Sustainable Production and Consumption 27 (2021) 1273–1285

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Sustainable Production and Consumption

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/spc

Research article

Circular Economy in Basic Supply: Framing the Approach for the

Water and Food Sectors of the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries
Mohammad Al-Saidi∗, Probir Das, Imen Saadaoui
Center for Sustainable Development, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, P.O. Box: 2713, Doha, Qatar

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The circular economy concept can enhance sustainability through restructuring consumption and produc-
Received 19 September 2020 tion patterns using innovative designs and business models. This core premise is highly relevant for the
Revised 3 March 2021
interlinked water and food supply sectors in arid regions, which are threatened by natural scarcity and
Accepted 3 March 2021
resource overuse. This paper transfers the idea of the circular economy into the practice of the water
Available online 6 March 2021
and food sectors using the example of the region of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It develops a
Editor: Prof. Ioannis Nikolaou framework for identifying circular economy strategies and issues applicable to basic supply sectors. In
Keywords: analyzing the value chain and circular strategies of the water and food sectors, the circular economy idea
Circular economy has resulted in numerous industrial applications. The range of applications is illustrated in the key in-
Water sector dustries of wastewater and local food production. Expanding the reuse options for municipal wastewater
Food sector and valorizing organic waste represent important circular economy directions for the basic supply sector
Municipal wastewater of the GCC. Incorporating these ideas is positive, but a more comprehensive set of measures is needed to
Food waste generate low-carbon and low-metabolism economic development in the region. In addition to the current
Gulf Cooperation Council, GCC
sporadic supply-side initiatives, there is a need for non-technical circular economy strategies related to
demand management and waste reduction.
© 2021 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction vironment and applying principles of accounting for external ef-

fects (i.e., negative impacts or externalities in economic activities)
The basic premise of the circular economy centers around re- (Andersen, 2007). Several other ideas of industrial ecology, cradle-
structuring both consumption and production patterns towards a to-cradle, or steady-state economy are closely related to the circu-
low-metabolism and low-carbon future. This idea can be achieved lar economy (Kalmykova et al., 2018). At the same time, aligned
through different applications in different regions, with the over- to the circular economy are ideas of strong sustainability and de-
all aim of enhancing the circulation of products and consumer growth, since they all advocate changing the business-as-usual
awareness. In arid parts of the world, the most concerning pres- mentality and lowering societal metabolism (Schröder et al., 2019).
sures are those on water and arable land resources. Without con- Lately, policymakers have been promoting these ideas under the
servation and efficient use, growing economies and populations banner of circular economies through national or regional policies,
can cause resource scarcity. The circular economy idea of ‘closing most prominently in China and the European Union (Geng and
the loops’ through business models fostering reuse and recycling Doberstein, 2008; McDowall et al., 2017). The bulk of interventions
can be quite relevant for such arid regions (Voulvoulis, 2018). It are in the manufacturing industry (Lieder and Rashid, 2016). Prod-
is heralded as a way of saving resources and stimulating growth uct design or business model innovations to enhance the circu-
(Stahel, 2016). Other circular economy notions are those of slow- lar economy exist in other industries; e.g., product-service systems
ing (i.e., the expansion of a product’s lifespan) or narrowing (i.e., or waste industries (Singh and Ordoñez, 2016; Hernandez, 2019;
resource-use efficiency) the loops through business models and de- Kjaer et al., 2019). There are, however, few applications of cir-
sign strategies supported by policymakers (Bocken et al., 2016). cular economy concepts in the basic supply sectors such as the
In economics, the circular economy has been around since the water, energy, infrastructure, and agricultural sectors. Particularly
early 1990s as a way of capturing the total functions of the en- in developing regions of the world, these sectors are typically
infrastructure-heavy, under strong public control, and not exposed
to a high throughput of innovations. Nonetheless, they are highly
∗
Correspondence: Mohammad Al-Saidi; Qatar University, Center for Sustainable
important for reducing ecological footprints and environmental ex-
Development, P.O. Box: 2713 Doha, Qatar.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Al-Saidi).
ternalities. In arid regions such as that of the Gulf Cooperation

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2021.03.004
2352-5509/© 2021 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Al-Saidi, P. Das and I. Saadaoui Sustainable Production and Consumption 27 (2021) 1273–1285

