Interactive and Passive Graphics

(a) Non-Interactive or Passive Computer Graphics:

In non-interactive computer graphics, the picture is produced on the monitor, and the user
does not have any controlled over the image, i.e., the user cannot make any change in the
rendered image. One example of its Titles shown on T.V.

Non-interactive Graphics involves only one-way communication between the computer and
the user, User see the produced image, and he cannot make any change in the image.

(b) Interactive Computer Graphics:

In interactive Computer Graphics user have some controls over the picture, i.e., the user
can make any change in the produced image. One example of it is the ping-pong game.

Interactive and Passive Graphics

(a) Non-Interactive or Passive Computer Graphics:
In non-interactive computer graphics, the picture is produced on the monitor, and the
user does not have any controlled over the image, i.e., the user cannot make any change
in the rendered image. One example of its Titles shown on T.V.

Non-interactive Graphics involves only one-way communication between the computer

and the user, User can see the produced image, and he cannot make any change in the
image.

(b) Interactive Computer Graphics:

In interactive Computer Graphics user have some controls over the picture, i.e., the user
can make any change in the produced image. One example of it is the ping-pong game.

Interactive Computer Graphics require two-way communication between the computer

and the user. A User can see the image and make any change by sending his command
with an input device.

Advantages:
1. Higher Quality
 2. More precise results or products
3. Greater Productivity
4. Lower analysis and design cost
5. Significantly enhances our ability to understand data and to perceive trends.

Working of Interactive Computer Graphics:

The modern graphics display is very simple in construction. It consists of three
components:

1. Frame Buffer or Digital Memory

2. A Monitor likes a home T.V. set without the tuning and receiving electronics.
3. Display Controller or Video Controller: It passes the contents of the frame
buffer to the monitor.

Frame Buffer: A digital frame buffer is large, contiguous piece of computer memory used
to hold or map the image displayed on the screen.

o At a minimum, there is 1 memory bit for each pixel in the raster. This amount of
memory is called a bit plane.
 o A 1024 x 1024 element requires 220 (210=1024;220=1024 x 1024)sq.raster or
1,048,576 memory bits in a single bit plane.
o The picture is built up in the frame buffer one bit at a time.
o ∵ A memory bit has only two states (binary 0 or 1), a single bit plane yields a black
and white (monochrome display).
o As frame buffer is a digital device write raster CRT is an analog device.

Properties of Video Monitor:

1. Persistence: Persistence is the duration of phos phorescence. Different kinds of
phosphors are available for use in CRT. Besides color, a major difference between phosphor
in their persistence how they continue to emit light after the electron beam is removed.

2. Resolution: Use to describe the number of pixels that are used on display image.

3. Aspect Ratio: It is the ratio of width to its height. Its measure is unit in length or
number of pixels.

Aspect Ratio =

Scan Conversion Definition

It is a process of representing graphics objects as a collection of pixels. The graphics objects
are continuous. The pixels used are discrete. Each pixel can have either on or off state.

The circuitry of the video display device of the computer is capable of converting binary
values (0, 1) into a pixel on and pixel off information. 0 is represented by pixel off. 1 is
represented using pixel on. Using this ability graphics computer represent picture having
discrete dots.

Any model of graphics can be reproduced with a dense matrix of dots or points. Most human
beings think graphics objects as points, lines, circles, ellipses. For generating graphical
object, many algorithms have been developed.
Advantage of developing algorithms for scan
conversion
1. Algorithms can generate graphics objects at a faster rate.
2. Using algorithms memory can be used efficiently.
3. Algorithms can develop a higher level of graphical objects.

Examples of objects which can be scan converted

1. Point
2. Line
3. Sector
4. Arc
5. Ellipse
6. Rectangle
7. Polygon
8. Characters
9. Filled Regions

The process of converting is also called rasterization. The algorithms implementation varies
from one computer system to another computer system. Some algorithms are implemented
using the software. Some are performed using hardware or firmware. Some are performed
using various combinations of hardware, firmware, and software.

