Outline of physical science

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Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in

contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical
science", together called the "physical sciences".

Definition[edit]
Physical science can be described as all of the following:

 A branch of science (a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in

the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe).[1][2][3]
o A branch of natural science – natural science is a major branch of science that
tries to explain and predict nature's phenomena, based on empirical evidence. In
natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as
scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality
control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the
criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into
two main branches: life science (for example biology) and physical science.
Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural
sciences.

Branches of physical science[edit]

 Physics – natural and physical science could involve the study of matter[4] and its
motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and
force.[5] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to
understand how the universe behaves.[a][6][7]
o Branches of physics
 Astronomy – study of celestial objects (such as stars, galaxies, planets, moons,
asteroids, comets and nebulae), the physics, chemistry, and evolution of such
objects, and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth, including
supernovae explosions, gamma-ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background
radiation.
o Branches of astronomy
 Chemistry – studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter.[8]
[9]
 In this realm, chemistry deals with such topics as the properties of individual
atoms, the manner in which atoms form chemical bonds in the formation of
compounds, the interactions of substances through intermolecular forces to give
 matter its general properties, and the interactions between substances through
chemical reactions to form different substances.
o Branches of chemistry
 Earth science – all-embracing term referring to the fields of science dealing with
planet Earth. Earth science is the study of how the natural environment (ecosphere
or Earth system) works and how it evolved to its current state. It includes the study
of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.

History of physical science[edit]

History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-
living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. It in turn has many branches, each
referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". However,
the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many
branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for
example). The four main branches of physical science are astronomy, physics,
chemistry, and the Earth sciences, which include meteorology and geology.

 History of physics – history of the physical science that studies matter and its motion
through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force
o History of acoustics – history of the study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids,
and gases (such as vibration and sound)
o History of agrophysics – history of the study of physics applied
to agroecosystems
 History of soil physics – history of the study of soil physical properties and
processes.
o History of astrophysics – history of the study of the physical aspects of celestial
objects
o History of astronomy – history of the study of the universe beyond Earth,
including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry,
meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and
phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic
background radiation).
 History of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial
mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and
other spacecraft.
 History of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves
precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other
celestial bodies.
 History of cosmology – history of the discipline that deals with the nature of
the Universe as a whole.
 History of extragalactic astronomy – history of the branch of astronomy
concerned with objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy
 History of galactic astronomy – history of the study of our own Milky Way
galaxy and all its contents.
  History of physical cosmology – history of the study of the largest-scale
structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental
questions about its formation and evolution.
 History of planetary science – history of the scientific study of planets
(including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the
Solar System and the processes that form them.
 History of stellar astronomy – history of the natural science that deals with
the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star
clusters, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the
atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation)
o History of atmospheric physics – history of the study of the application of physics
to the atmosphere
o History of atomic, molecular, and optical physics – history of the study of how
matter and light interact
o History of biophysics – history of the study of physical processes relating to
biology
 History of medical physics – history of the application of physics concepts,
theories and methods to medicine.
 History of neurophysics – history of the branch of biophysics dealing with the
nervous system.
o History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies
chemical processes from the point of view of physics.
o History of computational physics – history of the study and implementation of
numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory
already exists.
o History of condensed matter physics – history of the study of the physical
properties of condensed phases of matter.
o History of cryogenics – history of cryogenics is the study of the production of
very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of
materials at those temperatures.
o History of Dynamics – history of the study of the causes of motion and changes
in motion
o History of econophysics – history of the interdisciplinary research field, applying
theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve
problems in economics
o History of electromagnetism – history of the branch of science concerned with
the forces that occur between electrically charged particles.
o History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in
space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods
o History of materials physics – history of the use of physics to describe materials
in many different ways such as force, heat, light and mechanics.
o History of mathematical physics – history of the application of mathematics to
problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods for such
applications and for the formulation of physical theories.
o History of mechanics – history of the branch of physics concerned with the
behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the
subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.
 History of biomechanics – history of the study of the structure and function of
biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by
means of the methods of mechanics.
 History of classical mechanics – history of the one of the two major sub-fields
of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the
motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces.
 History of continuum mechanics – history of the branch of mechanics that
deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of
materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles.
 History of fluid mechanics – history of the study of fluids and the forces on
them.
 History of quantum mechanics – history of the branch of physics dealing with
physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
 History of thermodynamics – history of the branch of physical science
concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work.
o History of nuclear physics – history of the field of physics that studies the
building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei.
o History of optics – history of the branch of physics which involves the behavior
and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction
of instruments that use or detect it.
o History of particle physics – history of the branch of physics that studies the
existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually
referred to as matter or radiation.
o History of psychophysics – history of the quantitatively investigates the
relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they
affect.
o History of plasma physics – history of the state of matter similar to gas in which a
certain portion of the particles are ionized.
o History of polymer physics – history of the field of physics that studies polymers,
their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions
involving degradation and polymerization of polymers and monomers
respectively.
o History of quantum physics – history of the branch of physics dealing with
physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
o History of theory of relativity –
o History of statics – history of the branch of mechanics concerned with the
analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static
equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not
vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity.
o History of solid state physics – history of the study of rigid matter, or solids,
through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography,
electromagnetism, and metallurgy.
 o History of vehicle dynamics – history of the dynamics of vehicles, here assumed
to be ground vehicles.