Council (GCC), the circular economy concept could be highly rel- of wastewater. First, food loss and waste have been highlighted as
evant. In this paper, we examine how the circular economy trans- key areas for applying the circular economy idea. Several studies
lates into the reality of key supply sectors, namely the water and have listed viable technologies and expected environmental bene-
food sectors. fits related to food waste reduction and utilization (Vilariño et al.,
The concretization of the concept of the circular economy for 2017; Ingrao et al., 2018; Slorach et al., 2019). For the case of Italy,
the water and food sectors offers opportunities to develop this Principato et al. (2019) quantified food waste and loss for the pasta
concept further and explore its potential. With this in mind, this industry, while Borrello et al. (2017) designed an experiment to
paper focuses on how to break down the idea of the circular econ- gauge the consumers’ preferences on reducing food waste. Second,
omy in the context of the basic supply sectors such as the water with regard to wastewater utilization, studies utilizing the circu-
and food sectors. As previously stated, the circular economy con- lar economy concept have shown the challenges facing the expan-
cept is poorly understood with regard to basic supply, with very sion of water reuse (e.g., regulatory, health, environmental, or pub-
limited case studies in this area. The paper aims to develop a novel lic acceptance issues) (Voulvoulis, 2018; Guerra-Rodríguez et al.,
framework for framing the circular economy approach for the wa- 2020). There have also been case studies showcasing experiences
ter and food sectors. Using the GCC region as an illustrative case in tackling these challenges in Europe (Smol et al., 2020), India
for the potential of the circular economy concept, the paper lays (Kakwani and Kalbar, 2020), or Spain (Hagenvoort et al., 2019).
out issues, strategies, directions, and implementation challenges. It Wastewater treatment as a part of the circular economy concept
contributes to both the conceptual academic literature, by seek- has also been highlighted in several projects focusing on treatment
ing the development of adequate mapping frameworks for circu- technologies of wastewater for the extraction of biofuels in Europe
lar economy issues and strategies, and the case study literature, (Bianco, 2018; Paul et al., 2018).
by showcasing exemplary directions for the supply sectors. First, a Altogether, the current literature linking the circular economy
short review of the circular economy in basic supply is provided, to the basic supply sectors focus on discussing general environ-
and the paper’s relevance reiterated. Second, the original circular mental benefits and on analyzing specific issues (e.g., food waste
economy framework is introduced and related circular strategies or water reuse) or subsectors (e.g., food manufacturing or water-
are mapped along with respective examples. Using this framework, based recreation). There have been few sector-wide studies of the
the overall sectoral issues on the macro and meso levels are ex- food or water sectors. For example, Jurgilevich et al. (2016) dis-
plained, and later, concrete examples of business models and in- cussed the circular economy in the food sector from the lens
dustrial applications are provided from the GCC region. Finally, pri- of socio-technical transitions, and presented some challenges.
oritizations and future directions for the Gulf region are discussed Fassio and Tecco (2019) linked the circular economy in the food
by contrasting the current status with other examples of conceiv- sector to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through a de-
able circular strategies from the initial mapping exercise. scription of contributions and issues. Esposito et al. (2020) pro-
vided a literature review linking the circular economy to the
2. Literature review agri-food sector. They highlighted the complexity of perceptions
of the circular economy and the relevance of this concept for
The circular economy concept originally emerged out of indus- achieving overarching sustainability goals. In the water sector,
trial or manufacturing applications (Geng and Doberstein, 2008; Sgroi et al. (2018) reviewed studies on the feasibility and sustain-
Bocken et al., 2016; Lieder and Rashid, 2016; Geng et al., 2019), but ability of water reuse and discussed how the circular economy
it has since found ground in other industries related to the supply can promote this reuse. These sector-wide studies are often not
of basic amenities such as food and clean water. Broad applica- driven by a specific framework or definition of the circular econ-
tions to the water and food supply sectors focus on showcasing omy, while the applications are not regional and mostly focus on
the relevance of the circular economy to the environmental objec- one sector. The paper at hand responds to this gap since it pro-
tives of these sectors and other related sectors such as health and vides a systematized narrative of the circular economy in several
energy. For example, Del Borghi et al. (2020) focused on the con- basic supply sectors using the GCC region as a case study. Its orig-
tribution of the recovery of energy and raw materials to the cir- inal framework can be used for mapping applications across the
cular economy in Netherlands, while van Leeuwen et al. (2018) ar- value chains and the circular economy principles.
gued that the circular economy through life cycle thinking could In order to showcase the potential of the circular economy for
lower environmental impacts across the water-energy-food nexus. basic supply, it is relevant to provide more holistic and systematic
Other studies presented the wide range of benefits from circular assessments, particularly from regions with harsh climatic condi-
economy applications such as food waste utilization (Slorach et al., tions (Abu-Ghunmi et al., 2016; Voulvoulis, 2018). Considering its
2019) or from the different technologies in the areas of waste man- natural scarcity of water and arable land, the GCC region is in se-
agement, energy and water management and green strategies in rious need of sustainability approaches focusing on resource ef-
general (van Fan et al., 2019). ficiency, reuse, and recycling. This region includes countries with
Alongside these broad studies on the environmental benefits, similar climatic and economic conditions, and exhibits a rare form
there are applications targeting single technologies, selected indus- of institutionalized (environmental) cooperation among states in
tries or specific subsectors in the water and food sectors. For ex- the Middle East shaped by political turmoil and changing alliances
ample, life cycle assessments have been used to highlight the de- (Al-Saidi, 2020). The member countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman,
sign, applications and benefits of the circular economy for water Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)) are rich
tourism in Northern Europe (Strazza et al., 2015; Scheepens et al., in carbon-based resources. However, they are undergoing a tangi-
2016). Other applications of the circular economy include the pro- ble modernization, mainly in the built environment, in order to
motion of lean practices in small and medium water companies reduce their large carbon footprints (Al-Saidi and Elagib, 2018).
in Europe (Sartal et al., 2020), and of sewer mining in Greece Besides this, they are becoming more engaged with the global
(Makropoulos et al., 2018). Another example is the use of input- sustainability agenda (Al-Saidi et al., 2019). The circular economy
output models to analyze resource-use efficiency in sub-areas of concept is advocated for the region as a way of making cities
the agri-food industry in Australia as an element of the circular more sustainable through the recycling of materials, efficiency
economy in basic supply (Pagotto and Halog, 2016). measures, and waste management (Strategyand, 2019). However,
For the basic supply sectors, the main two issues highlighted in other than singular examinations of reuse options, e.g., water reuse
the academic literature are food waste and loss as well as the reuse in GCC countries (Aleisa and Al-Zubari, 2017; Zubari et al., 2017;

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M. Al-Saidi, P. Das and I. Saadaoui Sustainable Production and Consumption 27 (2021) 1273–1285

Brown et al., 2018; Al-Saidi and Dehnavi, 2020) and the use of
waste to produce biofuels in Saudi Arabia (Rehan et al., 2018),
there is no academic work detailing circular economy efforts in the
region. Moreover, a study of circular economy-based contributions
to enhancing the sustainability of the key supply sectors (water,
land, and energy) would be quite valuable considering the lack of
studies in this area and the relevance of these sectors. The wa-
ter and food supply sectors present bottlenecks for achieving sus-
tainable development in this arid region. The region is character-
ized by very high water scarcity and overuse of vulnerable ground-
water aquifers (Saif et al., 2014; Zubari et al., 2017). As a result,
GCC countries need to find alternative resources and technologies
to complement desalination and enhance local food production
(Brown et al., 2018). The interlinkages between such sectors are be-
coming increasingly important. Water and food production need to
incorporate energy-efficient technologies, water reuse options, re-
newables, and risk management strategies (Abulibdeh et al., 2019;
Al-Saidi and Saliba, 2019). Mapping the circular economy applica-
tions for the water and food sectors is a crucial step in the under-
standing of sustainability options for these key sectors.
The exercise of mapping the circular economy in the water and
food sectors requires the defining and breaking up of this con-
cept, and later reconstructing it into tangible strategies. Respond- Fig. 1. Circular economy framework: value chain and principles.
ing to this demand for systematic and structured analysis, and
considering the above-mentioned relevance of the circular econ-
omy for resource-scarce regions, this paper seeks to provide a value chain with circular economy contents and define the possi-
holistic picture as a basis for future research into the develop- ble loops, we rely on the circular economy synthesis developed by
ment of circular economy strategies in natural resource manage- Kirchherr et al. (2017), based on an extensive review of necessary
ment, with a focus on the water and food sectors as two key basic components in definitions of the circular economy. Accordingly, a
supply sectors. Mapping the circular economy issues for the wa- comprehensive understanding of the circular economy needs to
ter and food sectors is a challenging but valuable exercise con- include the 4R principles (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recover),
sidering the resource-use priorities in the Gulf. In fact, the circu- which are ordered by a priority rank (i.e., first reduce, then reuse,
lar economy has several meanings and relationships in common etc.). We use these core principles for identifying loops across the
with other sustainability paradigms and the sustainable develop- value chain and defining subordinate or synonymous principles.
ment concept in general (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017; Korhonen et al., For example, the Reuse principle includes (and is sometimes the
2018). Since its emergence as a sustainability paradigm, this con- same as) other principles mentioned in the literature (Fig. 1).
cept has had different connotations, but the main emphasis has According to Kirchherr et al. (2017), comprehensive definitions
been more on the transformation of businesses and industries of the circular economy need to refer to sustainable development
and less on social issues of sustainability (Murray et al., 2017). In by stating the four aims of (1) ‘environmental quality’ (i.e., en-
our framework (Section 3), this core focus is maintained, as we vironmental protection and restoration); (2) ‘economic prosperity’
map circular economy issues across the value chain of resource- (i.e., improving economic outcomes); (3) ‘social equity’ (i.e., focus-
supply production and highlight industrial examples. Analyzing ing on well-being); and (4) ‘future generation’ (i.e., a long-term
value chains and businesses has been a main theme in the circular temporal dimension). In addition, the circular economy definition
economy literature. For example, Pishchulov et al. (2018) reviewed has to incorporate three systems perspectives to be understood
the literature on closed-loop supply chain management and sup- and applied in a holistic way, namely (1) a micro-systems perspec-
ply chain design, coordination, and operation. Here, the underly- tive (i.e., the firm and consumers level); (2) a meso–systems per-
ing supply chain is embedded in four elements related to natu- spective (i.e., the regional or eco-industrial level); and (3) a macro-
ral resources: extraction/preparation, production (including distri- systems level (i.e., the global or national level). In our analysis of
bution), consumption (including markets), and waste management. the water and food supply sectors, the analysis units for the three
Similarly, Kalmykova et al. (2018) defined a value chain in a cir- perspectives are presented in Table 1. In this paper, the macro-
cular economy by breaking down the value chain into seven main level perspective takes in the water and food supply sectors, while
steps (materials, design, manufacturing, distribution and sales, con- the meso level is applied to the wastewater plant or farming sys-
sumption and use, collection and disposal, and recycling and re- tem. In Section 3, we focus on the macro and meso levels and map
covery) while incorporating a couple of loops among the different circular economy issues for the water and food sectors in the GCC
parts of the value chain. countries using the framework depicted in Fig. 1. We also discuss
the manifestations of the four above-mentioned aims of sustain-
3. Methods able development through a shift towards the circular economy in
these sectors. In Section 4, we focus on the micro level and present
3.1. Framework development and value chain description concrete industrial and business examples using the circular strate-
gies explained in the following section.
We limit our value chain (see Fig. 1) to the five core steps
(input extraction, manufacturing, distribution, consumption, and 3.2. Circular strategies and business models
disposal) most relevant for supply resource production (i.e., wa-
ter and food supply). Here, the product design step is not rel- In order to structure our illustration of business models, we
evant, since most water and food products are homogenous or connect the value-chain steps and the 4R principles through cer-
have a certain required baseline quality. In order to fill in the tain loops we evaluate as being viable for natural resource-supply

