PRACTICAL PHONETICS.

1. What is the Subject Matter of Phonetics?

Phonetics studies speech sounds and their functions. It also studies syllable,
syllable division, stress, the types of stress, intonation, rules of reading and so
on. There are 44 phonemes in English. They are divided into two main
groups: vowels and consonants. There are 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
Speech sounds- are the vocal sounds we use to make up the words of the
English language.
A phoneme- is the smallest sound unit, which is capable to distinguish one
word from another or one grammatical form from another of the same word.
For example: [bæd] – [bæt] [mæn] – [men]
A sound by which a phoneme is realized in speech is called its variant or
allophone. For example: [phɪn] – [spɪn] [let] – [tel]

2. Please explain the difference between Speech sound, Phoneme, Allophone.

Phonetics studies speech sounds and their functions. It also studies syllable,
syllable division, stress, the types of stress, intonation, rules of reading and so
on. There are 44 phonemes in English. They are divided into two main
groups: vowels and consonants. There are 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
Speech sounds- are the vocal sounds we use to make up the words of the
English language.
A phoneme- is the smallest sound unit, which is capable to distinguish one
word from another or one grammatical form from another of the same word.
For example: [bæd] – [bæt] [mæn] – [men]
A sound by which a phoneme is realized in speech is called its variant or
allophone. For example: [phɪn] – [spɪn] [let] – [tel]
3. Please describe the organs of speech. What are the active and passive
organs of speech?
There are three cavities in the speech apparatus: 1. the mouth cavity 2. the
nasal cavity 3. the pharynx cavity.
The organs of speech are: the lungs, the wind-pipe, the larynx, the vocal
cords, the glottis, the back wall of the pharynx, the soft palate with the uvula,
the hard palate, the teeth ridge (alveoli), the teeth, the lips, the tongue: the tip
of the tongue, the blade of the tongue, the front of the tongue, the back of the
tongue, the root of the tongue; the lower jaw, the upper jaw.
Organs of speech can be divided into two groups: active and passive.
Active organs of speech are moveable and take an active part in the
formation of sounds of speech. They are: tongue, lips, the lower jaw, vocal
cords, soft palate with the uvula, the back wall of the pharynx.
Passive organs of speech are fixed and passive in the production of sounds of
speech. They are: the teeth, the teeth ridge (alveoli), the hard palate.

4. How can you explain the work of the organs of speech?

From the lungs the air passes into the wind-pipe. The upper part of the wind
pipe forms the larynx. Inside the larynx there are two vocal cords. When the
vocal cords vibrate we produce voice. When the vocal cords do not vibrate
we produce breath. From the larynx through the glottis the air passes into the
pharynx. When the soft palate is lowered the air passes through the nasal
cavity and we produce nasal sounds, e.g. [m, n, ŋ]. When the soft palate is
raised the air passes through the mouth cavity and we produce oral sounds,
e.g. [i:, u:, t, z, l, j] etc.

5. How can speech sounds be classified?

The sounds of speech are divided into vowels and consonants.
A vowel- is a speech sound in the articulation of which the air passes through
the mouth cavity freely. There are 20 vowels in the English language. They
are subdivided into monophtongs and diphthongs. In the pronunciation of
monophtongs the organs of speech don’t change their position during the
articulation. There are 12 monophtongs in English. [i:, ɪ, e, æ, ɜː, ə, ɔː, u, ɑː,
ʌ, ʊ, ɒ] In the pronunciation of the diphthongs the organs of speech glide
from one vowel position to another. There are 8 diphthongs in English. [eɪ,
ɑɪ, ɔɪ, ɪə, eə, ʊə, ɑʊ, oʊ]
A consonant- is a speech sound in the pronunciation of which an obstruction
is formed in the mouth cavity by the active and passive organs of speech.
There are 24 consonants in English. They are subdivided into noise and
sonorous. Noise consonants are those in the production of which the noise
prevails over the musical tone. There are 17 noise consonants in English.
Noise consonants may be voiced and voiceless. In the production of the
voiced consonants the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate e.g. [b, d,
ɡ, z] etc. In the production of voiceless consonants the vocal cords are kept
apart and do not vibrate, e. g. [p, t, k, s] etc. Sonorous consonants are those in
the production of which the musical tone prevails over the noise. They are:
[m, n, w, r, j, l, ŋ].