Pixel or Pel:
The term pixel is a short form of the picture element. It is also called a point or dot. It is the
smallest picture unit accepted by display devices. A picture is constructed from hundreds of
such pixels. Pixels are generated using commands. Lines, circle, arcs, characters; curves are
drawn with closely spaced pixels. To display the digit or letter matrix of pixels is used.

The closer the dots or pixels are, the better will be the quality of picture. Closer the dots
are, crisper will be the picture. Picture will not appear jagged and unclear if pixels are
closely spaced. So the quality of the picture is directly proportional to the density of pixels
on the screen.

Pixels are also defined as the smallest addressable unit or element of the screen. Each pixel
can be assigned an address as shown in fig:
Different graphics objects can be generated by setting the different intensity of pixels and
different colors of pixels. Each pixel has some co-ordinate value. The coordinate is
represented using row and column.

P (5, 5) used to represent a pixel in the 5th row and the 5th column. Each pixel has some
intensity value which is represented in memory of computer called a frame buffer. Frame
Buffer is also called a refresh buffer. This memory is a storage area for storing pixels values
using which pictures are displayed. It is also called as digital memory. Inside the buffer,
image is stored as a pattern of binary digits either 0 or 1. So there is an array of 0 or 1
used to represent the picture. In black and white monitors, black pixels are represented
using 1's and white pixels are represented using 0's. In case of systems having one bit per
pixel frame buffer is called a bitmap. In systems with multiple bits per pixel it is called a
pixmap.

Scan Converting a Point

Each pixel on the graphics display does not represent a mathematical point. Instead, it
means a region which theoretically can contain an infinite number of points. Scan-
Converting a point involves illuminating the pixel that contains the point.

Example: Display coordinates points  as shown in fig would both be

represented by pixel (2, 1). In general, a point p (x, y) is represented by the integer part of
x & the integer part of y that is pixels [(INT (x), INT (y).
Scan Converting a Straight Line
A straight line may be defined by two endpoints & an equation. In fig the two endpoints are
described by (x1,y1) and (x2,y2). The equation of the line is used to determine the x, y
coordinates of all the points that lie between these two endpoints.
Using the equation of a straight line, y = mx + b where m =   & b = the y interrupt, we
can find values of y by incrementing x from x =x1, to x = x2. By scan-converting these
calculated x, y values, we represent the line as a sequence of pixels.

Properties of Good Line Drawing Algorithm:

1. Line should appear Straight: We must appropriate the line by choosing addressable
points close to it. If we choose well, the line will appear straight, if not, we shall produce
crossed lines.
The lines must be generated parallel or at 45° to the x and y-axes. Other lines cause a
problem: a line segment through it starts and finishes at addressable points, may happen to
pass through no another addressable points in between.

2. Lines should terminate accurately: Unless lines are plotted accurately, they may
terminate at the wrong place.
3. Lines should have constant density: Line density is proportional to the no. of dots
displayed divided by the length of the line.

To maintain constant density, dots should be equally spaced.

4. Line density should be independent of line length and angle: This can be done by
computing an approximating line-length estimate and to use a line-generation algorithm
that keeps line density constant to within the accuracy of this estimate.

5. Line should be drawn rapidly: This computation should be performed by special-

purpose hardware.

Algorithm for line Drawing:

1. Direct use of line equation
2. DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer)
3. Bresenham's Algorithm

Direct use of line equation:

It is the simplest form of conversion. First of all scan P1 and P2 points. P1 has co-ordinates
(x1',y1') and (x2' y2' ).

Then       m = (y2',y1')/( x2',x1') and b = 

If value of |m|≤1 for each integer value of x. But do not consider 

If value of |m|>1 for each integer value of y. But do not consider 

Example: A line with starting point as (0, 0) and ending point (6, 18) is given. Calculate
value of intermediate points and slope of line.

