Sediments Depositional in Deltaic Environment

Yean Tze Pua

School of Earth Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072

Abstract

Deltaic environment is river flow carrying mixed load of sediments into water still.
Sediments load are deposited around before, during, and after the transition. Coarse grains
usually deposited before and during the transition on delta plain and delta front, whereas fine
grains deposited after the transition on prodelta. Sedimentary structures occur depend on the
dominant factors and locations relative to the deposition lobe of delta. Deltaic environment is
significance for its economic resources and wildlife habitats. While Mississippi delta is an
example of modern delta, Upper Cretaceous San Miguel Formation in south Texas is an
example of ancient delta.

Introduction

Deltaic environment is known for its economic significance. Energy resources such as coal,
oil, natural gas, shale, and hydrocarbons often deposits in this kind of environment due to
abundant of sediments accumulations. Deltaic environments soils are rich in nutrients, and
there are used for farming. It also plays an essential role in ecosystems, commonly habitats
for diversity of wildlife. In additional, there are many people living deltaic environment.
Deltaic environment is, therefore, an important for our knowledge to understand. This essay
will discuss much about deltaic environment, including delta sediments transportation,
processes, and distribution within the system, control factors, delta morphology, and
stratigraphy deposits. This paper will also talk about an example of modern and ancient delta
with comparisons.

Definition and Depositional Settings

Deltaic environment is a marginal-marine setting. It is a transitional between marine and
continental. Delta formed where sediments are brought down by the river and enters into
ocean with zero flow velocity. Both Pearson (2002) and Saucier (1994) define “A delta is a
body of sediment laid down by dynamic sedimentary processes in a zone of interaction where
a river (fluvial system) enters a deeper and less turbulent body of water”. Similarly, both
Barrell (1912) and Twenhofel (1939) stated “A delta, in the geologic sense, is defined as a
deposit partly subaerial and made by a stream at the place of entrance into a permanent body
of water”. It usually formed as an open ocean.

Deltaic environment is divided into three main sub-environments: delta plain, delta front, and
prodelta. Delta plain (also known as delta top) is further divided into upper delta plain and
lower delta plain. Upper delta plain is the oldest part of delta. It is dominated by fluvial
processes (Boggs, 2006; Schwartz, 2006). It appears underwater during ocean high tide. The
major landform includes river channels (either braided or meandering), subaerial natural
levees, point bars, crevasse splays, and floodplain environments. Floodplain environments
(such as swamps, marshes, and freshwater lakes) are adjacent to channels and may be
vegetated under appropriated climatic conditions. There are sites of accumulation of peats,
which leads to coal formations.

Lower delta plain appears in underwater between low tide level and upper limit of tidal
influence. It is dominated by both marine and fluvial processes. River channels are divided
into multiple courses as braided, and build out as elongate lobes of sediment. Interdistributary
bays are sheltered areas of shallow water along the edge of delta plain. It is located between
delta lobes.

Upper delta plain topography is relatively lower relief of the lower delta plain. Lower delta
plain is the site of more active sedimentary depositions. According to Schwartz (2006), it is
probably due to the overbank flooding processes. In additional, lower delta plain has low
topography leads to lower elevations or lack of natural levees. Therefore, river channels
migration is characteristics of lower delta plain. Other landforms existed in lower delta plain
are crevasse splays and floodplain environments.

Delta front is the uppermost part of subaqueous delta with high energy marine processes
(waves and tides). Delta front is located below at low tide sea level. It represents a zone of
transition between deposits representative of progradation and aggradation. One of the major
landforms is delta front slope. It lying at water depths down to 10m or so (Boggs, 2006), and
steeply inclined away from delta plain. Mouth bar, which is partly subaerial, is the upper edge
of delta front where it is immediately forward of the channel mouth.

Prodelta is a very quiet energy subaqueous environment that extends to water depths for 200-
300m (Boggs, 2006) beyond delta front. Thickness of bed is thinnest at base as a result of
deltaic progradation.

Transport &Sedimentation Processes and Distribution within Systems

Deltas make the largest resting places for clastic sediments (Dickinson, 1975a). Generally,
the deposits of sediments are partly subaerial and subaqueous. There are heterogeneity and
complex relationships of sedimentary units in deltas. River channels deposit coarse grains at
delta plain before they enter into ocean. However, some regions at delta plain such as
Interdistributary bays and floodplain environments deposit silts, mud, and silty clay as well as
mixture of organic and clastic material deposits that form carbonaceous mud.

Delta front is dominant of sands before delta front slope. Distributary river channels mouth
and mouth bar are dominant of sands while delta front slope is finer materials deposited since
river-borne suspended load enter relatively still water of ocean. Some coarser sediment may
deposits at this slope as turbidites under gravity currents.

Prodelta is a fine-grained depositional zone with finest sediment fraction (mud, silt, and
clays).