6. What are the main differences between English and Azerbaijani vowels?
1. English vowels are divided into monophthongs and diphthongs. But there
are no diphthongs in Azerbaijani literary pronunciation.
2. English vowels are divided into long and short vowels and the length of
vowels is phonemic. In Azerbaijani there are long vowels in some words of
foreign origin.
3. English vowels may be tense and lax, but there is no division of
Azerbaijani vowels according to tenseness.
4. English vowels may be checked and unchecked. (это необязательно)
5. English vowels are more tense in stressed position, and in unstressed
position they become weak, neutral or even may be dropped. But Azerbaijani
vowels do not basically lose their quality in unstressed position.
6. In pronouncing English rounded vowels the lips are slightly protruded. But
for Azerbaijani rounded vowels the lips are much protruded.
7. There are three vowels in English [ɜː, ʌ, ə] which are absent in
Azerbaijani. There is one central vowel [e], and front vowels [ö, ü] in the
Azerbaijani language.
8. English vowels may be front-retracted [ɪ], and back-advanced [ʌ, u].
9. In English there is no vowel harmony so typical for the Azerbaijani
language.
10. In the pronunciation of the English vowels the tongue in the mouth cavity
takes more retracted position, than in corresponding Azerbaijani vowels. But
in the pronunciation of the Azerbaijani vowels the tongue takes more front
position.

7. What are the main differences between English and Azerbaijani

consonants?
1. There are no palatalized consonants in English except [∫, ʒ, t∫, dʒ, l] as in
their articulation the middle part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate, but
the Azerbaijani consonants are palatalized before and after front vowels.
2. The English voiced consonants are weak but they are not fully devoiced at
the end of the words. But the Azerbaijani voiced consonants are fully
devoiced at the end of the words.
3. The English forelingual consonants are apical but the Azerbaijani
forelingual consonants are dorsal.
4. The English sonorants [m, n, l] are very strong and syllabic but the
Azerbaijani sonorants [m, n, 1] are not so strong as to form syllable.
5. The English consonant [r] is cacuminal but the Azerbaijani [r] is rolled.
6. There are interdental consonants [θ, ð] and bilabial [w] in English. But
there are no such consonants in the Azerbaijani language.
7. In Azerbaijani there are such consonants as [k, g, x, ğ] which don't exist in
the English language.
8. There is a third nasal sonorant [ŋ] in English which is absent in Azerbaijani
literary pronunciation.
9. The aspiration of the English voiceless plosives is much stronger than the
Azerbaijani voiceless plosive consonants.
10. In English two, three, four, five even six consonants may follow one
another in a word. e. g. street, sixth, texts, functional, entrants etc. But we
don't have such combinations of consonants in the Azerbaijani words. Not
more than one consonant may occur at the beginning of the Azerbaijani
words. But two consonants may occur at the end of words. In this case the
first consonant is usually constrictive. e.g. örtük, alt, üst, gurd, bərk etc.

8. What are the types of obstruction?

In the articulation of consonants there may be three types of obstruction:
complete, incomplete and moving or momentary. Obstruction is complete
as in the case of [p, b, t, d, k, ɡ, m, n, ŋ] when the passage through the mouth
cavity is blocked. Obstruction is incomplete as in the case of [f, v, s, z, h] etc.
When the passage through the mouth cavity is narrowed. Obstruction is
moving or momentary as in the case of Azerbaijani rolled [r] when the tip of
the tongue makes several quick taps against the alveolar ridge. There is no
momentary obstruction in English.

9. Please explain the syllable and its types.

When we pronounce a word containing more than one vowel it easily falls
into smaller phonetic parts. Such smaller articulatory unit is called syllable.
A syllable consisting of more than one sound contains one which sounds
louder and stronger than the others. This sound is called syllabic. All vowel
sounds are syllabic. Some sonorous sounds are syllabic too. [m, n, ŋ] e. g.
[ˈɡɑːdn]
There are as many syllables in a word as there are syllabic sounds in it.
[ˈmaʊn-tɪn]
So there are two types of syllables: 1) open syllable- which ends in a vowel
sound. [ˈɔː-də] 2) closed syllable- which ends in a consonant sound. [eɪm]
• Long monophtongs and diphthongs may come both in open and closed
syllables.
• Short monophtongs usually come in a closed stressed syllable. They may
also come in open syllable if they are unstressed. [bɪ-ˈɡɪn]
• Stressed syllables are called strong and unstressed are called weak.
• A vowel in a weak syllable tends to be shorter, of lower intensity and
different in quality.