Solution: P1 (0,0) P7 (6,18)

              x1=0
              y1=0
              x2=6
              y2=18

              

We know equation of line is

              y =m x + b
              y = 3x + b..............equation (1)

put value of x from initial point in equation (1), i.e., (0, 0) x =0, y=0
       0=3x0+b
              0 = b ⟹ b=0

put b = 0 in equation (1)

              y = 3x + 0
              y = 3x

Now calculate intermediate points

    Let x = 1 ⟹ y = 3 x 1 `⟹ y = 3
    Let x = 2 ⟹ y = 3 x 2 ⟹ y = 6
    Let x = 3 ⟹ y = 3 x 3 ⟹ y = 9
    Let x = 4 ⟹ y = 3 x 4 ⟹ y = 12
    Let x = 5 ⟹ y = 3 x 5 ⟹ y = 15
    Let x = 6 ⟹ y = 3 x 6 ⟹ y = 18

So points are P1 (0,0)

              P2 (1,3)
              P3 (2,6)
              P4 (3,9)
              P5 (4,12)
              P6 (5,15)
              P7 (6,18)
Algorithm for drawing line using equation:
Step1: Start Algorithm

Step2: Declare variables x1,x2,y1,y2,dx,dy,m,b,

Step3: Enter values of x1,x2,y1,y2.

              The (x1,y1) are co-ordinates of a starting point of the line.
              The (x2,y2) are co-ordinates of a ending point of the line.

Step4: Calculate dx = x2- x1

Step5: Calculate dy = y2-y1

Step6: Calculate m = 

Step7: Calculate b = y1-m* x1

Step8: Set (x, y) equal to starting point, i.e., lowest point and xendequal to largest value of
x.

              If dx < 0
                  then x = x2
              y = y2
                        xend= x1
        If dx > 0
              then x = x1
                  y = y1
                        xend= x2

Step9: Check whether the complete line has been drawn if x=xend, stop

Step10: Plot a point at current (x, y) coordinates

Step11: Increment value of x, i.e., x = x+1

Step12: Compute next value of y from equation y = mx + b

Step13: Go to Step9.
DDA Algorithm
DDA stands for Digital Differential Analyzer. It is an incremental method of scan conversion
of line. In this method calculation is performed at each step but by using results of previous
steps.

Suppose at step i, the pixels is (xi,yi)

The line of equation for step i

              yi=mxi+b......................equation 1

Next value will be

              yi+1=mxi+1+b.................equation 2

              m=
              yi+1-yi=∆y.......................equation 3
              yi+1-xi=∆x......................equation 4
              yi+1=yi+∆y
              ∆y=m∆x
              yi+1=yi+m∆x
              ∆x=∆y/m
              xi+1=xi+∆x
              xi+1=xi+∆y/m

Case1: When |M|<1 then (assume that x1<x2)

              x= x1,y=y1 set ∆x=1

              yi+1=y1+m,     x=x+1

              Until x = x2</x

Case2: When |M|<1 then (assume that y1<y2)

              x= x1,y=y1 set ∆y=1

              xi+1= ,     y=y+1

              Until y → y2</y

Advantage:
1. It is a faster method than method of using direct use of line equation.
2. This method does not use multiplication theorem.
3. It allows us to detect the change in the value of x and y ,so plotting of same point
twice is not possible.
4. This method gives overflow indication when a point is repositioned.
5. It is an easy method because each step involves just two additions.
Disadvantage:
1. It involves floating point additions rounding off is done. Accumulations of round off
error cause accumulation of error.
2. Rounding off operations and floating point operations consumes a lot of time.
3. It is more suitable for generating line using the software. But it is less suited for
hardware implementation.

DDA Algorithm:
Step1: Start Algorithm

Step2: Declare x1,y1,x2,y2,dx,dy,x,y as integer variables.

Step3: Enter value of x1,y1,x2,y2.

