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CHAPTER 6. HYDROLOGY ANALYSIS

LIST OF ACRONYMS / ABBREVIATIONS

A Area: of catchment in km2

A0 Culvert cross-sectional area in m2
Ac Flow area at critical depth in m2
a Flow area in a sub-section in m2
ADB Asian Development Bank
ARF Areal Reduction Factor
b A constant
C Runoff coefficient in Rational Method
CA Percentage runoff coefficient in GTFM
Cd Culvert discharge coefficient
CL Land use factor for calculation of CA
CS Slope and soil factor for calculation of CA
CW Catchment wetness factor for calculation of CA
D River channel depth in m
d1 Depth upstream of culvert in m
d2 Depth downstream of culvert in m
dc Critical depth in m
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
F Peaking factor in GTFM
g Acceleration due to gravity
GTFM Generalised Tropical Flood Model
H Elevation difference in catchment
I Rainfall intensity in mm/h
K1 Total (flow) conveyance through a bridge
k Conveyance in a channel sub-section
ke Entry energy loss coefficient
kf Friction energy loss coefficient
L Either length of longest flow path in a catchment or length of culvert in discharge
calculation.
MRD Ministry of Rural Development
MOWRAM Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology
MPWT Ministry of Public Works and Transport
n Either a constant or Manning’s ‘n’ for hydraulic roughness
P Wetted perimeter in m
p Wetted perimeter of a sub-section in m
TB Base time in hours of design rainfall duration in GTFM
Tc Time of concentration in Rational Method
TS Surface cover flow time
R Hydraulic radius in m
r Hydraulic radius in a sub-section in m
Rt Rainfall in a given duration ‘t’ in hours
R24 Rainfall in 24 hours in mm
RRt Rainfall Ratio Rt : R24
T Duration in hours
t Time in hours
XT The reduced variety in Extreme Value Analysis
YT In Extreme Value Analysis the storm rainfall or stream flow with a T year recurrence interval

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6.1 Project Area

1. The Kingdom of Cambodia is a country that is considered to have abundant water. Its rivers
and streams, aquifers and marine are an important resource for national economic development in
many areas, such as agriculture, manufacturing and small-scale industries, navigation, tourism,
environmental protection, and daily life

2. The objective of the project is to improve of priority rural road in 3 provinces, to provide reliable
all year road access from provincial towns and agricultural rural area to markets.The project consists
of one civil work contract package such as in Pursat, Battambang, and BantheyMeanchey province.

6.2 Objective and Scope

3. The objectives and scope of the hydrological and drainage reporting are therefore to present:
 Description of hydrological analysis carried out, but this study compares with data rainfall of
Historical Cambodian Weather Data in target regions of provinces, Conclusions on drainage
requirement.

 Recommendations on cross drainage, included type of culvert.

6.3 Report Coverage

4. This report concerns hydrology calculation of discharge:
 Pursat has divided into 10 road sections, located in Bakan, Phnum Kravanh, Pursat town,
Kandieng and Krakor district. The total road improvement length is 125.5 km long is to
be improved to DBST surface road.
 Battambang divided into 7 road sections, located in Thmor Kol, Banan, Rattana Mondol,
Rokkha Kiri and Krakor district. The total road improvement length is 94.8km long is to
be improved to DBST surface road.
 Banteay MeanChey divided into 5 road sections, located in Thmor Pourk, Svay Chek,
Preah Nethpreah, Phnom Srok and Mongkol Borei district. The total road improvement
length is 90.7km long is to be improved to DBST surface road.

Figure 6-1. Rural Roads Improvement Project II Location Map

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6.4 Hydrology

6.4.1 Hydrological Characteristic of Project Area

a. Climate
5. Cambodia has a tropical climate with warm temperatures throughout the year and the climate is
dominated by the annual monsoon cycle with its alternating wet and dry seasons with the average
annual temperature of around 28 °C. There are two seasons in Cambodia. The northeast monsoon
season runs from December through April with temperatures ranging between 17 - 38°C, bringing
sunny, dry weather especially in January and February.

b. Land Use
6. Cambodia is considered to be an agriculture country so almost entire catchment area crossed
the project road are villages’ farming, a typical rice paddy field or village garden crop as found
throughout lowland Cambodia. Traditionally land is ploughed and crops planted at the beginning of
the wet season in May or June and harvesting at beginning of dry season usually in late October or
early November.

c. Rainfall Analyses
7. Rainfall is a random event that cannot be predicted based on historical data. However, any
given precipitation event has several distinct and independent characteristics which can be quantified
as follows:
. Duration : The length of time over which precipitation occurs (hours).
. Depth : The amount of precipitation occurring throughout the storm duration (mm).
. Frequency : The recurrence interval of events having the same duration and volume.
. Intensity : The depth divided by the duration (mm per hour).
d. Frequency Analysis