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Table 1
Analysis units in the different circular economy perspectives.

Systems
perspective Macro level Meso level Micro level

Analysis Units National-level sectors, Sub-industries and Products, business models, and consumer
industries production plants preferences
Water Sector Water supply and Wastewater plants Wastewater-related products, alternative
treatment sectors water use in agriculture
Food Sector Food production sector Food industries Food waste utilization in several applications

Fig. 2. Loops between value-chain steps as circular strategies.

Fig. 3. Issue mapping in the food sector.

sectors. These connections/loops are depicted in Fig. 2, and we call
them ‘circular strategies’ (CSs). For example, CS 6 relates to re-
covering materials for the input extraction step and reintroduc-
ing them in the manufacturing step. As such, the CSs represent
the value-chain directions (e.g., from input extraction to manufac-
turing) and the circular economy principle (e.g., recovery). In this
sense, they include the spatial characterizations of the loops with-
out revealing the exact business model.
Table 2 explains these CSs based on the main economic con-
cept behind them. For example, reducing input use in the man-
ufacturing step is essentially technical or manufacturing effi-
ciency. Furthermore, the business models represent the manner
in which a firm is doing business. The role of business mod-
els in the circular economy has been extensively reviewed by
Geissdoerfer et al. (2018) and Bocken et al. (2016). Accordingly, the
aims of circular business models can vary; e.g., closing (through re-
cycling), slowing (product life extension), narrowing (efficiency im-
provement), intensifying (increased intensity in use through shar-
ing, for example), and dematerializing (substitutions through ser-
vices and software) the loops. Our CSs do not incorporate these
aims per se but can be categorized under one or more of these
loop types (Table 2). There are many examples of circular busi-
ness models described in the literature, such as sharing and leasing
schemes, recycling companies (e.g., in the car and electronic indus- Fig. 4. Issue mapping in the water sector.
tries), and waste management ideas. However, there are few pre-
sented in the literature with regard to the water and food value
chains. This paper is concerned with these models. They will be 4. Results
presented in Section 4 as cases of business models but also as in-
dustrial examples, i.e., applications that are yet to be introduced 4.1. Mapping overarching circular economy issues
on a commercial scale but are suitable for such an introduction
(Section 4.2). Section 4.1 provides an initial mapping of macro- and The circular economy issues in the water and food sectors in
meso–level issues in the GCC region based on the previously intro- the GCC region are mapped in Figs. 3 and 4. While some issues
duced value chain framework of the circular economy. such as distribution losses, renewables, technology, and efficiency

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Table 2
Analysis units in the different circular economy perspectives.

Type of loop (using the

Circular Value chain classification in
economy steps/loop (Geissdoerfer et al., Significance and examples for water
No. Circular strategy principle direction 2018) Strategy description and food sectors

CS1 Extraction Reduce Input Narrowing ‘Reduce the input during the • Input or raw materials needed for
Efficiency extraction extraction of the input/raw materials’, water and food production are
meaning how to provide sustainable typically arable land, water and
or sustainably produced raw materials fertilizers for food production; and
required for manufacturing/ energy and chemicals for water
production. production
• The most relevant inputs for
producing these raw materials are
fossil fuels (e.g., petroleum products
for synthetic fertilizers, gas for power
generation, etc.); water, land/space are
the most relevant inputs for farming
land; proteins and oils are required
for fish production.
• Sustainable alternatives: use of
bio-fertilizers; incorporation of
renewable energy sources such as
solar farming and desalination;
vertical farming; use of marginal
water (e.g., saline water) for food
production; use of alternative fish
feed
CS2 Manufacturing Reduce Manufacturing Narrowing; Reduce the input required for water • Efficiency measures in water
Efficiency dematerializing; and food production. production include more
intensifying energy-efficient membrane
technologies; more efficient pumping
systems; automation.
• Efficiency measures in food
production include vertical farming;
combined terrestrial and marine
systems; hydroponics; aquaponics;
smart (sensor-based) greenhouses;
sustainable intensification of soil; crop
variety improvements; plant control;
improved pest management.
CS3 Distribution Reduce Distribution Narrowing Reduce losses during transportation. • Reduction in food losses during
Efficiency transport through intelligent systems
(e.g., high-tech containers),
post-harvest treatment, supply-chain
sensors, better logistical services, etc.
• Reduction in unaccounted-for water
(UFW) (i.e., non-revenue water
(NRW)) through maintenance of
networks and better monitoring
systems (e.g., metering or smart
systems)
CS4 Responsible Reduce Consumption Narrowing; Reduce consumption. • Mostly awareness-raising measures
Consumption intensifying; such as nudging, media campaigns,
dematerializing education, and role models;
self-accounting systems (e.g., apps for
consumption and footprint
calculations, detailed bills), etc.
CS5 Waste Reduce Disposal Narrowing; Reduce waste in post-consumption • Development of comprehensive
Management dematerializing phases. waste management strategies for
segregation, landfill management,
infrastructure, etc.
• Linking awareness-raising on
consumption to waste management
policies
CS6 Extraction Recover From input Closing Recover useful materials (suitable for • Retrieval of materials based on the
Recovery extraction to industrial applications) from the type of input: e.g., utilization of
manufacturing extraction of input materials. produced water (a by-product of
energy production); water algae from
water for several purposes
• Retrieval of several products from
soil/land during preparation for food
production; multi-purpose use of land
such as co-location of renewables and
food production, or through several
agroforestry techniques
(continued on next page)

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Table 2 (continued)

No. Circular strategy Circular Value chain Type of loop (using the Strategy description Significance and examples for water
economy steps/loop classification in and food sectors
principle direction (Geissdoerfer et al.,
2018)