10. How can you characterize syllable division in English?

1. Syllable division is between two consonants if they follow one another in a
word: mountain- [ˈmaʊn-tɪn]
2. Syllable division is between two vowels if they follow one another in a
word: tower- [ˈtaʊ-ə]
3. Syllable division is before a consonant if the preceding vowel is long
vowel or a diphthong: teacher- [ˈtiː-tʃə] writer- [ˈraɪ-tə]
4. Syllable division is after a consonant if the preceding and following
vowels are short: letter- [ˈlet-ə] funny- [ˈfʌn-i]
5. When two similar consonants follow one another in a word the syllable
division is between them: bookcase- [ˈbʊk-keɪs]
6. If a syllabic sonorant is preceded by long monophtong or diphthong the
syllable division is before the consonant: people- [ˈpiː-pl] table- [ˈteɪ-bl]
7. If a syllabic sonorant is preceded by a short vowel the syllable division is
after the consonant and the second syllable is formed by the sonorant itself:
saddle- [ˈsæd-l]
8. If the short monophtong or neutral sound are in unstressed position the
syllable division is right after this vowel: yesterday- [ˈjes-tə-deɪ] capital-
[ˈkæp-ɪ-təl]

11. Please analyze the types of stress.

Stress is the degree of force with which a sound or a syllable may be
pronounced. Not all the syllables in a word are pronounced with the same
degree of energy. Stressed syllables are more distinct and tense, unstressed
syllables are weak and lax. There are different types of stress.
1. If a stressed syllable (or vowel) is pronounced with a greater degree of
energy and tensity of utterance, such kind of stress is called dynamic.
2. If a stressed syllable (or vowel) is pronounced a tone higher than that of
other syllables, such kind of stress is said to be musical or tonic stress.
3. If the stressed syllable (or vowel) becomes longer than the rest of syllables
of the word, such kind of stress is said to be quantitative stress.
4. If a vowel of stressed syllable is clear and tense than the same vowel in
unstressed syllable, such kind of stress is said to be qualitative stress.
English stress is mainly dynamic and all other types of stress play a
secondary role.

12. How can you explain the place of stress in English?

Stress is the degree of force with which a sound or a syllable may be
pronounced. Not all the syllables in a word are pronounced with the same
degree of energy. Stressed syllables are more distinct and tense, unstressed
syllables are weak and lax.
• According to its place stress may be fixed or free. Stress is fixed or definite
if it falls on a certain syllable in all words. Stress in Azerbaijani and French
is fixed as it generally falls on the last syllable of the word.
• Stress is free if it falls on different syllables in different words. Stress in
English and Russian is free.
• Most of the English words having two syllables have stress on the first
syllable: [ˈwʊmən] [ˈentə]
• But if the first syllable is a weak prefix the stress falls on the second
syllable: [bɪˈfɔː] [bɪˈɡɪn]
• Many words consisting of two syllables have stress on the second syllable:
[məˈʃiːn] [rɪˈspekt]. Such words are generally of French origin.

13. Please explain the stress in simple words.

Stress is the degree of force with which a sound or a syllable may be
pronounced. Not all the syllables in a word are pronounced with the same
degree of energy. Stressed syllables are more distinct and tense, unstressed
syllables are weak and lax.
• Simple words are those which don’t contain suffixes or prefixes. In English
simple words consisting of 2 or 3 syllables usually have stress on the first
syllable: [' letə] [ˈdɪfɪkəlt]
• Stress falls on the second syllable if the first syllable is a weak prefix: [bɪ
ˈfɔː] [bɪˈɡɪn]
• Two-syllable words of French origin usually have stress on the second
syllable: [məˈʃiːn] [rɪˈspekt].
14. How can stress be used in compound words?
Stress is the degree of force with which a sound or a syllable may be
pronounced. Not all the syllables in a word are pronounced with the same
degree of energy. Stressed syllables are more distinct and tense, unstressed
syllables are weak and lax.
A compound word is 2 or more words linked together to produce a word with
a new meaning. Compound words are written in different ways: sometimes
compound words are written separately (nail polish), sometimes with a
hyphen (well-mannered), sometimes as one word (railway).
• Compound nouns written as one word have stress on the first element:
['sʌnflaʊə] ['ti:pɒt]
• The second elements of compound nouns written separately have secondary
stress if they become semantically important. ['ti:ˌpɑ:ti] ['neɪl ˌpɒlɪʃ]
• Compound adjectives, adverbs are written with a hyphen. They have 2
stresses: primary stress and secondary stress. Secondary stress falls on the
first element, primary stress falls on the second element. [ˌbæd'tempəd]
[ˌdaʊn'stri:m]
• Compound verbs written with a hyphen are pronounced as compound
adjectives and adverbs: [ˌdaʊn'ɡreɪd]