8. Gumbel distribution is a statistical law often used for predicting extreme hydrological events
such as rainfall. The equation for fitting the Gumbel distribution to observed series of rainfall at
different return periods T is:
Rt Rav + Kσ
=
(eq.01)
Where R t denotes the magnitude of the T-year Rainfall event, K is the frequency factor, R av
and are the mean and the standard deviation of the maximum instantaneous rainfall respectively.
The frequency factor K is expressed as:

− 6 / π (λ − ln(ln(T − ln(T − 1)))

K= (eq.02)

Where π = 3.14, λ is the Euler constant (=0.5772) and 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 is the natural logarithm.

e. Intensity Duration Equation

9. The relation between rainfall intensity and duration is commonly expressed in form:
a
I= (eq.03)
(b + T ) n

Where, I: Rainfall Intensity

T: Duration (hr)
a, b and n are constants

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10. The first stage in developing this equation for a particular area involves fitting the data to the
equation. This is done by estimating rainfall intensities using extreme value analysis.
log e I =log e a − n log e (b + T ) (eq.04)

11. Thus the optimum values of the constants a, b and n can be found by entering values of loge I
and loge ( b + T ) into a linear regression equation program for a range of values of b, then selecting
equation that gives the closest fit to a straight line. This was done for the rainfall data for return
periods of 2.33, 10 and 50 years and the constants determined and shown in Table 6-1.

Table 6-1. Derived constants for Intensity Duration Equation (Watkin & Fiddes,1984)

Return Regression equation constants

Period b n a

2.33 0.30 0.84 60

10 0.37 0.88 98

25 0.40 0.90 120

50 0.41 0.91 135

100 0.42 0.91 151

f. Time distribution of annual maximum 24-hours rainfall

12. The Rainfall Ratio Method allows rainfall, and therefore rainfall intensities of durations required
for drainage design, to be estimated from 24-hour rainfall of a known frequency (return period) by
applying the relationship

RRt = t / 24 {(b + 24) n / (b + t ) n } (eq.04)

Where RRt : Rainfall ratio Rt : R24
Rt Rainfall in a given duration ‘t’ in hours
R24 : Rainfall in 24 hours
n: constant (see table 01)
b: constant (see table 01)
t: time in hours

g. Rainfall Data Collection

13. Rainfall data was obtained from the Department of Meteorology (DoM), Ministry of Water
Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM). There are no daily (24 hour) rainfall records from project
area. Therefore, the records from other areas listed below are used as inputs for this hydrology study.

Pursat station 2000 to 2014

Battambang station 2000 to 2014
Banthey MeanChey station 2008 to 2014

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Maximum Daily Rainfall

180
Maximum Daily Rainfall (mm)

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 201 201 201 201 201
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
Pursat 125.3 85.6 83.6 109.8 58.9 76.4 80.1 70.2 77.2 64.8 57 71.7 103.3 76.4 60.2
Battambang 89 49.8 88.8 68.1 53.7 83.4 71 55.2 98.8 96.2 108 101.9 82.9 156.6 55
Banteay Meanchey 58.6 87.6 56.5 112.5 78.5 121.5 48.2

Figure 6-2. Maximum daily rainfall recorded

h. Rainfall Result Analyses

14. Using the Rainfall Ratio Method, the relationship between rainfall depth, duration and frequency
and the IDF curve.
Table 6-2. Pursat-Time Distribution of Rainfall

Duration Distribution of 24-hour rainfall (mm)

2.33 10 100
Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall 25 year Rainfall 50 year Rainfall
year year year
Ratio Ratio Ratio return Ratio return Ratio
return return return
(RR2.33) (RR10) (RR25) period (RR50) period (RR100)
period period period
5mins 0.08 0.11 8.77 0.12 12.48 0.12 14.16 0.12 15.36 0.12 16.56
10mins 0.17 0.19 15.14 0.2 20.80 0.21 24.78 0.21 26.88 0.21 28.98
15mins 0.25 0.25 19.93 0.27 28.08 0.27 31.86 0.28 35.84 0.27 37.26
30mins 0.50 0.37 29.49 0.4 41.60 0.41 48.38 0.41 52.48 0.41 56.58
1h 1 0.49 39.05 0.53 55.12 0.55 64.90 0.55 70.40 0.55 75.90
2h 2 0.61 48.62 0.66 68.64 0.67 79.06 0.68 87.04 0.68 93.84
4h 4 0.72 57.38 0.76 79.04 0.78 92.04 0.79 101.12 0.79 109.02
8h 8 0.82 65.35 0.86 89.44 0.87 102.66 0.88 112.64 0.88 121.44
12h 12 0.89 70.93 0.91 94.64 0.92 108.56 0.92 117.76 0.93 128.34
18h 18 0.95 75.72 0.96 99.84 0.97 114.46 0.97 124.16 0.97 133.86
24h 24 1.00 79.70 1.00 104 1.00 118 1.00 128 1.00 138