Step4: Calculate dx = x2-x1

Step5: Calculate dy = y2-y1

Step6: If ABS (dx) > ABS (dy)

            Then step = abs (dx)
            Else

Step7: xinc=dx/step
            yinc=dy/step
            assign x = x1
            assign y = y1

Step8: Set pixel (x, y)

Step9: x = x + xinc
            y = y + yinc
            Set pixels (Round (x), Round (y))

Step10: Repeat step 9 until x = x2

Step11: End Algorithm

Example: If a line is drawn from (2, 3) to (6, 15) with use of DDA. How many points will
needed to generate such line?
Solution: P1 (2,3)       P11 (6,15)

                x1=2
                y1=3
                x 2= 6
                y2=15
                dx = 6 - 2 = 4
                dy = 15 - 3 = 12

                m = 

For calculating next value of x takes x = x + 

Symmetrical DDA:
The Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) generates lines from their differential equations. The
equation of a straight line is

The DDA works on the principle that we simultaneously increment x and y by small steps
proportional to the first derivatives of x and y. In this case of a straight line, the first
derivatives are constant and are proportional to ∆x and ∆y . Therefore, we could generate a
line by incrementing x and y by ϵ ∆x and ϵ ∆y, where ϵ is some small quantity. There are
two ways to generate points

1. By rounding to the nearest integer after each incremental step, after rounding we display
dots at the resultant x and y.
2. An alternative to rounding the use of arithmetic overflow: x and y are kept in registers
that have two parts, integer and fractional. The incrementing values, which are both less
than unity, are repeatedly added to the fractional parts and whenever the results overflows,
the corresponding integer part is incremented. The integer parts of the x and y registers are
used in plotting the line. In the case of the symmetrical DDA, we choose ε=2-n,where 2n-
1
≤max (|∆x|,|∆y|)<2π

A line drawn with the symmetrical DDA is shown in fig:

Example: If a line is drawn from (0, 0) to (10, 5) with a symmetrical DDA

1. How many iterations are performed?

2. How many different points will be generated?

Solutions: Given: P1 (0,0) P2 (10,5)

                x1=0
                y1=0
                x2=10
                y2=5
                dx = 10 - 0 = 10
               dy = 5 - 0 = 0

                

P1 (0,0) will be considered starting points

P3 (1,0.5)                 point not plotted
P4 (2, 1)                 point plotted
P5 (3, 1.5)                 point not plotted
P6 (4,2)                 point plotted
P7 (5,2.5)                 point not plotted
P8 (6,3)                 point plotted
P9 (7,3.5)                 point not plotted
P10 (8, 4)                 point plotted
P11 (9,4.5)                 point not plotted
P12 (10,5)                 point plotted

Following Figure show line plotted using these points.

 Bresenham's Line Algorithm
This algorithm is used for scan converting a line. It was developed by Bresenham. It is
an efficient method because it involves only integer addition, subtractions, and
multiplication operations. These operations can be performed very rapidly so lines can be
generated quickly.

In this method, next pixel selected is that one who has the least distance from true line.

The method works as follows:

Assume a pixel P1'(x1',y1'),then select subsequent pixels as we work our may to the night,
one pixel position at a time in the horizontal direction toward P2'(x2',y2').

Once a pixel in choose at any step

The next pixel is

1. Either the one to its right (lower-bound for the line)

2. One top its right and up (upper-bound for the line)

The line is best approximated by those pixels that fall the least distance from the path
between P1',P2'.
To chooses the next one between the bottom pixel S and top pixel T.
            If S is chosen
            We have xi+1=xi+1       and       yi+1=yi
            If T is chosen
            We have xi+1=xi+1       and       yi+1=yi+1

The actual y coordinates of the line at x = xi+1is

            y=mxi+1+b

The distance from S to the actual line in y direction

            s = y-yi
The distance from T to the actual line in y direction
            t = (yi+1)-y

Now consider the difference between these 2 distance values

      s-t

When (s-t) <0 ⟹ s < t

The closest pixel is S

When (s-t) ≥0 ⟹ s < t

The closest pixel is T

This difference is
            s-t = (y-yi)-[(yi+1)-y]
                    = 2y - 2yi -1

            

Substituting m by   and introducing decision variable

                di=△x (s-t)

                di=△x (2   (xi+1)+2b-2yi-1)

                        =2△xyi-2△y-1△x.2b-2yi△x-△x
                di=2△y.xi-2△x.yi+c

Where c= 2△y+△x (2b-1)

We can write the decision variable di+1 for the next slip on

                di+1=2△y.xi+1-2△x.yi+1+c
                di+1-di=2△y.(xi+1-xi)- 2△x(yi+1-yi)

