moment

specified by Supplier, applied at the rotation frequency of agitator shaft

Lateral Load: Load amplitude equal to bending moment divided by length

of shaft from gearbox to blades, applied at the rotation frequency of agitator shaft.

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8.7 Wood Chippers

An early part of the processing of logs into paper consists of reducing the logs to small
chips. See Figure 8.12. This is done by means of wood chipper machines. Wood
chippers are rotating machines with fairly heavy chipping heads which double as
flywheels, so there will be a component of dynamic excitation related to their rotation, as
for any other rotating machine. However, there is an additional impact force component
as the blades strike the log to reduce it to chips.

Log being chipped

Figure 8.12: Schematic End View of Wood Chipper Head

9 PRACTICAL GUIDELINES FOR FOUNDATIONS

This section deals with the design of concrete block foundations, used for vibrating
equipment mounted at, or near, ground level. Typical equipment in this category
includes large electricity generators, compressors and crushers.

9.1 Traditional Rules of Thumb

The most common traditional “rules of thumb” used to design the concrete foundations
for small equipment simply require that the concrete block foundation has a mass of
more than 10 times the machine mass for a reciprocating machine, and more than 5
times the machine mass for a rotating machine. These simple rules may be used for
small machines, with a mass of up to 500 kg and a power output not exceeding 50 kW,
but are not good enough for larger machines.
9.2 Simple Rules

If it is assumed that the soil supporting a machine foundation is very flexible, so that it
provides very little resistance to small amplitude vibration motion, then the dynamic
forces generated by the machine only accelerate the mass of the machine and
foundation. Under these conditions, the amplitude of base motion in various different
places and directions may be described by the simple equations given in Table 9.1. In
these equations symbols are as defined in Figure 9.1 and e is the machine eccentricity,
MR is the mass of the moving portion of the machine, MS is the mass of the static portion
of the machine, MB is the mass of the foundation, M is the total mass (i.e. MR + MS + MB),
and Ib is the mass moment of inertia of the machine and foundation.

These equations give conservative predictions for foundation motion provided the
foundation is not in resonance with the machine speed.

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Table 9.1: Displacements Based on Simple Foundation Motion Equations

Location and direction Displacement Equation

Vertical or horizontal linear motion M
d R e
M
Vertical at edge of base due to rotation M h b
d  R CG e
2Ib
Horizontal at centre of gravity of machine due to rotation 2
MRhCG
d e
Ib

a
h
hCG

d b

Figure 9.1: Schematic of Machine on Foundation

In addition, it is generally recommended that the width of the base should not be less
than 1,5 times the height of the centre of the machine, i.e.:

b  1,5(h  d C ) .

9.3 Modelling Foundations

Equipment mounted on concrete block foundations, but larger than that covered in
Section 9.1 or where resonance is a possibility so that the equations given in Section 9.2
cannot be used, must be designed giving due consideration to the mass distribution, and
the underlying soil stiffness. This should be done using a finite element programme, but
a first approximation may be obtained using simplified calculations based on the dynamic
behaviour of the machine on its base.

9.3.1 Soil Conditions

Any adequate model of the machine foundation must use as good a representation of the
underlying soil as possible. Soil, whether sand, clay or even soft rock is a granular
material, rather than a homogeneous continuum.

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The analysis requires the soil stiffness properties as inputs. Two important parameters
must be distinguished. These are the elastic modulus E of the soil, and the modulus of
uniform compression CC of the soil. A finite element analysis will generally use E,
whereas most simplified equations (including the ones used here) use CC. These are
theoretically related by the equation:

E 1
C C  1.13
1  2
A

Warning: Understand the parameters used. E is not equal to CC they are not even
equivalent they just sound similar.

The soil properties are generally obtained from one of the following two procedures:

a) Plate bearing test

In this test, a plate of a specified size is placed on the soil and a specified load is
applied. The settlement of the plate is measured as the load is applied. The soil
compression stiffness CC is then calculated directly from the plate area, the load
and the measured displacement.

A typical plate bearing test result is shown in Figure 9.2. In this test several cycles
of loading, to increasing maximum load, were applied. It can clearly be seen that
there is both an elastic component and an inelastic component of the settlement.
Vibration characteristics are determined by the elastic component of the settlement
only. Thus, all the soil stiffness values that are used for vibration analysis are
derived from this elastic component.

Bearing tests are typically carried out using plates with an area of the order of 0,2
m2 to 1,5 m2, otherwise the loads that must be applied become huge.

200

150
Load (kN)

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Settlement (mm)

Figure 9.2: Typical Plate Bearing Test

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Warning: Check, then recheck, soil properties with the Geotechnical Engineer.
Geotechnical Engineers usually think simple total longterm settlement, not such
fancy intricacies as vibration.

b) CSW (continuous shear wave) test

In this test, an impact is applied to the soil, and the speed of transmission of the
resulting shear wave through the soil medium is measured. The shear modulus of
the soil G is then calculated from the shear wave transmission speed. This test
gives the elastic stiffness of the soil, generally quoted as the shear modulus, G.

