RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION

(COURSE CODE: 8604)

ASSIGNMENT # 1

By

MUHAMMAD BILAL ASHRAF

Student ID: 0000043425

B.Ed 1.5 year

Semester Autumn 2021

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 Assignment No.1

Question No.1

Describe the different sources of knowledge and mention their use in daily life
which one is more authentic in your opinion and why?

Answer:

Meaning of Knowledge:

Knowledge is familiarity or awareness, of something or someone's abilities (procedural

knowledge), or objects (acquaintance knowledge), that contribute to one's understanding.
Knowledge is acquired by many things such as perception, memory, surroundings, reasoning,
education, and practice. The study of knowledge is called Epistemology.

Epistemology:

The word Epistemology is derived from the Greek word “Episteme” meaning Knowledge and
“logos” meaning the derivation from science. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that solves
fundamental problems such as the origin of knowledge and the fundamental of knowledge.

Definitions of knowledge:

According to the Plato theories, of knowledge there are three different definitions of knowledge:

1. Knowledge is Perception or sensation

2. Knowledge is true belief
3. Knowledge is true belief accompanied by a rational ground

Sources of Knowledge

Different sources of knowledge were used in daily life:

1. Experience
2. Authority
3. Inductive Reasoning

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 4. Deductive Reasoning
5. Scientific Approach

1. Experience:

Experience is a well-known and widely used source of information. Many of the questions you
have can be answered via personal experience. Much of the knowledge passed down through the
generations is based on personal experience. Progress would be drastically slowed if individuals
were unable to benefit from their experiences. In reality, one of the most important characteristics
of intelligent conduct is the ability to learn from experience.

As a source of knowledge, experience has limitations. The way an experience affects you is
determined by who you are. In the same situation, two people will have different experiences. A
forest that is a peaceful heaven for one person may be a dangerous wilderness for another.

If one supervisor focused on and reported on the things that went right while the other focused on
and reported on the things that went wrong, two supervisors monitoring the same classroom at the
same time may genuinely produce quite different reports.

Another disadvantage of experience is that you frequently need to know things that you cannot
learn from experience.

2. Authority:

People typically seek knowledge from an authority for topics that are difficult or impossible to
learn from personal experience; that is, they seek knowledge from someone who has dealt with the
subject or has some other source of expertise. The word of acknowledged authority is taken as
gospel.

When we have health-related questions, we go to a doctor, and when we have investment-related

questions, we go to a stockbroker. In a dictionary, a learner can check up the acceptable
pronunciation of a term. When a new teacher seeks advice from an experienced teacher, he or she
may decide to pursue a certain method for teaching reading because the experienced teacher
believes it is effective.

Authority is a convenient and quick source of information. However, as a source of information,

the authority has flaws that must be considered. To begin with, authorities can be mistaken. People

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frequently claim to be experts in an area when they lack the necessary expertise to support their
claims. Second, experts may disagree on problems, suggesting that their authoritative remarks are
often more personal opinions than reality.

3. Deductive Reasoning:

Perhaps the first significant contribution to the establishment of a systematic strategy to attaining
information was provided by ancient Greek philosophers. Deductive reasoning, as defined by
Aristotle and his followers, is a thought process in which one progresses from general to specific
knowledge through logical argument. An argument is made up of a series of claims that are related
to one another. The conclusion is the last assertion, and the others referred to as premises, provide
supporting evidence.

Syllogism is a common type of logical reasoning. A syllogism is made up of a main and minor
premise, as well as a conclusion. For example, “All men are mortal” (major premise); “A king is
a man” (minor premise); “Therefore, the king is mortal” (conclusion). In deductive reasoning, if
the premises are true, the conclusion is necessarily true.

Deductive reasoning has its limitations. To arrive to true conclusions, you must begin with true
premises. A syllogism's conclusion can never be more than the sum of its premises. Because
deductive conclusions must be based on prior knowledge, scientific inquiry cannot be conducted
solely based on deductive reasoning because it is difficult to establish the universal truth of many
statements relating to scientific phenomena.

Figure 1.1

4. Inductive Reasoning:

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Inductive reasoning is also a major source of knowledge. Note that deductive reasoning requires
you to know the premises before you can conclude, but inductive reasoning requires you to observe
examples and generalize from them to the entire class or category. The investigator must observe
all examples to be certain of an inductive conclusion.