15. Please explain the relation of suffixes to stress in complex words.

Stress is the degree of force with which a sound or a syllable may be
pronounced. Not all the syllables in a word are pronounced with the same
degree of energy. Stressed syllables are more distinct and tense, unstressed
syllables are weak and lax.
• Complex words are those which consist of suffixes or prefixes. English
words with suffixes may be three kinds:
1. Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves:
“aire”- [ˌmɪljəˈneə]
“esque”- [ˌpɪktʃrˈesk]
2. Suffixes that influence stress in the stem of words:
“ive”- [əbˈdʒektɪv]
“ion”- [pəˈfekʃn]
3. Suffixes that do not affect the placement of stress:
“less”- [ˈendləs]
“ness”- [ˈkaɪndnəs]
• According to their meaning carrying power prefixes may be strong and
weak.
• Complex words with strong prefixes both monosyllabic or disyllabic may
have secondary stress.
• Complex words with weak prefixes carry no stress. [əˈrest]

16. What is a sentence stress in English?

Sentence stress is the relative degree of force given to various words in a
sentence. The more important words in the sentence are: nouns, adjectives,
numerals, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns, principal verbs and
adverbs. When all the words in a sentence are equally important they are all
stressed, e.g. ___________________________________________________
The unstressed words of a sentence are: personal and possessive pronouns,
auxiliary and modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, articles etc.

17. How can you explain intonation?

Intonation- is a complex unity of variations in pitch, sentence stress, tempo,
rhythm and timbre.
• The pitch component of intonation, or melody, is the changes in the pitch
of voice in connected speech.
• Sentence stress or the force component of intonation is the relative degree
of force given to various words in a sentence. " 'Tom has 'just 'bought 'two '
interesting 'English \books.”
• Speech tempo is the relative speed with which sentences and intonation
groups are pronounced in connected speech.
• Speech timbre is a special coloring of voice which shows the speaker's
emotions, pleasure, displeasure sorrow, sadness, joy etc.
• Rhythm is the recurrence of stressed syllables at relatively regular intervals
of time in an intonation group.

18. Please explain the use of Low Falling tone in different types of sentences.

The Low-Falling tone expresses finality, completeness and definiteness. The

falling tones include: the low-fall, the high-fall, the rise-fall. The low-falling
tone is used in statements, exclamations, special questions, in the first part of
tag questions and in the second part of alternative questions.
'ðɪz ɪz maɪ \fæmɪli ||
'oʊpən jɔ: \bʊks ||
'weə du: ju: \ lɪv ||
'ɪz ɪt ə /pen | ɔ:r ə \pensəl ||
ɪt ɪz jɔ: \pen | /ɪznt ɪt ||

19. Please explain the use of Low Rising tone in different types of sentences.
The Rising tones include low-rise, high-rise, fall-rise. The rising tone
express non-finality, incompleteness, hesitation. The low-rising tone is used
in general questions, in the first part of alternative questions, in the second
part of tag questions, in requests.
'ɪz ɪt jɔ: /pen ||
'kʊd ju: pli:z 'oʊpən jɔ: /bʊk ||
'ɪz ɪt ə /pen | ɔ:r ə \pensəl ||
ɪt ɪz jɔ: \pen | /ɪznt ɪt ||