The CSW test involves very small shear strains. A higher level of soil strain is
typically experienced below completed structures. Under these higher strain
conditions, the actual shear modulus of granular soils is reduced. Figure 9.3
shows the shear modulus reduction typically experienced for completed structures
on granular soils. The shear strain encountered will usually be in the range 0,01 %
to 0,1 %. The appropriate shear modulus for soil assessment will thus usually be
in the range of 75 % to 50 % of the CSW value.

Figure 9.3: Shear Modulus Variation with Strain

However, where the structure foundation is located on soft rock, this may be
reversed. The CSW shear modulus obtained for soft rock is likely to be determined
primarily by the shear modulus of granular soil lenses within the rock. As the
nominal shear strain increases, these lenses are likely to be compressed, so that
the actual behaviour of the soft rock is representative of a higher shear modulus.
However, little is known of how much this increase is likely to be.

So, CSW shear modulus values reduce with increasing shear strain in granular
soils, but are more likely to increase in soft rock.

c) Soil Characteristics to Use

The soil characteristics must be obtained from a geotechnical report for the site,
prior to completing the vibration analysis for any foundation. However, as a
preliminary approximation, the values given in Table 9.2 may be used for soil
stiffness.

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Table 9.2: Approximate Soil Modulus of Uniform Compression Values for AT = 10

m2

Soil type Allowable bearing Soil modulus of

pressure (kPa) uniform compression,
CC (kN/m3)
Firm clay or sandy clay. 100 25 000

Medium dense sand or silty

sand.
Stiff clay or sandy clay. 200 50 000

Compact poorly graded gravel.

Dense sand or silty sand.

Very stiff clay or sandy clay. 400 100 000

Compact well graded gravel.

Very dense sand or silty sand.

9.3.2 Simplified Preliminary Calculations

The simplified preliminary calculations are based on the following procedure:

a) The soil uniform compression modulus is calculated.

The soil uniform compression modulus is calculated from the test results, using the
equation:

A test
C C  C Ctest
A

where: CCtest is the soil uniform compression modulus from the geotechnical test

Atest is the area of the geotechnical test

A is the area of the machine foundation being designed

b) The soil uniform shear modulus and uniform rotation modulus are calculated.

The ratio between the soil uniform shear modulus CV and the soil uniform
compression modulus of the soil CC, the shear stiffness ratio, is primarily a function
of the Poisson’s ratio ν of the soil, and to a lesser extent also of the geometry of the
foundation. Based on the assumption of elastic continuum behaviour of the soil,
the ratio αQ between the soil uniform shear modulus CV and the uniform
compression modulus CC is given as listed in Table 9.3.

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The soil uniform shear modulus is given by:

CQ   Q CC

The value of Poisson’s ratio for soil is generally approximately 0,2.

Table 9.3: Ratio αV between CV and CC

Poisson’s ratio ν a/b = 0,5 a/b = 1,0 a/b = 2,0

0,1 0,96 0,95 0,94
0,2 0,91 0,89 0,87
0,3 0,85 0,82 0,80
0,4 0,78 0,75 0,72

Due to the fact that under conditions of rotation of the foundation the soil pressures
are not uniform, but vary linearly across the base, an adjusted soil uniform
rotational modulus must be calculated. Based on the assumptions of a rigid
foundation and elastic continuum behaviour of the soil, the ratio αφ between the soil
uniform rotational modulus Cφ and the uniform compression modulus CC is given
as listed in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4: Ratio αφ between Cφ and CC

a/b = 0,5 a/b = 1,0 a/b = 2,0

1,58 1,88 2,31

The soil uniform rotational modulus is given by:

C   CC

c) The stiffness for vertical motion is calculated.

This is given by:
K C  CC A
d) The stiffness for horizontal motion is calculated.

This is given by:

K V  CV A

e) The stiffness for rotational motion is calculated.

This is given by:

a 3b
K   C I  C  for rotation about an axis parallel to side b
12

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ab 3
or K   C I  C  for rotation about an axis parallel to side a
12

f) The system is analysed to determine the frequencies.

For a symmetrical arrangement of machine and foundation, vertical vibration can

be approximated as a single degree of freedom system. Horizontal and rotational
vibration will always be coupled, because the centre of gravity of the foundation
and machine will always be well above the soil-foundation interface. This can be
idealised as two, two degree of freedom systems.

9.3.3 Damping

There are two damping mechanisms applicable to soils. The first is “structural damping”
which is similar to the damping that occurs within any material. Internal friction between
the grains of soil causes energy losses in much the same way as internal friction
between molecules in other materials. However, because the soil extends more-or-less
infinitely laterally and downwards away from the foundation under consideration, there is
also “dispersion damping”. Here energy is lost to the finite system considered because
oscillations get the travel bug, and head off into the far distance.

Unfortunately, very little information is available regarding the magnitude of soil damping.
Generally, the design approach is to avoid resonance, in which case damping has little
influence, so little effort has been expended in determining this difficult quantity.

A conservative design will assume zero damping. A more realistic design will assume
modal damping of, say, 5 %.