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Table 6-3. Battambang-Time Distribution of Rainfall

Duration Distribution of 24-hour rainfall (mm)

2.33 100
Rainfall Rainfall 10 year Rainfall 25 year Rainfall 50 year Rainfall
year year
Ratio Ratio return Ratio return Ratio return Ratio
return return
(RR2.33) (RR10) period (RR25) period (RR50) period (RR100)
period period

5mins 0.08 0.11 9.22 0.12 14.40 0.12 16.92 0.12 18.84 0.12 20.64
10mins 0.17 0.19 15.92 0.2 24.00 0.21 29.61 0.21 32.97 0.21 36.12
15mins 0.25 0.25 20.95 0.27 32.40 0.27 38.07 0.28 43.96 0.27 46.44

30mins 0.50 0.37 31.01 0.4 48.00 0.41 57.81 0.41 64.37 0.41 70.52
1h 1 0.49 41.06 0.53 63.60 0.55 77.55 0.55 86.35 0.55 94.60
2h 2 0.61 51.12 0.66 79.20 0.67 94.47 0.68 106.76 0.68 116.96
4h 4 0.72 60.34 0.76 91.20 0.78 109.98 0.79 124.03 0.79 135.88
8h 8 0.82 68.72 0.86 103.20 0.87 122.67 0.88 138.16 0.88 151.36
12h 12 0.89 74.58 0.91 109.20 0.92 129.72 0.92 144.44 0.93 159.96

18h 18 0.95 79.61 0.96 115.20 0.97 136.77 0.97 152.29 0.97 166.84
24h 24 1.00 83.80 1.00 120 1.00 141 1.00 157 1.00 172

Table 6-4. Bathey MeanChey-Time Distribution of Rainfall

Duration Distribution of 24-hour rainfall (mm)

2.33 10 25 50 100
Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall
year year year year year
Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio
return return return return return
(RR2.33) (RR10) (RR25) (RR50) (RR100)
period period period period period

5mins 0.08 0.11 8.83 0.12 14.40 0.12 17.16 0.12 19.20 0.12 21.12
10mins 0.17 0.19 15.26 0.2 24.00 0.21 30.03 0.21 33.60 0.21 36.96
15mins 0.25 0.25 20.08 0.27 32.40 0.27 38.61 0.28 44.80 0.27 47.52
30mins 0.50 0.37 29.71 0.4 48.00 0.41 58.63 0.41 65.60 0.41 72.16
1h 1 0.49 39.35 0.53 63.60 0.55 78.65 0.55 88.00 0.55 96.80
2h 2 0.61 48.98 0.66 79.20 0.67 95.81 0.68 108.80 0.68 119.68
4h 4 0.72 57.82 0.76 91.20 0.78 111.54 0.79 126.40 0.79 139.04
8h 8 0.82 65.85 0.86 103.20 0.87 124.41 0.88 140.80 0.88 154.88
12h 12 0.89 71.47 0.91 109.20 0.92 131.56 0.92 147.20 0.93 163.68
18h 18 0.95 76.29 0.96 115.20 0.97 138.71 0.97 155.20 0.97 170.72
24h 24 1.00 80.30 1.00 120 1.00 143 1.00 160 1.00 176

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i. Design rainfall-intensity-duration
15. The design rainfall-intensity-duration relationships are obtained directly from the time
distribution of rainfall, simply by converting the rainfall during a given duration to rainfall intensity in
millimeters per hour.

Figure 6-3. Pursat Rainfall-Intensity-Duration Curve

Figure 6-4. Battambang Rainfall-Intensity-Duration Curve

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Figure 6-5. Banthey MeanChey Rainfall-Intensity-Duration Curve

6.4.2 Methodology
16. There is a wide variation in the area of catchment. In addition, the road passes through different
vegetation and land use zones, although in hydrological terms there is little variation in relief, geology
and soil type, all of which affect the hydrological characteristics. There is no single method that
caters for all these variations. The followings are considerations for selecting any method to be
adopted for estimation of flood frequency and magnitude.
a. Design standard
17. The MPWT, Ministry of Public Work and Transports has a Design Standard for Drainage
produced in 1999 with the assistance of AusAID. The standard was later revised and updated in 2003.
However, this standard is of little relevance or use for this or other roads in floodplain and low relief
areas of Cambodia. This is because the standard has been based on methods appropriate to small
watercourses flowing in defined valleys, a situation rarely encountered in lowland Cambodia.
18. It describes only the use of the ‘Rational Method’. This method will not give reliable results for
the often-extensive flat catchments in lowland Cambodia, the Standard does warn of this limitation but
does not give useful guidance on an alternative.
19. For this hydrology study has demonstrated that the Rational Method is most applicable to much
catchments crossed by the project road except only the large catchment area.
b. Alternatives Methods of MPWT Design Standard
20. Many discussions explain why alternative methods of MPWT Standard were necessary and it
was given in consideration as:
1. Frequency analysis of continuous rainfall records from within the project area to
derive rainfall-intensity-duration curves for different return periods.
2. Rainfall-Ratio method to derive from 24-hour rainfall records from within the project
area rainfall intensity-duration curves for different return periods.
3. Correlation with gauge sites with continuous rainfall records analyzed by 1 above to
calibrate rainfall-intensity-duration curves derived by method 2 for different return
periods for sites with only 24-hour records.
4. For small catchments draining to normal culverts the Rational Method (i.e. the MPWT
method) to estimate discharge using the rainfall relationships from 1, 2 or 3 above.
5. For larger catchments draining to bridges or large culverts the United States Soil
Conservation Service Curve Number Method.
6. For larger catchments and those draining to bridges or large culverts a Generalized
Tropical Flood Model (GTFM) derived from the ORSTOM and TRRL methods.