Figure 1.2

5. Scientific Approach:

When induction was used exclusively, it frequently resulted in the amassing of isolated knowledge
and information that contributed little to the growth of knowledge. Furthermore, many problems
could not be addressed just through induction. Scholars began to combine the most significant
parts of the inductive and deductive processes into a new technique known as the inductive –
deductive method, or scientific approach, in the nineteenth century. In contrast to inductive
reasoning, this method employs hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement that describes the
relationships between variables and is presumed to be true. It identifies the observations that must
be made to answer a question.

Figure 1.3

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Conclusion:

In my opinion, we used all above discussed sources of knowledge but the most authentic source
of knowledge is the scientific approach. Because at some point in our life we didn't have enough
experiences and the only method to solve the problem in the right way is the scientific approach
where we can make the different hypotheses. We can also select the source of knowledge after
analyzing the problem.

Question No.2

Differentiate different types of research based on their purpose explaining their

use in life?

Answer:

Research & its Meaning:

Research is the never-ending pursuit of knowledge or the never-ending search for truth. It adds to
the existing body of knowledge by bringing new knowledge to light or correcting earlier errors
and misconceptions. Research-based knowledge is scientific and objective, and it is based on
rational thought, common sense, and experience.

“It is defined by dictionaries as a deliberate search or inquiry, an attempt to uncover new

ideas through scientific study a critical examination course.”

Purpose of Research:

Research has proven to be a vital and effective instrument in propelling mankind forward. There
would have been very little development without systematic research and its implementation. All
noteworthy research leads to advancement in one or more areas of life. New ways of doing things
appear now and then in our lives. All of these things, and many more, are the results of our research
efforts. In our troubles, research shows us the path. It opens up new possibilities and gives us
greater options. Cure for diseases previously thought to be incurable, machines capable of
replacing man, the green revolution, river taming, sophisticated methods and techniques for every

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profession, scientific understanding of human behavior, knowledge explosion, and so on are all
examples of the benefits of research.

Types of Research

The many approaches used to conduct research are referred to as research types. Different styles
of research are better suited for different studies based on study goals, deadlines, and purposes.
The first step in research design is to figure out what you want to explore and what your objectives
are.

Figure 2.1

Basic research applied research, and action research is the three types of educational research. The
aims of basic and applied research distinguish them. The primary goal of basic research is to
expand knowledge, whereas the goal of applied research is to solve a specific, immediate problem.

Fundamental/ Basic Research

Fundamental/pure research is another term for this type of study. It establishes broad
generalizations, principles, and educational conceptions. It leads to the discovery of useful
concepts like motivation, reinforcement, and concept development, among others. It is
unconcerned with everyday issues.

 Characteristics of Basic Research

1. Its goal is to establish educational theories and principles that may be applied to a large
number of people.

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 2. It necessitates competent instruction.
3. It employs a variety of ways to identify the research problem.
4. The development of highly specific hypotheses.
5. It necessitates meticulous attention to ensure that errors are kept to a minimum.
6. It necessitates a thorough data analysis.
7. Generally, generalizations are limited to books and research reports.

Figure 2.2

Applied Research

Functional research is another name for this type of study. Education, like medicine, is a science
that is applied. Applied research does not try to solve the practical difficulties that teachers,
educational planners, administrators, curriculum specialists, and other professionals encounter.
Applied research is concerned with issues that have a practical application. Basic research is more
laborious than applied research.

Both the classroom instructor and the research specialist are involved in applied research. The
following is a comparison between applied and basic research:

It is believed that research should be given a practical orientation in a country with limited
resources. Research that does not appear to be relevant to the solving of real problems is regarded

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as a waste of time. The opposing viewpoint states that the extent to which applied research can be
conducted is limited in the absence of good analytical principles. Not only would a lack of
conceptual refinement impede analysis and limit methodological sophistication, but it will also
lead to a limited understanding of cause and effect linkages.

Differentiation between different types of research

Descriptive Vs. Analytical Research

Descriptive research includes a variety of surveys and fact-finding questions. The main reason for
conducting descriptive research is to describe the current state of circumstances. Ex post facto
research is a word used in social science and business research to describe descriptive research
findings. The main feature of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables;
he can only report on what has occurred or is currently occurring.

Survey methods of all kinds are used in descriptive research. Comparative and co-relational
approaches are included. Analytical research, on the other hand, makes use of facts or information
that is already available. He assesses and examines the content critically.