10 PRACTICAL DETAILS FOR TERTIARY STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

10.1 Individual Members

The local vibration of individual members of structures is often not very well predicted by
computer models of the entire structure, so it is not uncommon to experience local lateral
or torsional vibrations of individual members in structures. When assessing structural
vibrations, it is thus necessary to evaluate the frequencies of individual members within
structures. This is probably more easily and more accurately done by hand using simple
formulae, rather than by using a computer package such as ROBOT or PROKON.

10.1.1 Approximate natural Frequencies of Individual Members

The lowest two natural frequencies, in Hz, of individual structural members may be
estimated from the following formulae. A spreadsheet to calculate these frequencies is
located at g:/ENGINEERING/se/DESIGN AIDS “Design Aids DA12 Beam Frequencies”.

a) Flexural frequencies

Members may be either simply supported, fixed ended, or cantilevered.

1. Simply supported beams

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1,57 EI 6,28 EI
f1 = f2 =
L2 m L2 m

2. Fixed end beams

3,56 EI 9,82 EI
f1 = f2 =
L2 m L2 m

3. Cantilevers

0,56 EI 3,51 EI
f1 = f2 =
L2 m L2 m

b) Torsional frequencies

Members are assumed to be fixed against rotation about the axis of the member at
both ends.

0,54 GJ 1,13 GJ
f1 = f2 =
L Im L Im

c) Axial frequencies

Members are assumed to be fixed against axial movement at both ends.

0,54 EA 1,13 EA
f1 = f2 =
L m L m

10.1.2 Limitation of Slenderness Ratio to 80

It has been fairly common practice to limit the local vibration of steel members by simply
ensuring that the slenderness ratio does not exceed 80. The flexural frequencies above
can be re-written for steel members to give:

(Simply supported) (Fixed ends)

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1,57 EI 3,56 EI
f1 = f1 =
L2 ρA L2 ρA
1,57 E I 3,56 E I
= =
L2 ρ A L2 ρ A

1,57 200 x10 9 3,56 200 x10 9

= r = r
L2 7850 L2 7850
7925r 17969r
= =
L2 L2
7925 12578
= =
L 0,7L
L L
r r

If the slenderness ratio is limited to not more than 80, these equations can be written as:

(Simply supported) (Fixed ends)

7925 12578
f1 ≥ f1 ≥
80L 80L
99 157
≥ ≥
L L

This procedure thus gives fairly high frequencies, provided the individual member lengths
are fairly short. Generally, vibrating screens and other vibrating equipment operate at
frequencies up to about 20 Hz, so natural frequencies of 30 Hz and higher are desirable
to avoid resonance problems. If the slenderness ratio is kept below 80, the natural
frequencies will be above 30 Hz where a simply supported member is less than 3,3 m
long, or where a fixed ended member is less than 5,2 m long. This method is simple to
apply, because PROKON (and other packages) can perform a design based on limiting
the slenderness ratio, but PROKON does not calculate the natural frequencies of
individual members. However, for longer members, it may not avoid resonance, so it
should be used with care.
10.2 Walkways and Hand Railing

A frequent phenomenon in any structure with vibrating machinery of any type, is to see,
the hand railing shaking, or hear it rattling. This is due to the fact that hand railing is
usually attached to light walkway, or platform stringers, often only a 180 mm or 200 mm
deep channel section. These stringers have very little torsional stiffness, so with the
hand railing protruding upwards by 1 m or so, the whole arrangement twists very easily.
Typical hand railing layouts have a fundamental natural frequency in the range between
8 Hz and 16 Hz, which leads to frequent problems of unacceptable vibrations due to
resonance.

There are two requirements for ensuring that hand railing has a sufficiently high natural
frequency to avoid resonance. These are:

a) Hand railing standards should be larger than the normal 48 mm diameter,

preferably not less than 70 mm.

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b) Torsional stiffness must be provided to the stringers to which the hand railing is
attached. This can be done either by boxing the stringers, or by ensuring adequate
stiffness of the cross members between walkway stringers. Details that may be
used are suggested in Figure 10.1.

Provide access
holes for bolting

10.1(a): Possible Stringer Sections

10.1 (b): Possible Cross Member

D t il
Figure 10.1: Possible Hand Railing Details

An EXCEL spreadsheet located at g:/ENGINEERING/se/DESIGN AIDS “Hand railing

dynamic design” is available to check the approximate fundamental natural frequency of
proposed hand railing layouts, or PROKON or ROBOT can be used to create a simple,
local model for the hand railing.
10.3 Sheeting Rails

Sheeting rails should be treated as isolated beams, as described in Section 10.1, with
allowance made for the mass of the attached sheeting. The sheeting is, however,
flexible, so its mass will not all move exactly with the sheeting rail. It is recommended
that two cases be considered to provide upper and lower bounds on the natural
frequency of sheeting rails.

a) Lower bound on frequency. Add the entire mass of the sheeting associated with
the relevant sheeting rail in the frequency calculation.
b) Upper bound frequency. Add 30 % of the mass of the sheeting associated with the
relevant sheeting rail in the frequency calculation.

An important practical detail is that sheeting in vibrating structures must be fixed to the
sheeting rail in every trough, not in every second trough as is usually done.