20. Please describe English lingual consonants.

English consonants are classified according to the principles:
I. According to the active organs of speech consonants are divided into:
labial, lingual and pharyngeal.
Lingual consonants maybe forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual.
• Forelingual consonants are articulated by the tip or blade of the tongue.
According to the positions of the tongue forelingual consonants may be:
dorsal, apical, cacuminal.
○ Dorsal sounds are articulated by the blade of the tongue against the upper
teeth or alveoli and the tip of the tongue is passive and lowered. There are no
dorsal sounds in English.
○ Apical sounds are articulated by the sharp tip of the tongue against the
upper teeth or alveoli. [t, d, n, s, z]
○ Cacuminal sounds are articulated by the tip of the tongue which is raised
against the back wall of the alveoli and turns back a little. [r]
• Mediolingual sounds are articulated by the middle part of the tongue
against the hard palate. [j]
• Backlingual sounds are articulated by the back part of the tongue against
the soft palate. [k, ɡ, n]

21. How can you describe English labial and pharyngeal (glottal)
consonants?
English consonants are classified according to the principles:
I. According to the active organs of speech consonants are divided into:
labial, lingual and pharyngeal.
• Labial consonants may be: bilabial [p, b, m, w] and labio-dental. [f, v]
• Pharyngeal sound is formed by the root of the tongue against the back wall
of the pharynx. There is one pharyngeal sound in English and it is often
called glottal too. It is [h].

22. What are main features of English occlusive consonants?

English consonants are classified according to the principles:
II. According to the type of obstruction and the mammer of the production of
noise consonants can be: occlusive, constrictive, occlusive-constrictive,
rolled.
• Occlusive sounds are produced with a complete obstruction. Occlusive
sounds can be: occlusive noise and occlusive sonorants. [p, b, t, d, k, ɡ, m,
n, ŋ]
○ Occlusive noise are called stops as the passage for the air is completely
blocked at the point of articulation and the obstruction is broken with a slight
explosion. They are also called plosives. [p, b, t, d, k, ɡ]
○ Occlusive sonorants are also formed with a complete obstruction but soft
palate is lowered and the air passes through the nasal cavity. They are [m, n,
ŋ].

23. How can constrictive consonants be explained?

English consonants are classified according to the principles:
II. According to the type of obstruction and the mammer of the production of
noise consonants can be: occlusive, constrictive, occlusive-constrictive,
rolled.
• Constrictive consonants are formed with an incomplete obstruction. They
can be: constrictive noise and constrictive sonorants. [f, v, s, z, h, θ, ð, ∫, ʒ,
w, r, j, l]
○ Constrictive noise are also called fricatives as the passage fir the air is
narrowed and the air passes with a noise of friction. [f, v, s, z, h, θ, ð, ∫,ʒ]
○ Constrictive sonorants are also formed with an incomplete obstruction,
but the passage for the air is wide and tone prevails over noise. [w, r, j, l]
• Constrictive sonorants can be: medial and lateral.
○ In the production of medial the air passes through the central part of the
tongue. [w, r, j]
○ But in the production of lateral sonorant the tip of the tongue is pressed
against the alveoli and the air passes along the sides of the tongue. [l]

24. Please explain the difference between occlusive and occlusive-

constrictive consonants.
English consonants are classified according to the principles:
II. According to the type of obstruction and the mammer of the production of
noise consonants can be: occlusive, constrictive, occlusive-constrictive,
rolled.
• Constrictive consonants are formed with an incomplete obstruction. They
can be: constrictive noise and constrictive sonorants. [f, v, s, z, h, θ, ð, ∫,ʒ,
w, r, j, l]
○ Constrictive noise are also called fricatives as the passage fir the air is
narrowed and the air passes with a noise of friction. [f, v, s, z, h, θ, ð, ∫,ʒ]
○ Constrictive sonorants are also formed with an incomplete obstruction,
but the passage for the air is wide and tone prevails over noise. [w, r, j, l]
• Constrictive sonorants can be: medial and lateral.
○ In the production of medial the air passes through the central part of the
tongue. [w, r, j]
○ But in the production of lateral sonorant the tip of the tongue is pressed
against the alveoli and the air passes along the sides of the tongue. [l]
• Occlusive-constrictive consonants are produced with a complete
obstruction which is gradually opened forming a narrow passage for the air.
So occlusive-constrictive sounds begin with an occlusive ends in a
constrictive and blend in one sound. [t∫, dʒ]

25. How are consonants classified according to the work of vocal cords and
the position of soft palate?
English consonants are classified according to the principles:
III. According to the work of the vocal cords consonants may be: voiced and
voiceless. In the production of the voiced consonants the vocal cords are
brought together and vibrate e.g. [b, d, ɡ, z] etc. In the production of
voiceless consonants the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate, e. g.
[p, t, k, s] etc. Voiced are relatively weak or lenis, voiceless strong or fortis.