Since x_(i+1)=xi+1,we have

                di+1+di=2△y.(xi+1-xi)- 2△x(yi+1-yi)

Special Cases

If chosen pixel is at the top pixel T (i.e., di≥0)⟹ yi+1=yi+1

                di+1=di+2△y-2△x

If chosen pixel is at the bottom pixel T (i.e., di<0)⟹ yi+1=yi

                di+1=di+2△y
Finally, we calculate d1
                d1=△x[2m(x1+1)+2b-2y1-1]
                d1=△x[2(mx1+b-y1)+2m-1]

Since mx1+b-yi=0 and m =  , we have

                d1=2△y-△x

Advantage:
1. It involves only integer arithmetic, so it is simple.

2. It avoids the generation of duplicate points.

3. It can be implemented using hardware because it does not use multiplication and
division.

4. It is faster as compared to DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) because it does not involve
floating point calculations like DDA Algorithm.

Disadvantage:
1. This algorithm is meant for basic line drawing only Initializing is not a part of
Bresenham's line algorithm. So to draw smooth lines, you should want to look into a
different algorithm.

Bresenham's Line Algorithm:

Step1: Start Algorithm

Step2: Declare variable x1,x2,y1,y2,d,i1,i2,dx,dy

Step3: Enter value of x1,y1,x2,y2

                Where x1,y1are coordinates of starting point
                And x2,y2 are coordinates of Ending point

Step4: Calculate dx = x2-x1
                Calculate dy = y2-y1
                Calculate i1=2*dy
                Calculate i2=2*(dy-dx)
                Calculate d=i1-dx
Step5: Consider (x, y) as starting point and xendas maximum possible value of x.
                If dx < 0
                        Then x = x2
                        y = y2
                          xend=x1
                If dx > 0
                    Then x = x1
                y = y1
                        xend=x2

Step6: Generate point at (x,y)coordinates.

Step7: Check if whole line is generated.

                If x > = xend
                Stop.

Step8: Calculate co-ordinates of the next pixel

                If d < 0
                    Then d = d + i1
                If d ≥ 0
          Then d = d + i2
                Increment y = y + 1

Step9: Increment x = x + 1

Step10: Draw a point of latest (x, y) coordinates

Step11: Go to step 7

Step12: End of Algorithm

Example: Starting and Ending position of the line are (1, 1) and (8, 5). Find intermediate
points.

Solution: x1=1
                y1=1
                x2=8
                y2=5
                dx= x2-x1=8-1=7
                dy=y2-y1=5-1=4
                I1=2* ∆y=2*4=8
                I2=2*(∆y-∆x)=2*(4-7)=-6
                d = I1-∆x=8-7=1
x y d=d+I1 or I2

1 1 d+I2=1+(-6)=-5

2 2 d+I1=-5+8=3

3 2 d+I2=3+(-6)=-3

4 3 d+I1=-3+8=5

5 3 d+I2=5+(-6)=-1

6 4 d+I1=-1+8=7

7 4 d+I2=7+(-6)=1

8 5
Defining a Circle:
Circle is an eight-way symmetric figure. The shape of circle is the same in all quadrants. In
each quadrant, there are two octants. If the calculation of the point of one octant is done,
then the other seven points can be calculated easily by using the concept of eight-way
symmetry.

For drawing, circle considers it at the origin. If a point is P1(x, y), then the other seven
points will be
So we will calculate only 45°arc. From which the whole circle can be determined easily.
If we want to display circle on screen then the putpixel function is used for eight points as
shown below:

          putpixel (x, y, color)

          putpixel (x, -y, color)
          putpixel (-x, y, color)
          putpixel (-x, -y, color)
          putpixel (y, x, color)
          putpixel (y, -x, color)
          putpixel (-y, x, color)
          putpixel (-y, -x, color)

Example: Let we determine a point (2, 7) of the circle then other points will be (2, -7), (-2,
-7), (-2, 7), (7, 2), (-7, 2), (-7, -2), (7, -2)

These seven points are calculated by using the property of reflection. The reflection is
accomplished in the following way:

The reflection is accomplished by reversing x, y co-ordinates.