CS7 Manufacturing Recover From Closing Recover useful materials during • In water production, utilization of
Recovery manufacturing production as input for other brine water during desalination
to input products. • In food production, utilization of
extraction drainage water, and harvest losses,
e.g., for ecosystems remediation, fuel
production, etc.
CS8 Distribution Recover From Closing; slowing Recover distribution losses for • Donation of unsold food of good
Recovery distribution to consumption or industrial purposes. quality; use of food waste during the
consumption distribution for biofuels; diversion of
collected water losses in the network
for purposes such as landscaping
From Closing
distribution to
manufacturing
CS9 Waste Recover From disposal Closing Recover useful materials as raw • Collection and reuse of treated
Utilization to input materials or to be incorporated wastewater effluent (TSE); food waste
extraction directly in manufacturing. as biofuels, organic composite, and a
source of lipids and protein; several
materials retrieved from landfills
Recover From disposal closing
to
manufacturing
CS10 Circular Reuse Consumption Closing; intensifying Reuse, recycle and recover resources • Water-saving and sharing
Consumption during consumption for consequential applications in houses; reuse of
use. graywater and food composite on-site;
household-level water purification
systems; sale of collected household
waste to companies
Recycle From closing
consumption
to
manufacturing
recover Consumption Closing; intensifying
CS11 Consumption reuse From Slowing Extending the life of products • Use of better food storage techniques
Longevity consumption in homes; appliances for quality
to monitoring and improvements in
manufacturing water and food at homes; donations
of food to specialized companies or
agencies for efficient redistribution

are common concerns for many countries, others related to the major challenge in the Gulf region. Such a task has immediate im-
reuse of different types of water and the reduction of energy and plications not only for the livelihoods of the current generation,
land requirements are particularly important for dry regions. It but also for the welfare of future generations.
is becoming evident that more integration and circulation of re- In reviewing circular economy issues, we differentiate between
sources is urgently required. Furthermore, as earlier stated, com- the macro and the meso levels. At the macro level, circular econ-
prehensive circular economy analyses need to relate to the over- omy in the water and food sectors needs to be examined with re-
arching objectives of sustainable development (Kirchherr et al., gard to its potential contribution to fulfilling the overarching goals
2017). This is especially important for the water and food sec- of environmental protection, economic prosperity, livelihood im-
tors as they are vital for sustainability, supply security and eco- provements, and intergenerational justice. At the national level,
nomic welfare in the arid Gulf region. For example, the deterio- water and food policies need to promote water conservation, ac-
ration of groundwater quality and quantity is a major protection ceptance and awareness of water reuse, as well as the integrated
challenge that affects the prosperity and livelihood of future gener- regulation of water and related issues (Saif et al., 2014). Further-
ations. This deterioration is due to demand growth and unsustain- more, the transformation of the supply sectors in the region should
able use. Between 2010 and 2018, population growth in GCC coun- be framed within broader policies of ecological modernization
tries ranged between 13% (UAE) and 58% (Oman) (FAOSTAT, 2019). through renewables, technologies, and low-carbon measures (Al-
This is in addition to remarkable economic growth as well as the Saidi and Elagib, 2018), or the quest to adapt to risks from a global
expansion of food-intensive sectors such as tourism. Although all environmental force such as climate change (Al-Maamary et al.,
GCC countries are considered food-secure, they still rely on im- 2017; Al-Saidi and Saliba, 2019). At the meso level of industries
ports to satisfy the increasing food demand (Harrigan, 2014). The and production plants, there are two overarching circular economic
food imports not only cover the food supply ready for consump- issues. First, food production is becoming more differentiated both
tion but also the ingredients required for local food production spatially (i.e., conventional farms, urban agriculture, vertical farm-
(Yaqoob, 2011). Local food production is, however, limited by sev- ing, combinations of terrestrial and marine systems, etc.), and in
eral factors, including the harsh climate, the dry land, the poor terms of products (i.e., from fish, vegetables, forage, or other high-
soil quality, and the water scarcity (Shahid and Al-Shankiti, 2013). value products such as fish feed or biofertilizers). Secondly, water
Therefore, securing a basic supply of affordable food and water ser- use and reuse issues are becoming more comprehensive (i.e., the
vices without depleting the limited natural resources represents a utilization of many water types) to meet different demands, in-

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cluding food production. This entails utilizing lesser-used sources

such as saline water, wastewater, or on-site collection and reuse
(Aleisa and Al-Zubari, 2017; Brown et al., 2018).

Reused water as% of collected wastewater

4.2. Current directions for business models and industrial applications

4.2.1. Multipurpose utilization of municipal wastewater

The utilization of municipal wastewater is one of the most
pressing topics in the Gulf due to its contribution to the aug-
mentation of water supplies and extraction of other resources that
can be used in several other manufacturing processes. In general,
industrial applications relying on the use of wastewater are in
line with the earlier-mentioned circular strategies of waste man-
agement (e.g., municipal wastewater as a product of disposal of
consumed water resources), extraction recovery or manufactur-

8.6%
25%

49%
49%

62%
ing recovery (wastewater as a by-product in industry, desalina-

–
tion, or energy production). So far, treated wastewater has been in-

Reused water (MCM)

creasingly recognized as an important resource, although the bulk
of academic literature in the field promotes its use for agricul-

Non-edible agriculture for forage cultivation, recharge of groundwater, landscaping and recreation, district cooling, road projects
Wastewater reuse: key facts for the GCC region (in millions of cubic meters (MCM)). Data for the year 2016, adapted from Al-Saidi and Dehnavi (2020).
tural purposes (Aleisa and Al-Zubari, 2017; Brown et al., 2018; Al-
Saidi and Dehnavi, 2020). Much of the collected wastewater is still
not used either directly (e.g., in agriculture or landscaping) or indi-

216
452

Lack of integrated infrastructure, inadequate incentives, distorting freshwater subsidies, lack of promotional policies
rectly (i.e., for extracting materials). This is mainly due to the nov-

39

33
97
–
elty of this topic in the region, and the current lack of adequate

Treated wastewater as% of collected wastewater

infrastructure and supporting strategies. Table 3 provides some ba-
sic statistics on the status quo of wastewater reuse in the region.
With regard to concrete business models and industrial appli-
cations exemplifying the concepts of the circular economy, these
need to utilize wastewater as a multipurpose resource, i.e., beyond
the use of the treated water itself. Due to human activities, var-
ious organic and inorganic compounds end up in the wastewa-
ter. Depending on the value of the compounds and the process of
separation, these compounds could be separated at the place of
origin. However, in other cases, these compounds need to be re-
moved by means of microbial consumption, microbial conversion
and mineralization, filtration, adsorption, etc., to minimize or pre-
vent environmental pollution. The physical processes of wastewa-
44%
77%
99%
98%
64%
98%
ter treatment could be slower and more expensive than biologi-
cal treatment processes. Municipal wastewater (MWW) represents
Wastewater treated (MCM)

the bulk of the wastewater for a city – ranging from 30.7 to 442.7
m3 /day/capita (Aleisa and Al-Zubari, 2017). Apart from various or-
ganics, MWW typically contains nitrogen (15–90 mg L − 1 ), phos-
phorus (5–20 mg L − 1 ), and other elements (Cai et al., 2013). Al-
though constructed wetland and microalgae could be used to treat
the MWW (Kivaisi, 2001; Das et al., 2019b), the most common
practice for treating MWW is the activated sludge process (ASP).
1604
247

194

711
69

67

During the ASP, the MWW is usually treated through successive

processes combining physical, biological, and chemical techniques.
Wastewater collected (MCM)

Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia using the Haber-

Bosch process, which is energy-intensive. The ammonia formed
through this process is mainly used to produce various fertilizers
for plant growth (Erisman et al., 2008). The bulk of the nitrogen
in the MWW could be linked to the Haber-Bosch process. In this
way, recycling the nitrogen from MWW could minimize the re-
quirement for ammonia synthesis, which attributes to greenhouse
2503
158
319