Quantitative Vs Qualitative

The term "quantitative research" is well-known. It is the act of determining the quantity or amount
of something. It applies to anything that can be measured in terms of quantity. Qualitative research
simply means high-quality research. Qualitative research is anything that has to do with or involves
quality or kind. When we look into the reasons for human conduct, for example. In-depth
interviews are used in this form of research to uncover underlying intentions and goals. Sentence
completion exams, word association tests, and story completion tests are examples of other
research approaches.

Qualitative research can also include things like attitude or opinion research. Other instances
include people's attitudes about a specific institution.

Qualitative research plays an essential role in behavioral science. The goal of this type of research
is to figure out what drives human behavior. We can examine the factors that influence behavior
through these studies. This will also assist in motivating people to act appropriately.

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Generative Vs. Expolaratory Research

This is the study you conduct before you have a clear idea of what you're doing. This research
generates ideas and aids in the identification of the problem. Don't dismiss this as a preliminary
study. You can be looking for ideas even if you're working on a present product or service. You
require other feature suggestions. Interviews, analyzing existing literature, and field observation
are all examples of generative research.

As the name implies, an exploratory research aims to elucidate the research issues. Giving decisive
or final remedies to current problems does not make sense. Exploratory research is undertaken to
learn more about a topic that has yet to be solved.

Conceptual Vs. Empirical Research

The conceptual study is concerned with abstract concepts or theories. It is mostly utilized by
philosophers and thinkers to construct new concepts or reinterpret old ones. An empirical study,
on the other hand, relies solely on experience or observation, typically without concern for system
or theory.

It can also be referred to as an experimental sort of study; in such research, it is required to obtain
the facts first, at their source, and to actively set about doing particular things to induce the
generation of desired information. In such a study, the researcher must first formulate a working
hypothesis or educated guess as to the likely outcomes. He next sets out to gather enough evidence
(data) to support or refute his idea. He then creates experimental designs that he believes will
manipulate the people or materials involved to obtain the needed knowledge.

Table 2.1

Descriptive Research Analytical Research

In descriptive research, you do before you Analytical research never gives you the final
know what you’re doing. This research leads answers to your research questions. But it
to ideas and helps in defining the problem explores the research topic on different levels

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 Applied Research Fundamental Research

Applied research works by finding a solution Fundamental research is concerned with the
for an immediate problem. These problems are formulation of a theory. It is an add-on to the
faced by society or by industry already existing scientific knowledge.

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

This research is the measurement of quantity. This research is based on quality. Something
It applies to the things which can be measured related to the quality or kind. For example
in terms of quantity. when we investigate human behavior.

Conceptual Research Empirical Research

It is related to some abstract ideas or theories. This research relies on experiences and
It is generally used by philosophers and observation alone. It is data-based research.
thinkers to develop new concepts

Conclusion:

The most prevalent sort of research approach is explanatory research, which is responsible for
identifying cause-and-effect linkages that allow generalizations to be applied to similar situations.
This applied research is also used in daily life to solve our problems because the modern problem
acquired the practical and applicable research methods.

Question No.3

Discuss different designs of experimental research and their use in education

for improvement?
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Answer:

Experimental research is a study that uses two sets of variables and is conducted scientifically. The
first set serves as a constant against which the differences in the second set are measured.
Quantitative research approaches, for instance, are exploratory. Experimentation has proven to be
a vital and effective tool in propelling mankind forward. Without systematic experimentation,
there must have been very little advancement as we know it today.

Experimental Research in Education

All experiments strive for growth and a better quality of life. As effective education is increasingly
acknowledged as the foundation for optimal personal and social progress, the necessity for
educational experimentation to improve educational policies and practices is becoming more
apparent. Educationists are always looking for more effective teaching methods, more acceptable
evaluation processes, more various learning resources, and more effective administration systems.

We can conduct Experimentation research in various conditions:

1. When it comes to establishing a cause-and-effect link, time is crucial.

2. Cause and effect have a consistent pattern of action.

3. We want to comprehend the significance of cause and effect.

Types of Experimental Research Design

 Pre-Experimental research design

 True- Experimental research design
 Quasi-Experimental research design

Pre-Experimental Research design

After adopting cause and effect factors, a group, or several groups, are placed under watch. You'll
perform this inquiry to see if additional research is required for these specific groups.