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10.4 Plating on Chutes, Bins and Underpans

10.4.1 Natural Frequencies of Rectangular Panels

a) Single Flat Plate Panels

The fundamental natural frequency f1 (Hz) of a single flat rectangular steel panel
where all four edges are simply supported is given by Szilard as:

π 1 1 Et 3
f1= ( 2+ 2 )
2 a b 12(1-μ 2 )m

The fundamental natural frequency f1 (Hz), of a single flat rectangular steel panel
where all four edges are fixed is given by Szilard as:

12 7 1 4 1 1 Et 3
f1 ≈ ( 4+ 2 2
+ 4 )
2π 2 a 7a b b 12(1-μ 2 )m

where: a and b are the two panel dimensions as shown in Figure 10.2 (m).

E is the plate elastic modulus (Pa).

t is the plate thickness (m).
μ is the plate Poisson’s ratio, usually taken as 0,3 for steel.
m is the mass of the plate and liners (kg/m2).

a (1) a (2) a (3)

b (1)
b (2)

Figure 10.2: Typical Plate with Several Panels

As discussed earlier in this guide, in order to avoid resonance, the natural

frequency of a structure or component of a structure should be at least 1,5 times
the operating frequency of the equipment supported. Assuming equipment with a
maximum frequency of 16 Hz, the natural frequency required to avoid resonance is
thus about 25 Hz. The maximum plate panel sizes to ensure natural frequencies of
the plating exceeding 25 Hz are shown in Figures 10.3 for simply supported plate
panels, and Figure 10.4 for fixed edge plate panels.

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Simply Supported Edges

2.2
2

Maximum dimension a (m)

Aspect ratio b/a
1.8
1.6 1 without liner
1.4 2 without liner
1.2
1 10 without liner
0.8 1 with 8 mm liner
0.6
0.4 2 with 8 mm liner
0.2 10 with 8 mm liner
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Plate thickness (m m )

Figure 10.3: Maximum Simply Supported Plate Sizes for 25 Hz Natural Frequency

Fixed Edges
2.2
2 Aspect ratio b/a
Maximum dimension a (m)

1.8
1.6 1 without liners
1.4 2 without liners
1.2
10 without liners
1
0.8 1 with 8 mm liners
0.6 2 with 8 mm liners
0.4
0.2 10 with 8 mm liners
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Plate thickness (m m )

Figure 10.4: Maximum Fixed Edge Plate Sizes for 25 Hz Natural Frequency

b) Stiffened (Orthotropic) Plating

The equations for stiffened plates (often referred to as orthotropic plates) are a little
more complex, but still manageable by hand for the simply supported case. The
lowest natural frequency for simply supported stiffened plating is given by:

Dx 2D v Dy
+ +
π a 4
a b 2 2
b4
f1 ≈
2 m

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where:

Et 3 G Jx Jy
Dv = 2
+ ( + ) is the shear rigidity of the stiffened plating
12(1 - μ ) 6 a b

EI x
Dx = is the flexural rigidity of the stiffened plating about the x-axis
bx

EI y
Dv = is the flexural rigidity of the stiffened plating about the y-axis
by

a and b are the two overall panel dimensions (m) as shown in Figure 10.5.

bx and by are the spacing of the stiffeners in the x- and y directions (m) as shown in
Figure 10.5.

E is the plate elastic modulus (Pa).

G is the plate shear modulus (Pa)
t is the plate thickness (m).
μ is the plate Poisson’s ratio, usually taken as 0,3 for steel.
Ix is the moment of inertia of the x-direction stiffeners including the plating (m4)
Iy is the moment of inertia of the y-direction stiffeners including the plating (m4)
Jx is the torsion constant of the x-direction stiffeners excluding the plating (m4)
Jy is the torsion constant of the y-direction stiffeners excluding the plating (m4)
m is the mass of the plate and liners (kg/m2).

A spreadsheet, “Design Aid DA14 Plate vibration”, to facilitate calculation of the

frequencies for plating is available at G:/ENGINEERING/se/DESIGN AIDS. Use of
the spreadsheet is self-explanatory.

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Y
A
N
ax
ay

by bx
A
by N

Figure 10.5: Typical Arrangement of Stiffened Plating

10.5 Bracing Systems

Structural bracing, particularly tension bracing members, may be long and slender, and
thus be prone to vibrating. Tubular sections are quite popular as they have the lowest
slenderness for a given cross-sectional area of bracing members, and thus a higher
natural frequency than other section shapes. Because bracing members run diagonally,
they also run past other members such as girts or other bracing members. This may
lead to high noise levels if vibration causes the bracing and other members to “rattle”
against each other.

The following steps will ensure that bracing in dynamically loaded structures remains
trouble free.

a) The natural frequency of bracing members must be high enough to avoid

resonance. See Section 10.1.
b) End connections for bracing members must be welded (but check for fatigue), or
made using slip-resistant connectors.
c) Bracing members must be detailed so that:
1. either they are at least 20 mm clear of other members they pass.
2. or they are flush with, and bolted to, other members they pass.