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7. For rivers where flow records are available, extreme value frequency analysis of peak
annual discharge.

21. The Rational Method (4) was introduced in the United States by Kuichling in 1886. Since then,
it has become the most widely used method for the analysis of runoff response from small catchments.
This method provides only the value of peak discharge. The peak discharge is primarily due to over
land flow rather than stream flow.

6.4.3 Rational Method Design

22. The Rational Method estimates peak discharge. It is based on the simplistic assumption that
peak discharge occurs when the rainfall duration equals the time of concentration of the catchment,
as expressed algebraically by the formula
Qp = 0.277 × C × I × A (eq.05)

Where Qp : is peak discharge in m3/s

0.277 : is a constant conversion to express discharge in the required units
C: is the runoff coefficient
I: is the rainfall intensity in mm/h during the time of concentration (Tc)
A: is catchment area in km2

a. Time of Concentration ‘Tc’

23. The time of concentration (tc) is the time required for water to flow from the hydraulically most
remote point of the drainage area to the point under investigation.
Time of concentration has been determined from the Kirpich Formula

Tc = 0.0195 K 0.77 (eq.06)

Where K = L / ( s ) 0.5 and s = H / L

Tc : is time of concentration in minutes
L: is maximum length of travel in km

b. Intensity of Rainfall ‘I ’
24. Intensity of rainfall ‘I’ in mm/h corresponding to the design return period and duration equal to
‘Tc’ is read from the rainfall-duration-frequency tables or curves.

c. Runoff coefficient ‘C’

25. The run-off coefficient ‘C’ is selected by reference to values in Table 05. This is based on the
table for rural areas in the Cambodian Standard Road Design Part 3 – Drainage, but with modified
descriptions more relevant to Cambodian conditions and more detailed definition of the relief
coefficient ‘A’ for flat areas. The runoff coefficient ‘C’ is equal to the sum of the coefficients from
columns A, B, C and D. The value of ‘C’ can vary from one moment to another according to changes,
especially soil moisture conditions.

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Table 6-5. Values of Runoff Coefficient ‘C’ used in the Rational Formula
Watershed Characteristics
A B C D
Relief Soil Infiltration Vegetation Cover Surface Storage

0.40 0.20 0.20 0.20

Steep rugged terrain with No effective soil cover: No effective plant cover: Negligible: surface
slopes greater than 30%. either rock or thin mantle. bare or very sparse soil depression. Drainage
Negligible infiltration cover. paths with steep banks
capacity and small storage
capacity. No ponds or
marshes.

0.30 0.15 0.15 0.15

Hilly with average slopes Slow: to take up water, Poor to fair: clean Low: well defined system
of 10% to 30%. clay, or other soil of low cultivated crops or poor of small drainage paths,
infiltration capacity, natural cover, less than no ponds or marshes.
flooded paddy field 10% of area under good
systems. cover, flooded paddy field
systems.

0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10

Rolling with average Normal: deep loam. Fair to good: about 50% Normal: Considerable
slopes of 5% to 10%. cover in good grassland, surface depression.
woodland or equivalent Storage typical of prairie
cover. lands. Lakes ponds and
marshes less than 20% of
area.

0.01 to 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05

Relatively flat land High: deep sand or other Good to excellent: about High: surface depression
average slopes 0% to 5% soil that takes up water 50% of area in good storage capacity high.
Slope 5% use 0.10 readily and rapidly. grassland, woodland or Drainage system not
Slope 4% use 0.08 equivalent cover. sharply defined, large
Slope 3% use 0.06 flood plain storage, large
Slope 2% use 0.04 number of ponds and
Slope 1% use 0.02 marshes, therefore
Slope ≤ 0.5% use 0.01 including paddy field
systems.

d. Catchment area ‘A’

26. The suppressed relief and flat terrain have presented a challenge for determination of
catchment areas. It is characteristic of lowland Cambodia that during times of flood a road
embankment forms a barrier to overland flow. Commonly when culvert and bridge openings are too
small to pass all the flow, water level on the upstream side of the embankment is rising and spreading
over the land.