This design is also broken down into 3 types:

1. One-shot Case Study Research Design

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 2. One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
3. Static-group Comparison

1. One-shot case study design

A single group is studied at a single point in time after some treatment that is presumed to have
caused the change. The carefully studied single instance is compared to general expectations of
what the case would have looked like had the treatment not occurred and to other events casually
observed. No control or comparison group is employed.

 This design practices the treatment of a single group.

 It only takes a single measurement after the experiment.
 One-shot case study design only analyses post-test results.

2. One-group pretest-posttest design

A single case is observed at two-time points, one before the treatment and one after the treatment.
Changes in the outcome of interest are presumed to be the result of the intervention or treatment.
No control or comparison group is employed.

 Like the previous one, this design also works on just one experimental group.
 But this one takes two measures into account.
 A pre-test and a post-test are conducted.

3. Static-group comparison

A group that has experienced some treatment is compared with one that has not. Observed
differences between the two groups are assumed to be a result of the treatment.

 This compares two experimental groups.

 One group is exposed to the treatment.
 The other group is not exposed to the treatment.
 The difference between the two groups is the result of the experiment.

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Validity of Results

An important drawback of pre-experimental designs is that they are subject to numerous threats to
their validity. Consequently, it is often difficult or impossible to dismiss rival hypotheses or
explanations. Therefore, researchers must exercise extreme caution in interpreting and
generalizing the results from pre-experimental studies.

One reason that it is often difficult to assess the validity of studies that employ a pre-experimental
design is that they often do not include any control or comparison group. Without something to
compare it to, it is difficult to assess the significance of an observed change in the case. The change
could be the result of historical changes unrelated to the treatment, the maturation of the subject,
or an artifact of the testing.

True-Experimental Research Design

True experimental research relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making
it the most accurate form of research. Of the types of experimental design, only true design can
establish a cause-effect relationship within a group.

Various factors need to be satisfied in true-experimental research design:

 There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an Experimental Group,
which will experience the changed variables.
 A variable that can be manipulated by the researcher
 Random distribution

Quasi-Experimental Research Design

The term "quasi" denotes a close resemblance. A quasi-experimental design is related to, but not
identical to, an experimental design. The distribution of a control group is the distinction between
the two. Although an independent variable is modified in this study, the individuals of a group are
not assigned at random. In situations where random allocation is either unnecessary or not
required, quasi-research is applied.

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 Figure 3.1

Use Of Experimental Research For The Improvement In Education

In education research, the use of quasi-experimental research designs has increased dramatically
during the last few decades.

Main Use Of Experimental Research In Education

 Using outcome measures to determine and evaluate the sufficiency and efficacy of
educational goals and objectives.
 Serving as a foundation for the development, implementation, and revision of educational
policies and legislation
 Identifying the impact of any changes to standard educational procedures and policies.

Question No.4

What are historical sources? Keeping in mind them, Discuss historical criticism
in detail?

Answer
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What is History?

History is a valuable record of man's accomplishments; it is more than a list of chronological

events; it is a true and comprehensive account of the relationships that exist between people,
events, times, and places. Man utilizes history to learn about the past and to try to comprehend it
in light of previous occurrences.

“History, according to Travers, is more than merely a re-creation of the past. It must show
a spirit of critical inquiry aimed at accurately portraying historical events.”

Historical Research

“Historical research is a strategy that is used to gather information qualitatively. The historical
study looks at the meaning of previous events to analyze the facts and explain what happened and
how it influenced current events.”

Historical Sources

There are the following sources used for the historical research:

First Classification

The first classification of historical sources based on the Primary and secondary sources

Primary Sources

 Eyewitness accounts of events

 Can be oral or written testimony
 Found in public records & legal documents, minutes of meetings, corporate records,
recordings, letters, diaries, journals, drawings.
 Located in university archives, libraries, or privately-run collections such as local historical
society.

Secondary Sources

 Can be oral or written

 Secondhand accounts of events

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  Found in textbooks, encyclopedias, journal articles, newspapers, biographies, and other
media such as films or tape recordings.

Figure 4.1

Second Classification

Another category of historical sources is documents and remains or relics, as well as the records
preserved and recorded by real participants in or eyewitnesses to an event. These sources are
created to transfer information for future use.