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11 PRACTICAL DETAILS FOR CONNECTIONS

11.1 Bolted Connections

Where bolts are used for joining members in a structure carrying vibration loading, the
following points should always be observed:

a) Never use ordinary bolts in tension. Bolts carrying tension must always be tensioned,
so either high strength friction grip bolts, or swage lock fasteners should be used
b) Bolts carrying shear should preferably be high strength friction grip bolts or swage lock
fasteners. If ordinary bolts are selected, they must use nuts that will prevent loosening.

11.2 Welded Connections

Welded connections should be avoided as far as possible on structures carrying vibration

loading. Where welding is necessary, the following points must be observed:

a) Never use intermittent welding. Rather use a smaller continuous weld.

b) Watch fatigue details. The fatigue life of a welded connection may be reduced
spectacularly by poor welding details. If you don’t properly understand the effects of
welding on the fatigue life of structures, then ask someone who does!

11.3 Beam-to-beam Connections

Experience has shown several commonly used connections to be bad news when they are
used in a structure carrying vibration loading. These connections are shown in Figure 11.1.

Warning: Never use the connections shown in Figure 11.1 in a structure supporting
vibrating loads. They will turn around and bite you every time.

C ra ck s f ro m w e ld
if p la te g ird e r

C ra c k s f ro m ra d iu s if I se c tio n

M a in b e a m w eb c ra c ks
f ro m bo tto m of T

F ull d e p th T O K

Figure 11.1: Bad Commonly used Beam-to-Beam Connection Details.

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11.4 Bracing Connections

The most important aspects of bracing connections in structures supporting vibrating

equipment are:

a) The bolts must be slip-resistant bolts, i.e. either friction grip bolts or swage lock
fasteners.
b) Care must be exercised in detailing, to ensure that gussets are properly anchored to the
main structural members. This is illustrated in Figure 11.2.

Cycling load
leads to web
cracking

Figure 11.2: Some Bad Bracing Connections

12 FATIGUE LIFE
Steel and aluminium (particularly aluminium!) are vulnerable to fatigue damage when there
are fluctuating stresses. It is generally assumed that concrete is not vulnerable to fatigue.
But remember – the reinforcing in concrete is steel, so it is vulnerable to fatigue damage.

The information below applies to steel and aluminium.

12.1 Situations Requiring Fatigue Life Calculations

In general, fatigue life must be calculated whenever a structure supports varying loads. Many
kinds of mining equipment induce varying loads. These include all kinds of crushers, vibrating
screens and feeders, shuttle conveyors, agitators, overhead cranes, jigging plants, and hoists
or winders. Earthquake and wind loads are also varying loads, but these are generally dealt
with differently, and are not covered in this guideline.

All fatigue life calculations are based on the stress range, i.e. the difference between the
maximum and the minimum fluctuating stress. Remember that often, vibration is more-or-less
harmonic and is varying between a positive peak and a negative peak, i.e. the stress range is
twice the stress amplitude that is calculated.

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Fatigue is often classified loosely into high stress or low stress and high cycle or low cycle
fatigue. There is no formal numerical definition of these classifications, but low stress range
would typically be considered as being less than about 50 MPa for steel or 15 MPa for
aluminium. High cycles occur when the fluctuating stress is induced by a machine running at
a speed measured in Hz, and thus applying several thousand cycles per hour. Low cycles
occur when the fluctuation of stress arises from start-up and stopping of machines or shuttle
conveyors or cranes moving along a gantry, and thus applying no more than a few hundred
cycles per day.
12.2 High Cycle, High Stress Range Fatigue

Bad idea. Don’t do it! The structure will not survive.

12.3 High Cycle, Low Stress Range Fatigue

There was a time, not so very long ago, when most design standards for fatigue specified an
“endurance limit”. This was a stress range below which fatigue cracking would not occur,
irrespective of how many billions of cycles occurred. More recent research techniques, and
research that has run for long enough to test behaviour up to billions of cycles, has shown
that this is only possible under unrealistic conditions. IF stress concentrations are carefully
minimised, and IF all weld toes are ground smooth to eliminate any hairline cracks developed
during welding, and IF nothing ever happens to the structure to form a small crack, and IF
there is no corrosion, then AND ONLY THEN does the endurance limit apply. So forget it! In
real structures there is no longer an endurance limit.
12.4 Low Cycle, High Stress Range Fatigue

Most design standards start at 104 or 105 cycles. Do not assume that no fatigue occurs below
this number of cycles. If the stress range approaches twice the yield strength of the steel or
aluminium it will break after only about 8 or 10 cycles – try bending a length of galvanised
wire or a thin piece or aluminium back and forth a few times and watch the result if you are
sceptical – so there is trend for fatigue design standards to go to smaller and smaller numbers
of cycles.

Do not ignore very small numbers of cycles if the stress range is high. Use your engineering
judgement! A possible judgement-based modification of the requirements of SANS 10162,
assuming Gr 350 steel, is shown in Figure 12.1.