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Figure 6-6. Catchment Area delineated of timber bridge at Pursat

e. Calculation of Discharge
27. The calculation of discharges using Rational Method is summarized in Annex.

6.4.4 Generalised Tropical Flood Model (GTFM)

28. This section describes the theory and method of application of the Generalised Tropical Flood
Model. This method applies for the mid-size catchment and large catchment (the total area over than
25 sq.km).
The Generalised Tropical Flood Model is expressed by the formula:

C A xPxAxF
Qp = (eq.07)
360xTB

Where Qp : is peak discharge in m3/s.

CA : is the percentage runoff coefficient.
P: is the design storm rainfall (i.e. total rainfall in mm not
intensity in mm/h) of hydrograph base time (TB hours).
A: is the catchment area in km2.
F: is the peak flow factor to convert the average flow generated
by the model to peak flow.
ARF : is the area reduction factor.
TB : is the hydrograph base time in hours.

29. The values of the parameters required for the Generalised Tropical Flood Model have been
taken from the recommendations contained in Watkins and Fiddes.

a. Percentage runoff coefficient ‘CA’

30. The percentage runoff coefficient ‘CA’ is express by the formula:

C A = CS xCw xCL (eq.08)

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31. It should be noted that the percentage runoff coefficient in the GTFM is different to that in the
Rational Method. This is because GTFM takes separate account of factors included in the Rational
Method runoff coefficient.
32. It was found that for the flat or very gently sloping catchments characteristic of Cambodia using
the banded Slope Class S.
33. It was found that presenting the slope classification in graphical form and using fractional slope
classes to remove the abrupt change between bands significantly improved estimates predicting flows
generally consistent with field observations.

b. Base Time ‘TB’

34. The hydrograph base time can be thought of as being made up of three components: the storm
duration, the time taken for the surface runoff to drain into the stream system; and the flow time down
to the culvert or bridge site. Base time ‘TB’ is expressed by the formula:

CxA0.5
=TB + Ts (eq.09)
S2
Where C: is a constant, which is 30 for humid zone catchments.
A: is the catchment area in km2 .
S: is the Slope Class ‘S ’.
TS : is the surface cover flow time from Table 10.

c. Area reduction factor ‘ARF’

35. The area reduction factor (ARF) is introduced to account for the spatial variability of point
rainfall over the catchment. In simple terms the average rainfall intensity at any instant for a
catchment will be less than the rainfall measured at a single point (rain gauge) in the catchment, and
the difference increases with increasing size of catchment. Therefore, this is not significant for small
catchments but becomes so as catchment size increases. It has been included in the process for both
the Rational Method and the Generalized Tropical Flood Model. The relationship adopted for ‘ARF’ is
suitable for convective rainfall∗ that occurs in Cambodia:
ARF = 1 - 0.04 T -0.33 A 0.50 (eq.10)

Where T: duration in hours

A: area in km2

36. This equation applies for storms of up to 8 hours duration. For longer durations on large
catchments the T = 8 value is adopted. The values adopted for design are presented in Table 6-6.
Table 6-6. Areal Reduction Factors

Storm Catchment Area ‘A ’ (km2)

Duration ‘T’ 1 2 3 5 10 25 50 100 250 500 1000

8h 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.90 0.86 0.80 0.68 0.55 0.37

4h 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.87 0.82 0.75 0.60 0.44 0.20

2h 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.84 0.78 0.68 0.50 0.29

1h 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.87 0.80 0.72 0.60 0.37 0.11

30 min 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.84 0.75 0.64 0.50 0.20

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15 min 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.86 0.80 0.68 0.55 0.37

10 min 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.77 0.64 0.49 0.27

5 min 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.71 0.54 0.35 0.08

d. Base Flow
37. Most watercourses crossed by the project roads are ephemeral (seasonally dry), and perennial
streams have small dry season flow. Design flood flows will however occur in the rainy season when
base flow may be more significant. But even then flows will be flashy and high discharges are not
sustained over long periods. Therefore, base flow has been neglected for the purpose of design
discharge estimates.

e. Calculation of discharge
 Parameters for Generalised Tropical Flood Model

Table 6-7. Soil permeability classification

Soil class (I) Description

1 Impermeable - rock surface.

Very low permeability. Clay soils with high swelling potential; shallow soils
2
over largely impermeable layer, very high water table.

3 Low permeability. Drainage slightly impeded when soil fully wetted.

Fairly permeability. Deep soils of relatively high infiltration rate when

4
wetted.

Very permeable. Soils with very high infiltration rates such as sands,
5
gravels and aggregated clays.