198

724

gas (GHG) emissions. Nevertheless, a fraction of the biosolids gen-

68

erated in the wastewater treatment plants is currently being used

in various parts as nutrient-rich fertilizer for the GCC region. For
Main challenges

example, in Oman, the sewage sludge is mixed with other green

Saudi Arabia
GCC Country

Main uses

waste (e.g., grass clippings, dry leaves, trimmings from trees and
Bahrain
Kuwait

shrubs, etc.) and the mixture is composted using ‘windrow’ tech-

Oman
Qatar
Table 3

UAE

nology. The compost is then used as organic fertilizer (Jaffar Abdul

Khaliq et al., 2017). Very recently, according to personal communi-
cation with stakeholders, some of the newly constructed wastew-
ater treatment plants in Qatar are distributing the biosolids to the
local farmers as soil conditioners. Currently, the world is facing a

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M. Al-Saidi, P. Das and I. Saadaoui Sustainable Production and Consumption 27 (2021) 1273–1285

‘peak phosphorus’ crisis, and it is very critical that phosphorus is posal recovery (e.g., the use of municipal wastewater for agricul-
recycled whenever possible (Cordell, D., White, S., 2011). The con- ture). Industrial applications and business models in this area are
centration of phosphorus in the MWW is much higher than the also related to important contextual issues of the circular econ-
requirement for microbial treatment of the MWW. The recovery omy, namely, achieving environmental sustainability and intergen-
of phosphorus through struvite formation, as a first process of the erational equity (through preserving groundwater resources), and
overall treatment of MWW, is practiced in some parts of the world maintaining the small but important local agriculture sector in the
(Jaffer et al., 2002). In the GCC, unused treated sewage effluent Gulf. Although local agriculture is driving the overuse of ground-
(TSE) is discharged in the desert for groundwater recharge or dis- water resources, the economic contribution of agriculture and live-
posed of in the sea, whereas the remaining TSE is mostly used for stock is very low in GCC countries; e.g., 0.2% of GDP in the case of
forage production and landscaping and recreational purposes. The Qatar. Still, local production of essential foods such as vegetables,
presence of residual nutrients in the wastewater treatment could fruits, and livestock products (meats, milk, and eggs) is extremely
be advantageous over groundwater. Indeed, the yield of sorghum important for GCC countries. Table 4 shows the food production
and maize crops in Oman was 30% higher when TSE was used patterns among the GCC countries, with Saudi Arabia as the re-
compared to freshwater irrigation (Qureshi, 2020). Construction in- gional leader, followed by Oman, Kuwait, and the UAE. In this con-
dustries are also utilizing TSE; in the GCC countries, there has been text, it is important to look for novel and innovative technologies
a gradual increase in TSE utilization by these industries. For exam- or sustainable options for food production such as smart agricul-
ple, the construction industries in the GCC used 1.5 billion m3 of ture, integrated soil reclamation programs, and non-soil-based pro-
TSE in 2015, which was five times higher than their TSE utilization duction systems. A key issue is to minimize water requirements
in 1990 (Zubari et al., 2017). while producing high-quality products.
Similarly to MWW, other sources of wastewater (e.g., produced With regard to the use of the different types of wastewater
water, industrial wastewater) could also act as a growth medium for enhancing the circular economy in the region, Al-Saidi and
for producing biomass as feedstock or various bulk chemicals Dehnavi (2020) have provided an overview of current practices
(Das et al., 2019a). Depending on the combination of adopted tech- and required strategies. For example, more integrated urban sys-
nologies, the quality of the TSE could vary. Religious beliefs and tems are needed by linking treatment plants to use sites or ad-
perceptions about MWW among the direct and end-users often vancing vertical farming by using harvested, drained, or treated
barred the reuse of TSE in many sectors. To expand the use of TSE, water. It is important in this regard to have comprehensive strate-
some of its constituents such as pathogens, emerging contami- gies that set clear targets for the use of different water types and
nants, and elements of concern need to be removed by appropriate provide investments in key industrial applications (Al-Saidi and
advanced technologies, and even the logistics of collection, storing, Dehnavi, 2020). For example, hydroponic systems were largely ap-
and distributing TSE to the respective users needs to be developed plied in the GCC region and led to a great improvement in the
(Jasim et al., 2016). Nevertheless, due to the scarcity of freshwater quality and quantity of edible plants produced (Brown et al., 2018).
and the environmental consequences of desalination, GCC coun- More recently, aquaponics have been applied in the UAE and Qatar
tries have envisioned the reuse of TSE in the field of fodder pro- as a sustainable and more innovative agricultural production sys-
duction, groundwater recharge, landscaping, industrial cooling, etc. tem (Pirani and Arafat, 2016; Abusin and Mandikiana, 2020). In
(Zekri et al., 2014; Jasim et al., 2016; Ouda, 2016; Aleisa and Al- this system, aquaculture and hydroponics are coupled together to
Zubari, 2017). In some cases, the generation of TSE could be fa- produce crops and fish with less water use, less waste, and more
vored over desalination in terms of cost and energy requirements benefits compared to both systems applied separately (Blidariu and
(Pearce, 2008). TSE often contains residual nitrogen, phosphorus, Grozea, 2011). There are other options for utilizing marginal water
and other trace elements, and an uncontrolled release or applica- (i.e., water of a lower quality). These options, such as combined
tion of TSE could initiate unwanted microalgal growth and conse- systems of terrestrial and marine agriculture, and the use of mi-
quently pollute the local aquatic ecosystem (a process known as croalgae or produced water for certain products, are systematically
eutrophication) (Glibert, 2007). Instead, selected microalgae could reviewed in the GCC case by Brown et al. (2018).
be used to recycle the nutrients and refine the TSE for reuse or
discharge to natural water bodies. The biomass generated dur- 4.2.3. Conversion and recycling of food waste
ing the water treatment process could be further processed us- Tackling food waste in the Gulf is a cross-cutting theme for the
ing a variety of technologies (e.g., anaerobic digestion, hydrother- circular economy as it accommodates a wide range of the above-
mal liquefaction, pyrolysis, etc.) to generate energy as biogas or mentioned circular strategies. It relates to strategies stressing re-
biofuel (Das et al., 2020). Furthermore, the techno-economic via- ducing, reusing and recycling within the value food chain (e.g.,
bility of microalgal bioremediation of wastewater and biofuel pro- manufacturing efficiency, distribution efficiency, responsible con-
duction, under Qatari environment conditions, is being studied in sumption, circular consumption, consumption longevity, or waste
a project in the Center for Sustainable Development at Qatar Uni- management) or the recovery of resources for other industrial ap-
versity. The leftover biomass, after extracting the energy, could plications (e.g., waste utilization, manufacturing recovery, distribu-
retain the bulk of the nutrients (N, P, and other microelements) tion recovery). Among the different strategies cited above, improv-
and could be used as biofertilizer. This is in addition to the op- ing awareness about food waste reduction, and encouraging food
tion of using microalgae-based biofertilizer, which has been shown redistribution by private/social organizations as donations to needy
to be efficient in enhancing the growth of date palm plantlets people are the most commonly adopted strategies in Saudi Arabia
(Saadaoui et al., 2019). (Baig et al., 2019), Qatar (Irani et al., 2018), the UAE (Abdallah et al.,
2018), and other GCC countries. Traditional linear food production
4.2.2. Alternative water for agricultural production systems end up with huge amounts of food waste disposed of in
Due to the large water footprint of local agriculture in the Gulf landfill sites, leading to serious negative environmental impacts,
region, finding alternative water sources is an important policy ob- including emissions of GHGs such as methane resulting in climate
jective encompassing several research and industrial efforts. There change (Manfredi and Christensen, 2009; Oldfield et al., 2016). This
are several circular strategies that can be linked to this objective; is in addition to the transportation cost and the increased CO2
e.g., manufacturing efficiency (reuse options of the agricultural wa- emitted into the air also adding to climate change. Food waste and
ter itself); extraction recovery (treatment of water by-products in losses take place along the whole food supply chain from harvest-
energy and water production for the use in agriculture); and dis- ing, transportation, storage, processing/packaging, and distribution

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M. Al-Saidi, P. Das and I. Saadaoui Sustainable Production and Consumption 27 (2021) 1273–1285

Table 4
Food production in the GCC countries in 10 0 0 tonnes, averages 2011–2018. Source: (FAOSTAT, 2019).