Documents

Documents are reports of occurrences that are made up of impressions left on a person's brain by
past experiences and are consciously or unconsciously recorded for the goal of communicating
information. Documents such as an adjudging's opinion, minutes prepared by the Secretary of a
Board of Education, a Superintendent's annual report, the Director's report of a school survey, a
college catalog prepared by a Dean, or a course of study developed by the Chairman of a particular
curriculum committee illustrate the observer's eye witness impression of the event. The various
types of documents used as historical sources:

1. Legislative acts
2. Different court decision
3. Minutes of Board of education

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 4. Reports and decision
5. Proceeding of University staff
6. Reports of schools survey
7. Articles
8. Prospectus
9. Annual reports of schools
10. Autobiographies
11. Letters, Lecture notes

Remains

Physical things created without the conscious goal of transmitting related knowledge are referred
to as relics. Through documentary sources, one can observe not only what happened in the past,
but also what the observer thought about the deed. The original things as handed from the past can
be seen in remains and relics. Unconsciously, man sometimes discloses more of the truth through
these tangible artifacts or remains than through paperwork he consciously records. In a nutshell,
relics or remains are linked to a person, a group, or a period.

1. School buildings
2. Photographs of buildings, teachers, children
3. Diplomas, attendance, and certificates
4. Textbooks, manuscripts

Historical Criticism

“Historical criticism, also known as the historical-critical method or higher criticism, is a

branch of criticism that investigates the origins of ancient texts to understand "the world
behind the text".

Historical critique originated in the seventeenth century and acquired widespread acceptance in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Because its approach to biblical studies was free of the
influence of traditional interpretation, the early historical critic's perspective was founded in
Protestant Reformation ideology. Historical critique relied on philosophical and scientific
interpretation when the historical study was not possible. Source criticism, form criticism,
redaction criticism, tradition criticism, canonical criticism, and related methodologies were refined

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with each passing century into the multiple techniques used today: source criticism, form criticism,
redaction criticism, culture criticism, canonical criticism, and related methodologies.

What is the goal of Historical Criticism?

Historical criticism seeks a greater understanding of biblical texts by analyzing the historical and
social contexts in which they developed. The goal of historical criticism, traditionally, has been
to try to understand the text’s meaning in its original context and to answer questions about the
text, such as:

* Who wrote it?

* When was it written?
* What else what happening at the time of its writing?
* How did it come to be in the form we have it today?
* What did it mean to the people who first read or heard it?

History of Historical Criticism

Historical criticism has roots in both the Protestant Reformation and the European
Enlightenment. Before this era, there was a tradition of reading biblical texts allegorically: every
part of the story was symbolic. For some texts in the Bible, this was certainly the case like the
parables of Jesus, where a lost sheep was symbolic of a sinner whom God was seeking. Allegorical
readers, however, insisted on this kind of symbolism in all stories suggesting, for example, that
the two coins that the Samaritan gives to the innkeeper in Luke 15 stood for the two sacraments of
baptism and communion. The Protestant Reformation brought back attention to the literal or
“plain” meaning of the text, aided by new tools for and interest in studying the Bible in its original
languages.

External Criticism

External criticism focuses on the document's authenticity, or whether it is what it appears to be and
reads exactly like the original. This criticism confirms the data's validity and attempts to determine
whether a record or artifact is genuine rather than a counterfeit. The historian uses external
criticism to assess whether the source material is real, authentic, or textually intact and whether it
is what it looks or claims to be, to establish whether it is accepted as evidence.

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Internal Criticism

Internal criticism examines the meaning and reliability of statements included inside the document;
in other words, it evaluates the document's evidence to the truth. After a historical document or
relic's authenticity (external critique) has been proved, determining its correctness or worth
remains a challenge.

Historical Criticism Today

While scholars have used the historical-critical method for over two centuries, it has recently come
under fire from postmodern thinkers, particularly feminism, womanist, queer, liberationist, and
Latino/Latina scholars. The historical-critical method's ostensible historical and scholarly
objectivity has been called into question by these researchers. In other words, some scholars
question whether the historical-critical method can objectively restore the text's "original"
meaning.

Question No.5

Write a note on the following

a) Survey Studies b) Interrelationship studies

Answer

a) Survey Studies

What is Survey?

This means that researchers conducting surveys to resolve issues in educational institutions collect
extensive descriptions of existent phenomena to use the data to explain current conditions and
practices or to develop strategies to improve them. Their goal could be to determine status as well
as the appropriateness of comparing it to specified or set standards.

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The survey studies gather information from a large number of cases over some time. These are not
concerned with individual traits, but rather with making broad generalizations based on data
acquired from a lot of instances.