Table 6-8. Catchment slope classification

Slope Class (S) Average catchment slope (%)

1 0 - 0.2

2 0.2 - 1.0

3 1.0 - 4.0

4 4.0 - 10.0

5 10.0 - 20.0

6 > 20.0

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Table 6-9. Basic runoff coefficient for humid catchments (CS) (%)

Soil class (I)

Slope class (S)
1 2 3 4 5

1 48 36 23 11 0

2 55 43 30 18 6

3 62 50 37 25 13

4 69 57 45 32 20

5 76 64 52 39 27

6 83 71 59 46 34

Note: Values in the above table are based on the relationship:

PRO = 53 - 12 I + 8 S

Table 6-1. Surface cover flow time (Ts)

Catchment type TS (h)

Arid zone 0.0

Poor pasture / scrub (large bare soil patches) 0.0

Good pasture 1.0

Cultivated land (down to river bank) 2.0

Forest (a) shallow impermeable soils 2.0

(b) very steep (S5, S6) permeable soils 2.0

(c) other 12.0

Swamp filled valleys 20.0

Table 6-2. Land use factor (CL)

Catchment type CL (h)

Semi arid zone 1.00

Largely bare soil (humid zone) 1.50

Intensive cultivation 1.50

Grass cover 1.00

Dense vegetation (particularly in valleys) 0.50

Forest (a) shallow impermeable soils 1.00

(b) very steep (S5, S6) permeable soils 0.67

(c) other 0.33

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Table 6-3. Catchment wetness factor (CW)

Catchment wetness factor (CW )

Rainfall zone Perennial streams Ephemeral streams

Semi-arid zone 1.00 1.00

Wet zone (SMR > 75 mm) 1.00 1.00

Dry zone (SMR < 75 mm) 0.75 0.50

Table 6-4. Peak Flow Factors (F)

Type of catchment Peak flow factor (F )

Arid zone 3.0

Humid zone 2.5

Forest 1.7

f. Hydrology calculation spreadsheet

38. All calculations are repetitive and therefore Excel spread sheets were used throughout the
design process in detail in annex.

6.5 Hydraulic Study

39. This section addresses methods used for estimation of hydraulic capacity of drainage
structures. The capacity of existing structures is assessed and compared to required hydraulic flow
calculated in previous section. This comparison is important to verify Engineer’s calculation and field
observation and interview with local people. This will help Engineer to decide whether the existing
capacity is adequate or not.

6.5.1 Design Period

40. The minimum design period for drainage design recommended by most hydraulic design
references are listed in Table 6-14 below.

Table 6-5. Design Standards Adopted for Drainage.

Drainage Structure Type Design Storm / Flood Frequency

Large Bridges (L> 100 m total span) 1 in 100 years

Small Bridges (L≥ 100 m total span) 1 in 50 years

Pipe and Box culverts 1 in 25 years

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41. This recommendation is appropriate for new construction. However, we have carefully
considered the justification for higher standards on parts of the road at locations where problems have
been reported. Conversely, for rehabilitation it is considered reasonable to accept slightly lower
standards, if the cost of achieving the proposed standards is too great.

6.5.2 Design Risk

a. Occurrence of over design
42. The purpose of design standards for drainage is to achieve a balance between:
• The risk of disruption or damage to the road; and
• The capital and operational cost of providing and maintaining drainage.

43. Drainage structures are designed to accommodate a flow of a given return period
• For rural roads in the tropics it is usual to design culverts for a 1 in 25 year (or 5%
probability of occurrence event)
• Bridges for 1 in 50 or 100 years (or 2% or 1% respectively probability of occurrence).

44. During any given period of years there is a probability that the design flow will be equalled or
exceeded. The design life adopted for a road is commonly 20 years, and for a bridge 50 years. It can
be assumed that the project roads to the current alignment and levels are over 30 years old. On the
basis that the original drainage design was to the standards quoted above, it is a simple calculation to
estimate the probability that drainage capacity has been exceeded:
• During the design life of the road;
• Since it has been built; or
• For bridges by the time they reach their design life.

Table 6-6. Probability of design standards being exceeded during design life. (CDOT, 2004)

Probability of design flow being exceeded

Return period‘T’
years 1 in 10 years 1 in 25 years 1 in 50 years 1 in 100 years
Design life ‘L’
(10% probability) (5% probability) (2% probability) (1% probability)
years

20 88% 64% 33% 18%

30 96% 78% 45% 26%

50 99% 92% 64% 39%

45. It can be seen that there is a 78% probability that each culvert on the road will have
experienced a flow equal or exceeding a designed capacity of 1 in 25 years during the last 30 years.
For bridges the corresponding probability is 45%. It should be understood that incidences of flooding
for more frequent events will not happen simultaneously at every location on the road, but will occur
randomly both temporally and spatially, dependant on the distribution of flood generating rainfall.
46. This should make it clear that if it is true that some drainage structures have failed under
extreme rainfall and floods, it does not mean that they have been under-designed.