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SABS0162 - Modified

1000

A
B
Stress range

C
100
D
E
E1

10
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08 1.E+09
Number of cycles

Figure 12.1: Possible Judgement-Based Modification to Fatigue Curves

13 VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS

13.1 What Should be Measured?

Vibration amplitudes may be described by acceleration, velocity, displacement, or even strain

amplitude. Usually the easiest parameter to measure is acceleration, which can be integrated
over short durations to provide velocity or displacement. Simple transducers can be attached
to any point on a structure and provide an absolute measure of acceleration. Displacement
can quite easily be measured, but it is generally not possible to measure absolute
displacement. The displacement transducer must be mounted somewhere and measures the
change of displacement to the desired point, so the displacement obtained is a relative
displacement between the mounting point and the desired point on the structure. We generally
don’t have fixed mounting points around structures, because the whole structure is floating
about in space. Strain is not often measured, as placement of strain gauges on structures is
time consuming, and dynamic strains are often small.

When accelerations are measured, velocities can easily be calculated by integrating the
accelerations with respect to time, and displacements can be calculated by integrating the
velocities with respect to time. Generally, the equipment used for vibration measurements has
the capability of performing these integrations automatically, so that accelerations, velocities or
displacements can be displayed. If the vibration is harmonic in nature, there is a simple
relationship between the amplitudes of acceleration, velocity and displacement. This is:

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aM = ωEv = ωE2d
v = ωEd
or
v aM
d = =
ωE ωE2
aM
v =
ωE

where: aM is the linear acceleration amplitude (m/s2)

v is the linear velocity amplitude (m/s2)

d is the displacement amplitude (m/s2)

ωE is the radial frequency of the vibration (radians/s).

13.2 Measuring Equipment

In selecting measuring equipment for vibration measurements, it is important to ensure that

certain characteristics of the equipment are appropriate. Generally, two factors must be
considered:

a) Frequency Range
1. Minimum value. Some transducers can measure from 0 Hz (i.e. constant
acceleration such as gravity) upwards. Other types of transducers only measure
from a defined minimum frequency upwards. Where the operating frequency is
low, such as is likely to be true of floatation cells and crushers, it is possible that
the minimum frequency range may be a problem. For example, the RION Vibration
Analyser used in ATD Structural Engineering, the minimum frequency is 3,0 Hz.
This means that vibration measurements on float cells operating at 2,0 Hz will not
be correct.
2. Maximum value. All transducers will have their own natural frequencies, and will
thus experience resonance at some fairly high frequency. Most transducers
measure accurately up to at least 100 Hz, whereas in structural engineering we are
generally only concerned about frequencies up to about 50 Hz. This is thus
seldom a problem in structural engineering measurements, but it must be borne in
mind.

Many measuring systems also incorporate filters. A “low pass filter” eliminates the high
frequency content of measurements, and allows the low frequency content through.
Conversely, a “high pass filter” eliminates the low frequency content, and allows the high
frequency content through. All electrical measuring systems have some drift, by which is
meant they shift with time. In order to eliminate the effects of this drift, many systems
use a low pass filter set at between 1 Hz and 3 Hz. This will have to same effect as a
non-zero minimum measuring frequency, so users must be aware of what filters are used
in vibration measuring equipment. The RION Vibration Analyser VA10 used in ATD
Structural Engineering, has a low pass filter that can be set at 3 Hz or 10 Hz. It should
always be set at 3 Hz for structural engineering measurements. The RION Spectral
Analyser SA78 used in ATD Structural Engineering may be used to frequencies as low
as 1,0 Hz

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b) Sampling Rate

The sampling rate is the rate at which the analogue measured signal is converted into
digital numbers for computer storage and analysis, or display. In order to obtain good
measurements, the sampling rate must be at least six times the highest frequency of
interest. Thus, if a maximum frequency of 25 Hz is expected, the sampling rate must be
at least 150 Hz, i.e. samples must be read at intervals not exceeding 0,006 seconds.

13.3 Recording Measurements

There are numerous different aspects to be considered when vibration measurements are
made, and these should all be recorded to ensure complete records.

a) Measurements may be RMS or peak-to-peak.

b) Acceleration, velocity, or displacement may be measured and recorded.
c) The filter may be set at various frequencies.
d) Measurements may be taken in any one of three different directions.
e) The key frequencies in any measurement should always be noted.

A sample measurement sheet is shown in Table 12.4.

13.4 Relating Measured Displacements to Implied Stresses

An important aspect of interpretation of measurements is to know what stresses are implied

by measured displacements. A simple, conservative method (i.e. a method giving a high
estimate of the implied stress) is to ignore the damping, giving the same relationship between
displacement and stress as for static load. This gives the equations in Table 13.1 to obtain
the stress σ (N/m2) for beams, in Table 13.2 to obtain the stress for portal columns (i.e. where
bracing is not used), and Table 13.3 to obtain the stress for slabs.