There are two standards methods of mathematically defining a circle centered at the origin.

1. Defining a circle using Polynomial Method

2. Defining a circle using Polar Co-ordinates

Defining a circle using Polynomial Method:

The first method defines a circle with the second-order polynomial equation as shown in fig:

                    y2=r2-x2
Where x = the x coordinate
          y = the y coordinate
          r = the circle radius

With the method, each x coordinate in the sector, from 90° to 45°, is found by stepping x

from 0 to   & each y coordinate is found by evaluating   for each step of x.
Algorithm:
Step1: Set the initial variables
          r = circle radius
          (h, k) = coordinates of circle center
                x=o
                I = step size

                xend= 

Step2: Test to determine whether the entire circle has been scan-converted.

If x > xend then stop.

Step3: Compute y = 

Step4: Plot the eight points found by symmetry concerning the center (h, k) at the current
(x, y) coordinates.

                Plot (x + h, y +k)          Plot (-x + h, -y + k)

                Plot (y + h, x + k)          Plot (-y + h, -x + k)
                Plot (-y + h, x + k)          Plot (y + h, -x + k)
                Plot (-x + h, y + k)          Plot (x + h, -y + k)

Step5: Increment x = x + i

Step6: Go to step (ii).

Defining a circle using Polar Co-ordinates :

The second method of defining a circle makes use of polar coordinates as shown in fig:

            x=r cos θ             y = r sin θ

Where θ=current angle
r = circle radius
x = x coordinate
y = y coordinate

By this method, θ is stepped from 0 to   & each value of x & y is calculated.
Algorithm:
Step1: Set the initial variables:

            r = circle radius
            (h, k) = coordinates of the circle center
                i = step size

            θ_end=
            θ=0

Step2: If θ>θendthen stop.

Step3: Compute

            x = r * cos θ            y=r*sin?θ

Step4: Plot the eight points, found by symmetry i.e., the center (h, k), at the current (x, y)
coordinates.
Plot (x + h, y +k)             Plot (-x + h, -y + k)
Plot (y + h, x + k)             Plot (-y + h, -x + k)
Plot (-y + h, x + k)             Plot (y + h, -x + k)
Plot (-x + h, y + k)             Plot (x + h, -y + k)

Step5: Increment θ=θ+i

Step6: Go to step (ii).

Bresenham's Circle Algorithm:
Scan-Converting a circle using Bresenham's algorithm works as follows: Points are
generated from 90° to 45°, moves will be made only in the +x & -y directions as shown in
fig:

The best approximation of the true circle will be described by those pixels in the raster that
falls the least distance from the true circle. We want to generate the points from

90° to 45°. Assume that the last scan-converted pixel is P1 as shown in fig. Each new point
closest to the true circle can be found by taking either of two actions.

1. Move in the x-direction one unit or

2. Move in the x- direction one unit & move in the negative y-direction one unit.

Let D (Si) is the distance from the origin to the true circle squared minus the distance to
point P3 squared. D (Ti) is the distance from the origin to the true circle squared minus the
distance to point P2 squared. Therefore, the following expressions arise.
            D (Si)=(xi-1+1)2+ yi-12 -r2
            D (Ti)=(xi-1+1)2+(yi-1 -1)2-r2

Since D (Si) will always be +ve & D (Ti) will always be -ve, a decision variable d may be
defined as follows:

di=D (Si )+ D (Ti)

Therefore,
di=(xi-1+1)2+ yi-12 -r2+(xi-1+1)2+(yi-1 -1)2-r2

From this equation, we can drive initial values of di as

If it is assumed that the circle is centered at the origin, then at the first step x = 0 & y = r.