b. Climate Change and Hydrological impact

47. A rapid climate change assessment of adaptation needs was undertaken for the Project in
October 2009. Findings showed that existing climate change projections supported by field

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observations highlight two major concerns related to current and future climate changes. Specifically,
there appears to be an overall increase in average total annual rainfall and, this increase is poorly
distributed over seasons, resulting in increased floods during the rainy season as well as increased
drought incidence during the dry season. Droughts are significant especially for unpaved roads as
dust levels increase and reduce visibility and create poor local air quality. Flooding and soil moisture
content is a primary concern for protecting investments in roadwork and will be addressed as a
priority in the climate change adaptation strategy to be implemented under the Project. The strategy
will seek to strengthen the overall objective of the Project to improve rural road mobility. It will do so by:
 Protecting the road infrastructure from the impacts of climate change and,
 Ensuring that the road infrastructure does not increase the vulnerability of the
surrounding area to climate change.

48. To address hydrological impacts, the project shall provide for appropriate design of roadside
and cross drainage systems, where necessary, to avoid flooding on project roads as well as in areas
surrounding the road embankment. The road embankment, bridges and drainage facilities shall be
designed based on the historical flood data and flood forecasting. Erosion control and slope
stabilization measures shall be included in the design, as appropriate, such as side ditches, berms,
stone ripraps, and gabions along the road, tree planting in areas of high erosion risk, cross drainage
to accommodate floodwater/run-off in case road sections are on elevated fills that will obstruct natural
drainage.

6.5.3 Culvert hydraulic Capacity

49. Culvert hydraulics is a complex subject because flow is controlled by upstream and
downstream water levels as well as the physical arrangement of the culvert. There are six main flow
conditions under which a culvert may operate but for the project road only two of these conditions are
relevant for design.
50. The flat terrain means that the two critical flow conditions under which culverts may operate are
as follows:
1. At the onset of a flood when the road embankment causes water to build on the
upstream side of the culvert although the land downstream is not yet flooded but the
depth of water downstream is such that it limits the flow rate so that the culvert operates
under ‘outlet control’, sometimes classified as ‘Type F’ culvert flow. Hydraulically the
following applies:
• Culvert flows full;
• Culvert slope does not determine discharge;
• Flow control is wall friction and critical depth at outlet;
• Culvert is hydraulically ‘Long’;
• Culvert inlet is submerged > 1.5 times height of culvert; and
• Culvert outlet is not submerged, downstream water depth < height of culvert.

2. When the water level upstream and downstream are equalising, or during subsequent
rainfall during an on-going flood the depth of water is such that is water ponding or
backing-up from downstream submerging the culvert outlet, sometimes classified as
‘Type E’ culvert flow. Hydraulically the following applies:
• Culvert flows full;
• Culvert slope does not determine discharge;
• Flow control is wall friction and backwater from downstream;
• Culverts are hydraulically ‘Long’;
• Culvert inlet is submerged; and
• Culvert outlet is submerged.

51. The flow capacity is about 20% greater under Type F flow than Type E flow. Other flow types
could occur but only those critical for design have been considered.
52. It was necessary to decide which flow case to use for design. It was decided that Type F was
appropriate because:

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• It is the condition most likely to apply at the onset of a flood when flow capacity is
most critical.
• It is the most damaging flow case with potential for scour because flow at the
outlet is super-critical.
53. The discharge equations for Type F and Type E culvert flow are described below.
The discharge equation used for ‘Type F’ outlet control is:
(eq.11)
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴{2𝑔𝑔(𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘3)|(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 1)} 0.5
54. To permit calculation of Type F flow a general assumption has been made that at design flow
Where Q: discharge in m3/s
A0: culvert cross-sectional area in m2
g: acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m2/s
d1: depth upstream of culvert in m
d3:: depth downstream of culvert in m
Z: Difference in inlet and outlet invert level, can be assumed = 0 for this
assessment.
K: A factor determined from model tests to be 0.75 for circular culverts and
0.65 for box culverts.
ke: entry loss coefficient:
• 0.50 for pipe culvert in vertical headwall without entrance
rounding
• 0.30 for box culvert with vertical head wall and 30° to 60° wing
walls

𝑛𝑛2 . 𝑙𝑙
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 19.6
𝑅𝑅4/3

n: Manning’s ‘n’
L: culvert length in m
R: Hydraulic radius = wetted area / wetted perimeter

the upstream water depth d1 is 1.5 x the diameter of pipe culverts and + 0.5 m the height of box
culverts, this typically being the minimum design height of the road embankment.

𝑄𝑄 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴{2𝑔𝑔(𝑑𝑑1 − 𝑑𝑑3)|(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 1)}0.5 (eq.12)

55. To permit calculation of Type E flow a general assumption has been made that at design flow
the head loss through the culvert, d1 – d3, is 100 mm.