Total Fruit Production Total Vegetables Total Eggs Total Meat Milk

Bahrain 19.52 324.15 2.84 24.47 14.21

Kuwait 103.03 324.15 69.56 93.42 64.82
Oman 418.32 354.10 15.51 74.25 202.75
Qatar 28.34 37.24 4.65 22.75 34.12
Saudi Arabia 2099.51 967.96 252.61 733.99 2245.01
UAE 66.19 324.15 29.01 58.64 40.25

through to consumption. In this context, circular food production feeds. From the crushed date seeds, oil could be extracted us-
is highly relevant to the region. Here, innovative, cost-effective, and ing an appropriate solvent and could be converted into biodiesel
environmentally friendly technologies can be used to produce high (Azeem et al., 2016). In general, there is good potential to extract
quantities of high-quality food. At the same time, the waste gener- energy from waste in the region. The feasibility of extracting en-
ated along the full supply chain is recycled as feedstock to produce ergy from the organic fraction of the municipal solid waste (e.g.,
high-value-added products. Along the food chain, there could be a food waste, paper, plastic, textile, hardwood, etc.) through differ-
considerable amount of food loss between retailers and consumers ent waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies (e.g., incineration, anaero-
due to the collective factors of unacceptable quality, losses in the bic digestion, gasification, and landfill gas) has been studied in the
manufacturing process, and incomplete utilization or consumption. context of Bahrain (Alsabbagh, 2019).
Food waste, being one of the main contributors to landfill, is linked Finally, the economic benefits of food waste utilization are tan-
to environmental pollution. GCC countries are among the top food gible while technologies are available for doing this. These tech-
wasters per capita worldwide (Baig et al., 2019). Composting food nologies include the following: (1) composting: degradation of
waste to produce biofertilizer would reduce the need for synthetic polymers to organic material to be used as organic fertilizer for soil
fertilizer, eliminate the environmental pollution due to landfilling amendment (Waqas et al., 2018); (2) anaerobic digestion: degra-
of food waste, and also support the circular economy in the con- dation of the organic matter using anaerobic bacteria, to produce
text of industrial ecology (Al-Rumaihi et al., 2020). hydrogen and methane, which are considered as renewable energy
Recent studies have shown that Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the (Abdallah et al., 2018); (3) pyrolysis: thermochemical degradation
UAE belong to the top food wasters in the world with ~600, of the food waste to produce biochar, which improves the nutrient
427 and 197 kg of food wasted per capita per year, respectively content and the water retention capacity of the soil (Elkhalifa et al.,
(Baig et al., 2019). Managing this huge amount of food waste has 2019); (4) hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL): production of crude
become a critical challenge for the GCC countries. There are spo- oil with the possibility of extracting high-value-added products
radic initiatives to reduce food waste via reducing food consump- through biorefinery (although the HTL technique is not yet fully
tion, collecting the remaining food and redistributing it to needy implemented in the GCC countries). Applying one of these tech-
people, or using the food waste as animal feed (Al-Thani et al., nologies to recycle and reuse the waste will reduce the overall
2017). Developing sustainable and cost-effective recycling pro- cost and make the process economically feasible. Table 5 presents
cesses for waste food is of increasing importance and considered some estimations of the economic benefits that could be attributed
a promising opportunity to embrace the circular economy. Food to waste treatment technology. The selection of a suitable process
waste is generally rich in hydrocarbons, and several biological and depends on the associated environmental impacts (Moult et al.,
thermochemical processes can be used to reuse, treat, convert, 2018).
recycle, and extract the high-value product through biorefinery,
or even to produce renewable energy. For example, biochar and 5. Discussion
biofertilizer (soil additives to improve soil quality for plant growth)
can be used for soil amendment (Elkhalifa et al., 2019). This ap- 5.1. Relevance, feasibility and prioritization of circular strategies
plication leads to the coupling of food security with environmen-
tal security and bioenergy, which will help in reducing the op- The idea of the circular economy in the food and water sectors
erational cost of food production. Food waste can also be con- entails several strategies and numerous applicable ideas concep-
verted into biochar through pyrolysis. To address the feed demand tualized by this paper and mapped in the context of the GCC re-
of ever-growing intensive aquaculture and animal farming in the gion. In this region, the notion of circularity in these vital sectors
GCC countries, waste food could also be integrated into animal is highly relevant and recently receiving more attention in practice.
feed (Truong et al., 2019). It is especially relevant for achieving sectoral, macro-level goals of
Another example is that of waste cooking oil (WCO), which increasing local food production while improving the sustainability
is the used edible oil that cannot be reused for the same pur- of water use. Self-sufficiency ratios in the region are low; e.g., as
pose. The usual practices of WCO disposal can clog drainage sys- of 2012 accounting for 14.6%, 15.6%, 32.5%, 9.6%, 30.1%, and 21.2%
tems and also require an additional separating unit/chamber in for Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, re-
the wastewater treatment plant. While the application of vegetable spectively, with an average value of 26.5% for the whole region
oils in the production could be environmentally unsustainable, the (Alpen Capital, 2015). This is despite these ratios increasing re-
use of WCO to produce biodiesel has attracted attention (Abdul- markably in all countries, with Oman as the most self-sufficient
Majeed et al., 2016). Rehan et al. (2018) reported that the ob- country in the GCC in terms of food production in 2019, meeting
tained cost of WCO could be several times (2.5–3.5x) lower than 25%, 70%, and 80% of its respective dairy, fruit, and vegetable de-
the cost of edible vegetable oils. The feasibility studies on produc- mand from local sources (Alpen Capital, 2019). For other countries
ing biodiesel from WCO in various cities in the GCC found it to be such as Qatar, food self-sufficiency has become a vital goal, partic-
very attractive from both the economic and environmental sustain- ularly after the blockade imposed on Qatar in June 2017 and lifted
ability perspectives (Hussain et al., 2016; Rehan et al., 2018). in early 2021. As a result, a holistic strategy has been developed to
In addition to the above, the GCC countries are producing 1.87 ensure improvement in all related sectors. One of the main targets
million tons of date fruits annually (Erskine et al., 2019). The waste consists of achieving 100% self-sufficiency in a number of critical
date fruits could be used as an ingredient for fish and animal commodities, including fresh poultry, and at a lower rate (70%) for

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Table 5
Economic benefits of organic waste treatment in selected GCC countries.