 History of chemistry – history of the physical science of atomic matter (matter that is
composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also
including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate
the chemical reactions
o History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of the separation,
identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and
artificial materials.
o History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions
of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with
radiation.
 History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition
of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions
o History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science
in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is
studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental
chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology
and volcanology, and other disciplines
o History of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living
organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all
living organisms and living processes.
 History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and
biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of
raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and
remediation.
 History of bioinorganic chemistry  – history of the examines the role of metals
in biology.
 History of bioorganic chemistry – history of the rapidly growing scientific
discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry.
 History of biophysical chemistry – history of the new branch of chemistry that
covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems.
 History of environmental chemistry – history of the scientific study of the
chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.
 History of immunochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that involves
the study of the reactions and components on the immune system.
 History of medicinal chemistry – history of the discipline at the intersection of
chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and
various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design,
chemical synthesis, and development for market of pharmaceutical agents
(drugs).
 History of pharmacology – history of the branch of medicine and biology
concerned with the study of drug action.
  History of natural product chemistry – history of the chemical compound or
substance produced by a living organism – history of the found in nature that
usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical
drug discovery and drug design.
 History of neurochemistry – history of the specific study of neurochemicals,
which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active
drugs that influence neuron function.
o History of computational chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that uses
principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems.
 History of chemo-informatics – history of the use of computer and
informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of
chemistry.
 History of molecular mechanics – history of the uses Newtonian mechanics
to model molecular systems.
o History of Flavor chemistry – history of someone who uses chemistry to engineer
artificial and natural flavors.
o History of Flow chemistry – history of the chemical reaction is run in a
continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production.
o History of geochemistry – history of the study of the mechanisms behind major
geological systems using chemistry
 History of aqueous geochemistry – history of the study of the role of various
elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how
elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic
interactions
 History of isotope geochemistry  – history of the study of the relative and
absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry
and geology
 History of ocean chemistry – history of the study of the chemistry of marine
environments including the influences of different variables.
 History of organic geochemistry – history of the study of the impacts and
processes that organisms have had on Earth
 History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry  – history of
the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at
the surface of the Earth
o History of inorganic chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry concerned
with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.
o History of nuclear chemistry – history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with
radioactivity, nuclear processes, and nuclear properties.
 History of radiochemistry – history of the chemistry of radioactive materials,
where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and
chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry
the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being
inactive as the isotopes are stable).
o History of organic chemistry – history of the study of the structure, properties,
composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of
carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.
 History of petrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies the
transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products
or raw materials.
o History of organometallic chemistry – history of the study of chemical
compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal.
o History of photochemistry – history of the study of chemical reactions that
proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules..
o History of physical chemistry – history of the study of macroscopic, atomic,
subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical
laws and concepts.
 History of chemical kinetics – history of the study of rates of chemical
processes.
 History of chemical thermodynamics – history of the study of the interrelation
of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state
within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
 History of electrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies
chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an
electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the
electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and
the electrolyte or species in solution.
 History of Femtochemistry – history of the Femtochemistry is the science that
studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately
10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name).
 History of mathematical chemistry – history of the area of research engaged
in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally
with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena.
 History of mechanochemistry – history of the coupling of the mechanical and
the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical
breakage, chemical behavior of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-
corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-
related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock
wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular
machines.
 History of physical organic chemistry – history of the study of the
interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.
 History of quantum chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry whose
primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models
and experiments of chemical systems.
 History of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves
and wave properties on chemical systems.
 History of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial
arrangement of atoms within molecules.
  History of supramolecular chemistry – history of the area of chemistry
beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a
discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components.
 History of thermochemistry – history of the study of the energy and heat
associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations.
o History of phytochemistry – history of the strict sense of the word the study of
phytochemicals.
o History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals
with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or
macromolecules.
o History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure,
and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily
exclusively of, non-molecular solids
o Multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry
 History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the
fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical
techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic
chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems.
 History of chemical engineering – history of the branch of engineering that
deals with physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences
(e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and
economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more
useful or valuable forms.
 History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of
the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans.
 History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies
chemical processes from the point of view of physics.
 History of materials science – history of the interdisciplinary field applying the
properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering.
 History of nanotechnology – history of the study of manipulating matter on an
atomic and molecular scale
 History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine
and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a
subfield called viticulture.
 History of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between
matter and radiated energy
 History of surface science – history of the Surface science is the study of
physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases,
including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum
interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces.