The phrases "survey" and "questionnaire" are frequently interchanged as though they are
interchangeable. But, properly speaking, a survey is a research method in which a sample of
individuals' opinions are collected and assessed for specific elements of the population sample that
they represent. A questionnaire, on the other hand, is one of the data gathering methods used
throughout the survey approach, in which individuals are asked to answer a set of questions.

Criteria for the Survey Studies

a) The study report usually takes a specific shape, with special emphasis on defining the technique,
sources, population, trait under investigation, and other relevant methodological or technical
aspects.

b) It's likely that original observations are made.

b) Each step in the work is carried out with precise attention to detail and with proper regard for
the overall plan and aim of the project. The information is double-checked and analyzed.

Types of Survey Studies

Depending on the intended aim and approach, many types of survey study designs exist. There are
various design alternatives within a given type of survey design in terms of time duration,
respondents group, variable choice, extracting information, and analysis method.

Exploratory Survey

These investigations are meant to study and comprehend a certain issue or topic area without
having any preconceived preconceptions about the expected outcomes.

Descriptive Survey

Descriptive research is a quantitative research strategy for learning more about a phenomenon in
depth. Descriptive Research is used by researchers in a variety of fields to precisely define a
population, market, or circumstance.

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Descriptive Survey Research is a type of descriptive research that combines quantitative and
qualitative data to give you reliable and relevant facts. Descriptive Survey Design is a time-saving
research strategy that involves the individuals who are at the core of the research goal.

School Survey

School surveys were started at the beginning of this century by educationists in the United States.
School survey covers the following aspects of the school system:

 Aims, outcomes, pupil achievement curriculum, method, and instructional aids.

 Administrative problems and procedures of the school.
 Financial policies
 Staff and personnel
 Pupil transportation
 School plant

The data for a school survey is collected through observations, questionnaires, interviews,
standardized tests scorecards, rating scales, and other data gathering techniques.

Community Survey

The educational sector and the community have a tight interaction. Educators frequently collect
information about the local environment and specific aspects of life within it. They occasionally
collaborate with social scientists on fact-finding projects called community surveys. These are
sometimes known as social polls or field studies. These polls are intertwined with school polls.
They may collect data on schools, or they may analyze numerous areas of the community through
school surveys.

b) Interrelationship Studies

Educators collect information to obtain an accurate description of the current status while also
attempting to trace interrelationships between facts to gain a better understanding of the
phenomenon. This form of descriptive study, according to Van Dalen, includes three categories of
investigations:

i) Case studies

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ii) Casual Comparative studies
iii) Correlation Studies.

Case Study

When the emphasis of attention is put toward a single instance or a small group of cases, the
process becomes personalized, and such studies are classified as Case Study descriptive research.
Any somewhat extensive description and examination of a single individual, event, institution, or
community are included in this study.

Purpose of case study in research are:

i..Provides hypotheses to the investigator that would be difficult to test in another setting.

ii. A case study may provide an investigator with a one-of-a-kind circumstance in which to evaluate
hypotheses:

iii. the case study may bring new insights, assist in the modification of existing views, and reveal
knowledge gaps

iv. the study may be valuable in illustrating how a conceptual approach can be displayed in a
concrete model.

Casual Comparative Studies

While conducting descriptive research, some researchers want to learn not only what an event is,
and also how and why it occurs. They endeavor to figure out what elements, events, or practices
are associated with the occurrence of the phenomena.

In social sciences, where controlling several factors is problematic, the causal-comparative

technique is used before experimental research.

Correlation Studies

The correlation technique, which aids in determining the extent to which two variables are
associated or the extent to which variations in one element correlate to variations in another, is
occasionally used to describe occurrences. In these types of studies, the investigator does not
change the independent variable; instead, he just observes both the 'independent' and 'dependent'
variables as they occur in natural settings.

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References

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2. Methodology of Research in Education, 2nd ed. New Delhi, Sterling Publishers (Pvt.) Ltd., 1–3)

3. Lazarsfeld, P.F. and Sam D. Sieber Organizing Educational Research; Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall.
1964, 112 pp.
4. Entwistle N. J., The Nature of Educational Research, UK Open University, The Open University Press,
1973.
5. Good Carter, V.: Introduction to Educational Research, New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, the
latest edition.
6. Wiersma, William: Research Methods in Education - An Introduction, New York: Lippincott
Company, 1969.
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