Therefore,
            di=(0+1)2+r2 -r2+(0+1)2+(r-1)2-r2
            =1+1+r2-2r+1-r2
            = 3 - 2r

Thereafter, if d_i<0,then only x is incremented.

xi+1=xi+1         di+1=di+ 4xi+6

& if di≥0,then x & y are incremented

xi+1=xi+1         yi+1 =yi+ 1
di+1=di+ 4 (xi-yi)+10

Bresenham's Circle Algorithm:

Step1: Start Algorithm

Step2: Declare p, q, x, y, r, d variables
        p, q are coordinates of the center of the circle
        r is the radius of the circle
Step3: Enter the value of r

Step4: Calculate d = 3 - 2r

Step5: Initialize       x=0
          &nbsy= r

Step6: Check if the whole circle is scan converted

            If x > = y
            Stop

Step7: Plot eight points by using concepts of eight-way symmetry. The center is at (p, q).
Current active pixel is (x, y).
                putpixel (x+p, y+q)
                putpixel (y+p, x+q)
                putpixel (-y+p, x+q)
                putpixel (-x+p, y+q)
                putpixel (-x+p, -y+q)
                putpixel (-y+p, -x+q)
                putpixel (y+p, -x+q)
                putpixel (x+p, -y-q)

Step8: Find location of next pixels to be scanned

            If d < 0
            then d = d + 4x + 6
            increment x = x + 1
            If d ≥ 0
            then d = d + 4 (x - y) + 10
            increment x = x + 1
            decrement y = y - 1

Step9: Go to step 6

Step10: Stop Algorithm

Example: Plot 6 points of circle using Bresenham Algorithm. When radius of circle is 10

units. The circle has centre (50, 50).

Solution: Let r = 10 (Given)

Step1: Take initial point (0, 10)

                d = 3 - 2r
                d = 3 - 2 * 10 = -17
                d < 0 ∴ d = d + 4x + 6
                      = -17 + 4 (0) + 6
                      = -11

Step2: Plot (1, 10)

          d = d + 4x + 6 (∵ d < 0)
                = -11 + 4 (1) + 6
                = -1
Step3: Plot (2, 10)
           d = d + 4x + 6 (∵ d < 0)
                = -1 + 4 x 2 + 6
                = 13

Step4: Plot (3, 9) d is > 0 so x = x + 1, y = y - 1

                          d = d + 4 (x-y) + 10 (∵ d > 0)
                = 13 + 4 (3-9) + 10
                = 13 + 4 (-6) + 10
                = 23-24=-1

Step5: Plot (4, 9)
            d = -1 + 4x + 6
                = -1 + 4 (4) + 6
                = 21

Step6: Plot (5, 8)
            d = d + 4 (x-y) + 10 (∵ d > 0)
                = 21 + 4 (5-8) + 10
                = 21-12 + 10 = 19

So P1 (0,0)⟹(50,50)
            P2 (1,10)⟹(51,60)
            P3 (2,10)⟹(52,60)
            P4 (3,9)⟹(53,59)
            P5 (4,9)⟹(54,59)
            P6 (5,8)⟹(55,58)
MidPoint Circle Algorithm
It is based on the following function for testing the spatial relationship between the arbitrary
point (x, y) and a circle of radius r centered at the origin:

Now, consider the coordinates of the point halfway between pixel T and pixel S

This is called midpoint (xi+1,yi- ) and we use it to define a decision parameter:

 Pi=f (xi+1,yi- ) = (xi+1)2+(yi- )2-r2 ...............equation 2

If Pi is -ve ⟹midpoint is inside the circle and we choose pixel T

If Pi is+ve ⟹midpoint is outside the circle (or on the circle)and we choose pixel S.

The decision parameter for the next step is:

Pi+1=(xi+1+1)2+(yi+1- )2- r2............equation 3

Since xi+1=xi+1, we have

If pixel T is choosen ⟹Pi<0

We have yi+1=yi

If pixel S is choosen ⟹Pi≥0

We have yi+1=yi-1

We can continue to simplify this in n terms of (xi,yi) and get

Now, initial value of Pi (0,r)from equation 2

We can put  ≅1
∴r is an integer
So, P1=1-r
Algorithm:
Step1: Put x =0, y =r in equation 2
            We have p=1-r

Step2: Repeat steps while x ≤ y

            Plot (x, y)
            If (p<0)
Then set p = p + 2x + 3
Else
            p = p + 2(x-y)+5
            y =y - 1 (end if)
            x =x+1 (end loop)

Step3: End