Food waste
treatment
technology Potential and advantages Evidence of use and economic benefits in GCC countries References

Composting Composting enhances soil fertility and agricultural Saudi Arabia: total net savings of about US $70.72 million (Waqas et al., 2018)
sustainability. per year
Anaerobic The anaerobic digestion strategy is more financially Saudi Arabia: higher efficiency (25%); (Ouda et al., 2016)
digestion favorable in terms of the payback period, internal rate of lowest annual capital $0.1–0.14/ton
return and profitability index, mainly due to the larger Saudi Arabia: (Shahzad et al., 2017)
amount of processed waste. - Cumulative net savings from landfill waste diversion:
256 to 533 m. Saudi Riyal (SAR)
- Carbon credits: 46 to 96 m. SAR
- Fuel savings: 146 to 303 m. SAR
- Electricity generation: 273 to 569 m. SAR
UAE: Profitable with a net present value of 181 m. USD, (Abdallah et al., 2018)
compared to −127 m. USD for the anaerobic digestion
strategy
Pyrolysis Pyrolysis leads to the production of biochar, which can be Qatar: Different initiatives to transform food waste to (Elkhalifa et al., 2019)
used as biofertilizer, and syngas as renewable energy. biochar and syngas via pyrolysis.
41.81% w/w (food waste input of 3984 kg/h and ~25%
w/w of several food waste streams)

eggs produced locally. In this context, enhancing local food produc- ple, circular strategies based on the principles of reduction and
tion in a way that does not exacerbate pressures on local resources, reuse can present low-hanging fruit that can be tackled in the
particularly water, is a common goal for all GCC states. The poten- short term and provide cross-cutting opportunities. They include
tial of the circular economy for achieving both water and food se- improved efficiencies in extraction, manufacturing and distribu-
curity in the region (e.g., through water reuse and efficiency in use) tion, and responsible consumption and waste management. Such
has been reinforced by several studies (Aleisa and Al-Zubari, 2017; strategies can be tackled at low cost through increased awareness,
Brown et al., 2018; Al-Saidi and Dehnavi, 2020). This is also in education, and readily available as well as economically feasible
line with GCC-based policies, e.g., the GCC Unified Water Strategy technologies of updating infrastructure and production processes.
(2016–2035) (Zubari et al., 2017). Other strategies based on the principles of recycling and recovery
The promotion of the above-mentioned circular strategies can require more long-term efforts in testing technologies, providing
play an important role in enhancing the circular economy in the economic incentives, and promoting benefits for users and pro-
Gulf region. Two observations can be synthesized from contrast- ducers. They include strategies such as the recovery of materials
ing the GCC experience with our comprehensive mapping of the from extraction, manufacturing and distribution; waste utilization;
circular economy for the water and food sectors. First, the cur- and circular consumption. As we have outlined in this paper, the
rent efforts are far from being comprehensive. This paper has high- bulk of research and development activities in the Gulf center on
lighted, in Table 2, a wide range of strategies and feasible options these strategies, although the outcomes can be oriented towards
for the circular economy in the food and water sectors. Some op- the long term and based on local conditions. For example, in order
tions related to manufacturing recovery are particularly challeng- to improve the recovery of materials from desalination processes,
ing. For example, utilization of the brine from the desalination pro- agriculture and livestock, and municipal wastewater, large invest-
cess needs to be further explored (e.g., for salt production) as it has ments in production redesign and serious reforms for improving
a considerable impact on the marine environment (Alberti et al., the commercialization of retrieved products (e.g., pricing of water,
2009). Furthermore, to enhance the circular economy, waste man- or environmental taxation) might be necessary. Similarly, it is im-
agement and utilization strategies need to be explicit, interlinked, portant to improve strategies to tackle municipal waste and to de-
and comprehensive. Strengthening policies for waste management velop specific and local policies for different waste types.
is a general requirement for the circular economy. This means en-
hancing municipal solid waste management policies and improving 5.2. The way forward for enhancing the circular economy
the valorization of food and organic waste. Collective waste gen-
eration in the GCC was around 120 million m3 /yr (approximately The three preeminent issues of circular economy presented
1.21 kg/person/day), which mainly comes from the four sources here, namely municipal wastewater reuse, alternative water for
of household, industrial solid, hazardous, and medical waste (Al- agriculture, and food waste, can have several synergies with GCC-
Maaded et al., 2012). Separation of the waste materials at source wide efforts to achieve better outcomes for the UN-based Agenda
would make the use of some recycling materials economically of the Sustainable Development Goals (2015–‍2030); e.g., relevant
more feasible while allowing better management of the rest of the agriculture and water targets under SDGs 2 and 6, as well as SDG
waste. Landfills in GCC countries are linked to widespread pollu- 12 on responsible consumption and production. The importance of
tion, and one means of reducing such pollution would be recycling the SDG agenda for the Gulf region as well as the legacies of GCC-
(Hahladakis and Aljabri, 2019). wide environmental cooperation have been extensively analyzed
Secondly, the sequencing and prioritization of circular economic by Al-Saidi (2020). Accordingly, many circular economy issues can
strategies require careful deliberations at national or local level. be addressed locally through investing in the above-mentioned cir-
We have presented overarching strategies and feasible examples cular strategies and adjusting industrial outcomes. At the same
in our mapping exercise, and given concrete and technologically time, common GCC policies can help promote the circular econ-
applicable directions in the Gulf case. In order to further advance omy concept for the basic supply sectors. This could be, for ex-
the circular economy agenda, GCC countries need to tackle and in- ample, through increasing awareness, developing common sustain-
corporate more ambitious circular economy agendas, but also pri- ability targets, and/or relating circular economy to achieving out-
oritize more feasible strategies for immediate actions and provide comes of the global sustainability agenda (i.e., achieving the SDGs,
long-term investments for more demanding strategies. For exam- decarbonization, and the Paris Agreement). At the national level,
the integration between the water and food water sectors in im-

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M. Al-Saidi, P. Das and I. Saadaoui Sustainable Production and Consumption 27 (2021) 1273–1285