Table 13.1: Conversion from Measured Deflection to Implied Stress for Beams

Simply Supported Fixed Ended Beam

Beam Centre of Beam End of Beam
Beam with High 6Ed S Δ V 12Ed S Δ V 12Ed S Δ V
Central Mass σ= 2
σ= 2
σ=
L L L2
Beam with Uniformly 4,8Ed S Δ V 8Ed S Δ V 16Ed S Δ V
Distributed Mass σ= σ= σ=
L2 L2 L2

Table 13.2: Conversion from Measured Deflection to Implied Stress for Portal Columns

Fixed one end, pinned other end Fixed both ends

3Ed S Δ H 3Ed S Δ H
σ= σ=
2L 2
L2

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Table 13.3: Conversion from Measured Deflection to Implied Stress for Slabs

Simply Supported Fixed Edge Slab

Slab Centre of Slab End of Slab
Slab with High 6EdS Δ 12Ed S Δ 12Ed S Δ
Central Mass σ= 2
σ= 2
σ=
L L L2
Slab with Uniformly 4,8Ed S Δ 8Ed S Δ 16Ed S Δ
Distributed Mass σ= σ= σ=
L2 L2 L2

In Tables 13.1 to 13.3:

dS is the depth of the beam, portal column, or slab on which the measurements are taken (m)

E is the elastic modulus of the material of which the beam is made (N/m2)

L is the length of the beam on which the measurements are taken (m)

ΔH is the measured horizontal deflection at the top of the portal column (m)

ΔV is the measured vertical deflection at the centre of the beam (m).

13.5 Baseline Vibration Measurement Guide

From time-to-time it is necessary to obtain “baseline vibration measurements”, by which is

meant ambient vibration measurements on an existing structure, for later comparison with
other vibration measurement data. The most common reason for wanting to obtain baseline
vibration measurements is to define a contractual baseline against which vibration can be
checked following commissioning of a new building, or modification of an existing building.

13.5.1 Baseline Measurements

a) The first consideration when planning baseline measurements is what measurements

are necessary. The fundamental requirements are the vibration magnitudes and the
major frequencies.
1. Vibration Magnitudes
Baseline measurements will typically be accelerations, unless there is a specific
Client request, or some other good reason, for using another parameter.
Vibration magnitudes may be described by peak values, or averaged values
(usually RMS values are used for averaging), or both. Consideration must be
given to the time-varying nature of the vibration in defining the most appropriate
way to describe the vibration magnitude.
2. Frequencies
Human sensitivity to vibration, and the sensitivity of equipment to vibration, tends
to be frequency-dependent. It is thus necessary to include frequencies in
baseline measurements.

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b) The second consideration when planning baseline measurements is where, and in

which direction, measurements should be taken. This is dependent on the reason for
requiring the vibration baseline measurements. If they are required because a machine
is to be replaced, and vibrations due to the new machine are to be checked against
vibrations caused by the existing machine, then measurements should clearly be taken
on the closest structural members that will remain in place. However, if it is desired to
ensure that vibrations in the vicinity of sensitive equipment of office areas do not
increase, then the measurements should clearly concentrate on these areas.
c) When baseline measurements are taken, it is important that the actual conditions must
be recorded. This must include:
1. What vibrating equipment is operating, and what equipment is standing.
2. The throughput in the equipment that is operating.
3. Other ambient conditions, such as the extent of spillage on floors and adhering to
the inside of chutes.

A typical form that can be used for recording vibration baseline measurements is shown in
Table 13.4.

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Table 13.4: Typical From for Recording Vibration Measurements or Baseline Measurements

Mine
Area
Anglo Technical Division
Building Date
Measuring device Filter setting
Sampling speed Other
Machines running
Throughput
Sketch of Structure

Measurement Frequency P-P Accelerations (m/s2) RMS Accelerations (m/s2)

location (Hz) X Y Z X Y Z

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13.5.2 What Baseline Measurements Can and Can’t Do

a) What they can do

1. Define ambient existing vibration under actual existing conditions and at specified
locations.
2. Provide a comparative baseline against which other vibrations can later be
evaluated or compared.
3. Be used to give a good indication of whether existing vibration is within
serviceability and strength limits for the structure.
b) What they cannot do
1. Define worst case vibrations under operational conditions not existing when
measurements are taken.
2. Predict the structural behaviour under new equipment running at different
frequencies to existing equipment.
3. Predict the structural response at locations other than where measurements are
actually taken.

14 TROUBLE SHOOTING AND STRUCTURAL

14.1 Interpreting and Using Measurements

a) Implication of Frequencies
The following information can generally be obtained from the measured frequencies:
1. Frequencies equal to the operational speed of equipment, identify that equipment
as the source of the vibration, because structural vibration will always be at the
exciting frequency.
2. Frequencies much higher than the operating speed of equipment may indicate
misalignment or other problems with gearboxes, motors, or tooth meshing of ring
gears.
3. If the vibration loading has a significant impact component, then measured
frequencies are likely to show natural frequencies of the structure.
b) Implication of Amplitudes

The amplitudes, together with the frequencies, enables assessment of the structural
integrity by checking whether serviceability, strength or fatigue life limits are exceeded.

14.2 Changes to Applied Loads

Experience shows that vibration problems may result from modifications which lead to
changes in the applied vibration loads. Typical examples of this are the following:

a) Setting of the eccentric masses on vibration screens or vibratory feeders may be

changed in an effort to increase production throughput. This leads to a proportional
increase in the applied vibration loads.