 History of Earth science – history of the all-embracing term for the sciences related
to the planet Earth. Earth science, and all of its branches, are branches of physical
science.
o History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella term for the study of
the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the
atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.
 History of climatology
 History of meteorology
 History of atmospheric chemistry
o History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species
(biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through
geological time.
o History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or
globes.
o History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as
weather conditions averaged over a period of time
o History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface
between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e.
coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography
(sociology and history) of the coast.
o History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and
interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.
 History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and
abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are
affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment.
 History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of
freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology
 History of marine biology – history of the scientific study of organisms in
the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water
 History of parasitology – history of the Parasitology is the study of
parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them.
 History of population dynamics – history of the Population dynamics is
the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes
in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and
environmental processes influencing those changes.
 History of environmental chemistry – history of the Environmental chemistry
is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur
in natural places.
 History of environmental soil science – history of the Environmental soil
science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well
as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the
atmosphere.
 History of environmental geology – history of the Environmental geology, like
hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application
of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems.
 History of toxicology – history of the branch of biology, chemistry, and
medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on
living organisms.
o History of geodesy – history of the scientific discipline that deals with the
measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in
a three-dimensional time-varying space
o History of geography – history of the science that studies the lands, features,
inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth
o History of geoinformatics – history of the science and the technology which
develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of
geography, geosciences and related branches of engineering.
o History of geology – history of the study of the Earth, with the general exclusion
of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere.
 History of planetary geology – history of the planetary science discipline
concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and
their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites.
o History of geomorphology – history of the scientific study of landforms and the
processes that shape them
o History of geostatistics – history of the branch of statistics focusing on spatial or
spatiotemporal datasets
o History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in
space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods.
o History of glaciology – history of the study of glaciers, or more generally ice and
natural phenomena that involve ice.
o History of hydrology – history of the study of the movement, distribution, and
quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water
resources and environmental watershed sustainability.
o History of hydrogeology – history of the area of geology that deals with the
distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's
crust (commonly in aquifers).
o History of mineralogy – history of the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and
physical (including optical) properties of minerals.
o History of meteorology – history of the interdisciplinary scientific study of the
atmosphere which explains and forecasts weather events.
o History of oceanography – history of the branch of Earth science that studies the
ocean
o History of paleoclimatology – history of the study of changes in climate taken on
the scale of the entire history of Earth
o History of paleontology – history of the study of prehistoric life
o History of petrology – history of the branch of geology that studies the origin,
composition, distribution and structure of rocks.
o History of limnology – history of the study of inland waters
o History of seismology – history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the
propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like
bodies
o History of soil science – history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the
surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping;
 physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these
properties in relation to the use and management of soils.
o History of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the
Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and
asteroids.
o History of volcanology – history of the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and
related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena.

General principles of the physical sciences[edit]

 Principle – law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be desirably
followed, or is an inevitable consequence of something, such as the laws observed
in nature or the way that a system is constructed. The principles of such a system
are understood by its users as the essential characteristics of the system, or
reflecting system's designed purpose, and the effective operation or use of which
would be impossible if any one of the principles was to be ignored.
Basic principles of physics[edit]
Physics – branch of science that studies matter[4] and its motion through space and time,
along with related concepts such as energy and force.[5] Physics is one of the
"fundamental sciences" because the other natural sciences (like biology, geology etc.)
deal with systems that seem to obey the laws of physics. According to physics, the
physical laws of matter, energy and the fundamental forces of nature govern the
interactions between particles and physical entities (such as planets, molecules, atoms
or the subatomic particles). Some of the basic pursuits of physics, which include some
of the most prominent developments in modern science in the last millennium, include:

 Describing the nature, measuring and quantifying of bodies and their motion,
dynamics etc.
o Newton's laws of motion
o Mass, force and weight
o Momentum and conservation of energy
o Gravity, theories of gravity
o Energy, work, and their relationship
o Motion, position, and energy
o Different forms of Energy, their interconversion and the inevitable loss of energy
in the form of heat (Thermodynamics)
o Energy conservation, conversion, and transfer.
o Energy source the transfer of energy from one source to work in another.
 Kinetic molecular theory
o Phases of matter and phase transitions
o Temperature and thermometers
o Energy and heat
o Heat flow: conduction, convection, and radiation
 o The four laws of thermodynamics
 The principles of waves and sound
 The principles of electricity, magnetism, and electromagnetism
 The principles, sources, and properties of light
Basic principles of astronomy[edit]
Astronomy – science of celestial bodies and their interactions in space. Its studies
include the following:

 The life and characteristics of stars and galaxies

 Origins of the universe. Physical science uses the Big Bang theory as the commonly
accepted scientific theory of the origin of the universe.
 A heliocentric Solar System. Ancient cultures saw the Earth as the centre of the
Solar System or universe (geocentrism). In the 16th century,
Nicolaus Copernicus advanced the ideas of heliocentrism, recognizing the Sun as
the centre of the Solar System.
 The structure of solar systems, planets, comets, asteroids, and meteors
 The shape and structure of Earth (roughly spherical, see also Spherical Earth)
 Earth in the Solar System
 Time measurement
 The composition and features of the Moon
 Interactions of the Earth and Moon
(Note: Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, which assumes[10][11][12] that
people's destiny and human affairs in general correlate to the apparent positions of
astronomical objects in the sky – although the two fields share a common origin, they
are quite different; astronomers embrace the scientific method, while astrologers do
not.)
Basic principles of chemistry[edit]
Chemistry – branch of science that studies the composition, structure, properties and
change of matter.[8][9] Chemistry is chiefly concerned with atoms and molecules and their
interactions and transformations, for example, the properties of the chemical
bonds formed between atoms to create chemical compounds. As such, chemistry
studies the involvement of electrons and various forms of energy in photochemical
reactions, oxidation-reduction reactions, changes in phases of matter, and separation of
mixtures. Preparation and properties of complex substances, such as alloys, polymers,
biological molecules, and pharmaceutical agents are considered in specialized fields of
chemistry.
Chemistry, the central science, partial ordering of the sciences proposed by Balaban and Klein.

 Physical chemistry
o Chemical thermodynamics
o Reaction kinetics
o Molecular structure
o Quantum chemistry
 o Spectroscopy
 Theoretical chemistry
o Electron configuration
o Molecular modelling
o Molecular dynamics
o Statistical mechanics
 Computational chemistry
o Mathematical chemistry
o Cheminformatics
 Nuclear chemistry
o The nature of the atomic nucleus
o Characterization of radioactive decay
o Nuclear reactions
 Organic chemistry
o Organic compounds
o Organic reaction
o Functional groups
o Organic synthesis
 Inorganic chemistry
o Inorganic compounds
o Crystal structure
o Coordination chemistry
o Solid-state chemistry
 Biochemistry
 Analytical chemistry
o Instrumental analysis
o Electroanalytical method
o Wet chemistry
 Electrochemistry
o Redox reaction
 Materials chemistry
Basic principles of Earth science[edit]
Earth science – the science of the planet Earth, as of 2018 the only identified life-
bearing planet. Its studies include the following:

 The water cycle and the process of transpiration

 Freshwater
 Oceanography
o Weathering and erosion
o Rocks
 Agrophysics
 Soil science
 o Pedogenesis
o Soil fertility
 Earth's tectonic structure
 Geomorphology and geophysics
o Physical geography
o Seismology: stress, strain, and earthquakes
o Characteristics of mountains and volcanoes
 Characteristics and formation of fossils
 Atmospheric sciences – the branches of science that study the atmosphere, its
processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the
atmosphere on these other systems.
o Atmosphere of Earth
o Atmospheric pressure and winds
o Evaporation, condensation, and humidity
o Fog and clouds
 Meteorology, weather, climatology, and climate
o Hydrology, clouds and precipitation
o Air masses and weather fronts
o Major storms: thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes
o Major climate groups
 Speleology
o Cave