Delta Morphology and Control Factors

Deltas are classified in terms of the dominant grain size of the deposits, depth, and the
relative importance of fluvial, wave & tide processes (Figure ). The main control factors of
both hinterland and basin characteristics are climate variations, tectonics, and seal level
changes. Climate variation commonly leads to weathering and erosion. These affect on
discharge of river and topography in relief, slope, and subsidence. Tectonics also has an
effect on topography of delta. The rise or fall of sea level determines accommodation space
for delta progradation as well as stratigraphy facies pattern. Sediment grain size is determines
by discharge of river and topography, while depth of the water in the basin controls by the
delta accommodation. Furthermore, the relative importance of processes that rework
sediment is controlled by climatic and geomorphological factors (Nihols, 2009). All these
factors control largely on delta regime and morphology. Nihols (2009) described different
delta morphology models by the effects of grains size (fine-grained and coarse-grained delta)
and water depth (shallow-water and deep-water delta).

Other than grain size and water depth, delta morphology can be controlled by the relative
importance of processes. The fluvial, wave, and tidal-dominated are the common
classifications used in modern deltas. Discharge patterns may also determine sedimentation
process and morphology in terms of the difference of density of the effluent and receiving
basin waters. In additional, Edmonds & Slingerland (2009) claims sediments cohesiveness
also strongly influences on delta morphology.

Sedimentary Features in Deltaic Environment

Sedimentary features preserved depend on its location relative to the deposition lobe of the
environment (Boggs, 2006). A continuous vertical transition occurs from prodelta at base to
mouth bar on top. It is coarsening-upward succession from low to high energy (Sneider et al.,
1978). Shallower water such as at mouth bar deposits reworked extensively by wave and/or
tidal action may show cross bedding and/or cross lamination.

Significances of Deltaic Environment

The significances of delta were first discovered by prehistoric man, who was attracted by the
abundant of plants and animals life (The Environment Encyclopedia Discovery 2001, 2001).
Even now, delta is home to vibrant diversity of wildlife and birds. There are many fishes
living in freshwater.

Delta is also home to many living people. Popular recreation areas can be established for
human activities such as camping, hiking, hunting, and horseback riding. If deltaic
environment is conserves such that it attracts foreigners like the prehistoric man, tourism
might an advantage for income in the region. Furthermore, labyrinth of the sloughs and
waterways allow for boating, water skiing, and more fun activities. Transportation services
are also available.
Since delta is fertile soils are rich in nutrients and abundant of freshwater fish, farming and
fishing are the most productive agricultural regions in the world. Both are the source for
sustenance and economic gain.

Deltas sedimentation deposits consist abundant of accumulations reservoirs that contribute to

economic. Accumulations of oil and natural gas, which first discovered in deltas since 1935,
in land-derived sediments are contained in sandstone deposited. There also exist numerous
peats forming coal beds.

Sand and gravel in well-sorted sediments delta, particular from ancient wave-dominated, can
be used in concrete for highways, buildings, and landscapes. Over one billion tonnes of sand
and gravel are produced in U.S. alone. Abundant of tree woods are available for making
furnitures.

Modern Mississippi Delta & Ancient Upper Cretaceous Sam Miguel Formation in south
Texas

Mississippi Delta is an example of modern fluvial-dominated delta (Boggs, 2006; Leeder,

1982). It is buoyancy-dominated. Its inflow extends as hypopycnal flow into relatively deep.
Delta plain is dominated by several large channel distributaries, which tend to be flow in
straight direction due to low slopes and flares slightly at delta front. Scrupton (1955), Taylor
(1963), and Boggs (1999) described that Mississippi delta is a characteristics of marsh
deposits with mostly mud or silt or clay. The rate of sediment supply is 349 million tonnes
per year. It is faster than the combination effect of the rate which they are removed by waves
and currents and the rate of delta (Boggs, 2006). When delta progrades, frequent avulsion
occurs as channels are seeking new routes with gradient advantages. According to the record,
there existed 7 active lobes over 5000 years. Both avulsion and high rate of sediment supply
are responsible for the ‘birdsfoot’ morphology of Mississippi delta, with the ‘claws’ marked
by channels and the ‘webbed’ connections by interdistributary bays (Leeder, 1982). The
stratigraphy facies (approximately 50 – 150m thickness) is coarsening upwards succession
with mud to sands.

Upper Cretaceous Sam Miguel Formation is an ancient wave-dominated delta. Its

morphology and the amount of reworked sediments are depended on both the input rate of
sedimentation and sea level changes simultaneously. If delta has high sediment input and low
sea level, lobate morphology with minimal sediments redistribution by waves were the
results. If delta has low sediment input and high sea level, elongate shape with strike-aligned
sandstone bodies and extensive sediments reworked by waves were resulted. From the
observations of various net-sandstone patterns, this delta had wide spectrum of wave-
dominated delta (arcuate, lobate, cuspate, and strike-elongate).

In comparisons of both modern Mississippi delta and ancient Upper Cretaceous Sam Miguel
Formation, both deltas consisted coarsening-upward successions of stratigraphy. However,
there are different in its morphology and dominant process.

Conclusion

To conclude, deltaic environments are extremely important for all living things on Earth
because they are part of sources to support our ecosystems, our economic resources, and our
everyday life. They are areas of sediments deposited when fluvial enters into water body.
Vegetation on delta plain may deposit as peats and produce coal. Organisms that living at
deltaic environment may die out and produced accumulation of oil and natural gas. In
additional, delta morphology and sediments deposits may vary with numbers of controlling
factors.

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