IV. According to the position of soft palate consonants may be: oral and
nasal.
• When the soft palate is lowered the air passes through the nasal cavity and
we produce nasal sounds, e.g. [m, n, ŋ].
• When the soft palate is raised the air passes through the mouth cavity and
we produce oral sounds, e.g. [p, t, s, z, k, ɡ] etc.

26. What are the main features of front, central and back vowels?
English vowels are classified according to the principles:
II. According to the horizontal position of the tongue vowels may be: front,
front-retracted, central, back, back-advanced.
• For front vowels the front part of the tongue is raised in the direction of the
hard palate. [i:, e, æ]
• Front-retracted vowels are formed as front sounds but the front part of the
tongue is somewhat retracted. [ɪ]
• For central the central part of the tongue is raised to the junction between
the hard and soft palate. [ə:, ə, ʌ ]
• For back vowels the back part of the tongue is raised in the direction of the
soft palate. [ɑː, ɔ:, ɔ, u:]
• Back-advanced are formed almost as back, but the back part of the tongue
is slightly advanced. [ɒ, oʊ]

27. What are the main features of open, half-open, close and half-close
vowels?
English vowels are classified according to the principles:
III. According to the vertical position of the tongue vowels are: close, half-
close, open, half-open.
• For close one part of the tongue is raised high in the direction of the palate
and the passage for the air is narrow. [i:, u:]
• For half-close the tongue is raised less than for the closed ones. [ɪ, ʊ]
• For open vowels one part of the tongue is raised very little in the direction
of the palate. [æ, ɑː, ɔ:, ɒ]
• For half-open the tongue is raised more than for the open vowels. [ʌ, ə, e,
ɜː]

28. How can vowels be described according to the position of lips, length,
and degree of tenseness?
English vowels are classified according to the principles:
IV. According to the position of the lips vowels are: unrounded and
rounded.
• Rounded are produced when the lips are more or less rounded and
protruded. [ɔ:, ɒ, ʊ, u:, oʊ, ʊ ə]
• Unrounded are produced when the lips are neutral and spread. [i:, ɪ, e, æ,
ɑː, ʌ, ɜː, ə]
V. According to the length vowels may be: long and short.
• Long: [i:, ɑː, ɔ:, u:, ɜː]
• Short: [ɪ, ʊ, ɒ, ʌ, e, æ, ə]
VI. According to the degree of tenseness vowels can be: tense and lax.
• In the pronunciation of tense vowels the organs of speech become tense.
• In the pronunciation of lax vowels the speech organs have less tenseness.
So long vowels are tense, short vowels are lax.

29. Please explain what a monophthong, a diphthong and a diphthongoid is.

English vowels are classified according to the principles:
I. According to the stability of articulation vowels are divided into:
monophtongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.
• In the articulation of monophtongs the organs of speech do not change
their position. [ɪ, e, æ, ɑː, ɔ:, ɒ, ʊ, ʌ, ɜː, ə]
• In the articulation of diphthongs organs of speech glide from one vowel
position to another. [eɪ, ɑɪ, ɪə, eə, ɑʊ, ɔɪ, oʊ, ʊə]
• In the pronunciation of diphthongoids organs of speech change their
position slightly. They are: [i:, u:]

30. How can you describe English consonants according to the place of
articulation?
English consonants are classified according to the principles:
I. According to the place of articulation consonants can be: bilabial, labio-
dental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palato-alveolar, palatal, velar,
glottal.
• Labial are articulated by the lips pressed together. [p, b, m, w]
• Labio-dental are articulated by the lower lip and the upper teeth. [f, v]
• Dental may be: interdental [θ, ð] and post-dental. [-]
• Alveolar are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the alveoli. [t, d, n,
s, z, l]
• Post-alveolar are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the back of the
alveoli. [r]
• Palato-alveolar are produced by the tip of the tongue against the alveoli
while the front part of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate.
[∫, ʒ, t∫, dʒ]
• Palatal are formed by the middle part of the tongue raised high to the hard
palate. [j]
• Velar are produced by the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft
palate. [k, ɡ, ŋ]
• Glottal are formed in the glottis. [h]