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b) Steel coil springs often have only a fairly short operational life. Frequent replacements
may cause Site personnel to replace coil springs with rubber blocks, which generally
have a significantly longer life. What may not be realised, is that rubber blocks are
much stiffer than steel coil springs, particularly in the vertical direction. See Section 5.2.
This means that significantly higher excitation is required to obtain the specified throw of
the screen or feeder, leading to significantly higher loads being applied to the structure.
These loads may be as much as five times higher than where steel coil springs are
used.

Where structural vibration results from changes to the applied loads, it is often possible to
simply, and very easily, revert to the original conditions. Where this is not possible, a re-
design of the structure using the new loads is necessary, leading to structural modifications.
14.3 Structural Modifications

Where a structural vibration problem is identified, the preferable solution is generally to

increase the stiffness of relevant structural members. If the structure is already high tuned,
this is the only rational solution, and is probably fairly easily achieved. Where the structure is
initially low tuned, increasing the stiffness may worsen the problem, as it will move the
structure closer to resonance. Extra mass may be added, but this impacts negatively on the
static design of the structure. A large increase in stiffness to change the structure to a high
tuned structure may be possible, but this is likely to involve major structural modifications.
This is a much more difficult problem than the high tuned structure, and it may require a
combination of extra mass and extra stiffness.

Warning: Careful analysis and thought must go into modifications to solve vibration
problems in low tuned structures.

14.4 Common Concerns of Site Personnel

Experience has shown that there are some common concerns expressed by Site Personnel.
These include:

a) Beat phenomenon. This occurs in every installation where separate pieces of

equipment having similar operating speeds are located close together. The most
common example of this is where a number of parallel process streams are used,
requiring several nominally identical screens, feeders, or other vibrating equipment next
to each other. Although the equipment runs at nominally the same speed, unless there
is electrical or mechanical coupling, there is always a small difference in speed. This
leads to two pieces of equipment running in phase for a short while with a reinforcing
effect on resulting vibration, then running out of phase for a while with a destructive
effect on resulting vibration. This is shown in the vibrations in Figure 14.1, which shows
the interaction of two machines which nominally run at 16 Hz, but where one runs 2½ %
fast, and the other runs 2½ % slow.
b) Rattling, or large amplitude vibration of light fittings, sheeting, or other finishes. It is
impossible to model all of these minor elements in a structural vibration model. Each
case must be treated on its own merits. It may be possible to easily move the fitting to a
less sensitive location. Local stiffening may be possible. Insertion of rubber isolation
mounts may solve the problem.

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15,6 Hz vibration

1.5
1
Amplitude 1

0.5
0
-0.5 0 5 10 15 20

-1
-1.5
Time (seconds)

16,4 Hz vibration

1.5
1
Amplitude 2

0.5
0
-0.5 0 5 10 15 20

-1
-1.5
Time (seconds)

2.5
2
Combined amplitude (1+2)

1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5 0 5 10 15 20
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
Time (seconds)

Figure 14.1: Vibration Histories showing the Beat Phenomenon

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APPENDIX A: REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

AA_BPG_000S0200, Guideline for the Vibration Design of Structures

BS 5000-3 : “Rotating Electrical Machines. Part 3. Resistance to Vibration”.

BS 7854 : “Limits for Rotating Equipment”.
EN 1299 : “Mechanical Vibration and Shock. Vibration Isolation”.
EN 60034 : “Rotating Electrical Machines”.
ISO 2631-1:1985 : “Mechanical Vibration and Shock – Evaluation of Human exposure to
whole-body Vibration. Part 1: General Requirements.”
ISO 2954 : “Mechanical vibration in Rotating Machinery. Requirements for
Instruments”.
ISO 5348 : “Mechanical Vibration and Shock”.
ISO 8528 : “Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines”.
ISO 13373 : “Condition Monitoring. Vibration”.
ISO 14695 : “Fan Vibration”.
SANS ISO 4866:1990 : “Mechanical Vibration and Shock – Vibration of Buildings – Guidelines
for the Measurement of Vibrations and Evaluation of their effects on
Buildings.” First Edition 1999.
SANS ISO 2631-1:1997 : “Mechanical Vibration and Shock – Evaluation of Human exposure to
whole-body Vibration. Part 1: General Requirements.” First Edition
1997.
AA 114001 : “Design of Steel Structures.”
Barkan DD “Dynamics of Bases and Foundations”, McGraw-Hill, 1962.
Irish K and Walker WP “Foundations for Reciprocating Machines”, Concrete Publications Limited,
London, 1969.
Paz M “Structural Dynamics. Theory & Computation”, Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Szilard R “Theory and Analysis of Plates. Classical and Numerical Methods”. Prentice Hall.
Warburton GB “The Dynamical Behaviour of Structures”, Pergamon International Library
Sen GS “Blasting Vibration and Structural Damage”, Civil Engineering, September 1981, pgs 42-44.
Report RAB/83/02 "Dynamic Stiffness Tests on Velmet Screen Support Springs: Vertical Stiffness",
21 July 1983.
Report 2005-S-25 “Anglo, Base – Skorpion Mine. Leach and Neutralisation Tank Agitator Support”,
26 December 2005.

APPENDIX B: RECORD OF AMENDMENTS

Issue 0 : New document (Dr G Krige, July 2011)

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