plementing reuse and circulation needs to be strengthened. The nizing the value chain can advance both resource-use sustainabil-
current efforts indicate increased attention to issues such as im- ity and economic diversification efforts in the Gulf region. So far,
proving efficiency in extraction and manufacturing, and utilizing the bulk of worldwide circular economy interventions have been
valuable resources such as wastewater and food waste. However, related to the manufacturing industries. In the Gulf, the basic sup-
most of these resources remain under-utilized in the region. The ply sectors such as water and food are particularly important for
utilization of MWW is largely confined to small pilot projects and achieving key goals of the sustainability agenda, e.g., conserving
academic research highlighting the benefits and challenges, such ecosystems, reducing energy use and carbon emissions, and curb-
as inadequate strategies and economic disincentives (e.g., low wa- ing the large ecological footprints. In this regard, the mapping of
ter prices) (Aleisa and Al-Zubari, 2017; Brown et al., 2018). Sim- circular economy applications relevant to the reality of the water
ilarly, with regard to food waste, there are no clear strategies and food sectors is a timely endeavor that can produce viable op-
or policies to advance this option in the region. In Saudi Ara- tions for reforming these vital sectors towards a more sustainable
bia, for example, despite the great potential and some initiatives use of resources. In this context, this paper has provided a unique
to reduce waste, major challenges exist regarding missing legisla- circular economy framework for the basic supply sectors based on
tion, solid waste segregation, awareness, and acceptability of by- existing, broad understandings of this concept. This framework in-
products (Mu’azu et al., 2019). In addition, many food items are tegrates and reorganizes the value chain of basic supply based on
subsidized, while the food culture encourages waste through lavish commonly used circular economy principles and multi-level per-
festivals, special events, and social gatherings (Baig et al., 2019). spectives of supply systems. The mapping exercise resulted in 11
These challenges are indicative of the neglect of non-technical circular strategies that include an extensive list of viable examples
circular economy strategies highlighted earlier, i.e., responsible to enhance the circular economy in the water and food sectors. The
consumption, circular consumption, consumption longevity, and paper outlined some overarching circular economy issues at the
the need to enhance current legislation, investments and poli- macro and meso levels, e.g., conservation, awareness, regulations,
cies. Legal frameworks for limiting food waste (e.g., prohibiting or the differentiation of food production and water reuse systems.
waste of certain items, imposing safe disposal or waste segrega- At the micro level, there are several promising directions for better
tion, or enforcing donations of surplus food) are largely lacking in resource circularity in the food and water sectors. The paper has
the region, although there is evidence of efforts underway to de- highlighted particularly interesting industrial applications of mu-
velop such laws, e.g., in Saudi Arabia (Baig et al., 2019). In fact, nicipal wastewater in the Gulf; e.g., the use of organic and inor-
the bulk of relevant common laws GCC-wide are focused on haz- ganic compounds, biomass production as feedstock, and several ap-
ardous waste and raising environmental awareness in general (Al- plications using microalgae. Treated wastewater is also increasingly
Saidi, 2020). Similarly, with regard to the utilization of munici- recognized as an alternative resource for agricultural production. In
pal wastewater, there have been individual efforts and one-sided the food sector, the conversion and recycling of food waste is re-
regulations, but no broader frameworks or national strategies. For sulting in viable economic opportunities for harvesting resources
example, Al-Saidi and Dehnavi (2020) reported for several GCC for renewables productions, biorefineries, or fish and animal feed.
states (e.g., Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman) the existence of regula- Ultimately, these applications result not only in enhanced sustain-
tions for protection of the environment and public health in using ability in resource use but also in more realistic self-sufficiency
sewage wastewater, as well as campaigns to encourage the utiliza- policies for the Gulf region. Due to the limited scope of this paper,
tion of high-quality treated wastewater. However, several studies which has provided an overall framework and an initial mapping
have pointed out the need for more comprehensive national strate- from a regional perspective, the local level (e.g., households, cities,
gies with clear investment targets, as well as clear legal frame- municipalities) is not adequately contextualized and is left for fu-
works including standards for wastewater quality and monitoring ture analyses. In addition, future research can highlight challenges
(Aleisa and Al-Zubari, 2017; Brown et al., 2018). for implementing particular circular economy applications within
Alongside legal frameworks, GCC states can adopt specific poli- a given institutional setup, or it can provide more comparative as-
cies for encouraging the circular economy, similar to those for- sessments (e.g., economic feasibility, cost/benefit, or acceptance) of
mal policies adopted in pioneering cases such as China and Eu- viable applications.
rope (e.g., the EU 2015 Action Plan for the Circular Economy, or This paper has given some overarching recommendations for
China’s 2009 Circular Economy Promotion Law) (McDowall et al., the success of circular economy efforts in the water and food
2017). So far, there have been several individual efforts; e.g., the sectors. Overall, there is a need for more comprehensive circular
2020 initiative by Saudi Arabia during the G20 meeting to create economy policies. In this context, non-technical circular economy
a circular carbon economy, or a 2019 coalition by the UAE gov- strategies warrant increased attention. The current efforts in the
ernment among different stakeholders to tackle the circular econ- Gulf are still missing important opportunities highlighted in the
omy (particularly waste and recycling issues). In this context, more circular economy mapping; e.g., harnessing desalination-related
holistic policies might be required, while the basic supply sectors by-products, promoting comprehensive waste management strate-
such as water and food need to be a part of such strategies due gies, or enhancing household-level awareness of and participation
to their paramount importance for the Gulf. Future policies also in waste management. Furthermore, there is a need for prioritiza-
need to invest in innovation and R&D in order to probe adequate tion of circular economy interventions by promoting low-hanging
technologies and understand the required market conditions. Such fruit based on the principles of reduction and reuse. Other more
knowledge can help in designing the economic incentives and in- demanding interventions based on recovery and recycling require
stitutional reform required for wide-scale adoption of the circular the encouragement of research and development in order to cali-
economy. brate solutions to the local conditions. This process is more long-
term and requires public incentives for experimentation, innova-
6. Conclusions tion and commercialization. Finally, legislative and policy frame-
works need to encourage the concept of the circular economy in
Arid regions such as the Gulf are in serious need of inter- general, and its implementation in the basic food supply sector in
ventions that improve the allocation of limited natural resources. particular. The circular economy can be explicitly pursued through
While there are many sustainability paradigms in this regard, the broad formal policies (e.g., strategies in China or Europe), or in-
circular economy concept is particularly relevant. Closing the loops corporated in national policies towards achieving global commit-
through enhancing resource reuse, recycling materials, and reorga- ments (e.g., the SDGs, or the Paris Agreement). Furthermore, sec-

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toral or issue-based institutional frameworks (e.g., for wastewater Bianco, M., 2018. Circular Economy and WWTPs: water Reuse and Biogas Produc-
utilization, waste management, or food waste) are largely lacking tion. In: Gilardoni, A. (Ed.), The Italian Water Industry: Cases of Excellence.
Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp. 237–257.
in the GCC region. The water and food sectors also need to be more Blidariu, F., Grozea, A., 2011. Increasing the Economical Efficiency and Sustainabil-
closely linked in policymaking processes. The utilization of emerg- ity of Indoor Fish Farming by Means of Aquaponics - Review. Scientific Papers:
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Bocken, N.M.P., Pauw, I.de, Bakker, C., van der Grinten, B., 2016. Product design and
issue, and it can be enhanced through cross-sectoral regulations business model strategies for a circular economy. Journal of Industrial and Pro-
(e.g., national policies on water reuse or waste utilization), infras- duction Engineering 33, 308–320.
tructural investments (e.g., infrastructure attached to wastewater Borrello, M., Caracciolo, F., Lombardi, A., Pascucci, S., Cembalo, L., 2017. Consumers’
Perspective on Circular Economy Strategy for Reducing Food Waste.
plants or landfills for enhancing reuse, recovery, and recycling),
Brown, J., Das, P., Al-Saidi, M., 2018. Sustainable Agriculture in the Arabian/Persian
and consistent efforts to promote responsible consumption (e.g., Gulf Region Utilizing Marginal Water Resources: making the Best of a Bad Situ-
awareness campaigns, penalties for waste, or the promotion of en- ation. Sustainability 10, 1364.
Cai, T., Park, S.Y., Li, Y., 2013. Nutrient recovery from wastewater streams by mi-
vironmental stewardship).
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Declaration of Competing Interest Cordell, D., White, S., 2011. Peak phosphorus: clarifying the key issues of a vigorous
debate about long-term phosphorus security. Sustainability 3, 2027–2049.
Das, P., AbdulQuadir, M., Thaher, M., Khan, S., Chaudhary, A.K., Alghasal, G., Al–
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. Jabri, H.M.S.J., 2019a. Microalgal bioremediation of petroleum-derived low salin-
ity and low pH produced water. J Appl Phycol 31, 435–444.
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