6.5.4 Bridge hydraulic Capacity

56. The flow volume through the bridge may be calculated from Manning’s formula:
A A 2/3 1/2
Q= ( ) S (eq.13)
n P
3
Where: Q = flow volume (m /s)
A = cross-sectional area of the flow (m2)
P = length of wetted bed at the cross-section (m)
s = gradient of water surface or bed slope
n = Manning’s ‘n’ representing the channel roughness

57. If the cross-section is complex it can be divided into vertical slices and the total flow obtained
by adding the flow calculated for each slice. This allows different values of roughness to be used, for
example gabions for the banks, sand for the bed. However for the purposes of the project the cross

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section of all bridges has be reduced to an equivalent rectangular section to simplify the embedded
formula in the spread sheets.

6.5.5 Discharge Capacity of Existing Structure

58. All summarises results of hydraulic calculation of existing structures using formula as described
in Annex for Type F flow for pipe and box culvert.

6.5.6 Standard Culvert Structure

59. It is recommended to standardize culverts using pipes for smaller sizes and reinforced concrete
box sections for larger culverts.

Table 6-7. Recommended standard drainage dimensions

Clear internal dimensions Description

600 mm diameter pipe culvert

800 mm diameter pipe culvert

1,000 mm diameter pipe culvert

1,200 mm diameter pipe culvert

Larger size pipe culvert Multiple pipe culvert

2,000 mm wide by 2,000 mm high box culvert

2,500 mm wide by 2,000 mm high box culvert

3,000 mm wide by 2,000 mm high box culvert

3,000 mm wide by 2,500 mm high box culvert

3,000 mm wide by 3,000 mm high box culvert

3,500 mm wide by 3,000 mm high box culvert

3,500 mm wide by 3,500 mm high box culvert

5,000 mm wide by 4,500 mm high box culvert

Larger size box culvert Multiple-cell box culvert

5,000 mm span bridge Bridge

10,000 mm span bridge Bridge

6.6 Drainage Requirements

60. The detailed calculations and records of this process are in the Appendices that included all
design process of the requirement in detail of the condition a for every cross drainage structure.

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6.6.1 Proposed New Design

61. Water was to be drained by structures along the road are from small catchment areas, thus no
bridge is to be proposed. The following elaborates justification which supports recommendation for
design of new culverts.
62. Pipe culverts are favoured on several counts:
1. They provide a dished invert, which concentrates low flow and receding runoff into
the centre of the culvert helping to cleanse sediment and reduce incidence of
blockage.
2. They are quicker to construct than box culverts and this will minimise disruption of
traffic on the existing road.
3. In sufficient number there will be an economy of scale, which will be reflected, in the
tender sum.

63. The smallest pipe size recommended is 0.8 m diameter, this being the minimum practical safe
size for maintenance by man entry, but in fact, if we do not have enough existing level for 0.8m
diameter, we prefer to use 0.60m in double cell instead.
64. The sizes selected for culverts provide stepped increases in capacity. If additional capacity is
required, or where the vertical alignment of the road is a constraint on culvert height, then a multi-cell
arrangement is recommended.

Table 6-8. Recommended standard culvert dimensions and indicative discharge capacity

Indicative Capacity
Description Clear internal dimensions
m3/sec
pipe culvert 600 mm diameter 0.55

pipe culvert 800 mm diameter 1.12

pipe culvert 1,000 mm diameter 1.96
pipe culvert 1,200 mm diameter 3.10
multiple-pipe culvert Larger size pipe culvert
13.60
box culvert 2,000 mm wide by 2,000 mm high

box culvert 2,500 mm wide by 2,000 mm high 17.01

20.41
box culvert 3,000 mm wide by 2,000 mm high
27.31
box culvert 3,000 mm wide by 2,500 mm high
34.80
box culvert 3,000 mm wide by 3,000 mm high
40.61
box culvert 3,500 mm wide by 3,000 mm high
49.98
box culvert 3,500 mm wide by 3,500 mm high

box culvert 5,000 mm wide by 4,500 mm high 100.70

Multiple box culvert Larger size box culvert

Bridge 5,000 mm span bridge 41.20

Bridge 10,000 mm span bridge 82.40

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6.6.2 Condition and Summary of pipe culverts

65. Cross drainage structures are very important to solve local water flooding and stagnation during
raining season. Damaged box and pipe culverts have been designated for replacement if the existing
structures were not able to be functioned properly. As a lesson learned during the implementation of
the previous project, narrow pipe culverts and box culverts need to be extended to the design road
widths for road safety. Some pipe culverts and box culverts were planned to be newly constructed in
consideration of future climate change. In particular, new drainage structures are to be provided
where actual flooding had occurred based on interviews and observations and where it was reported
that the flood waters were significantly higher on overflow on the road.
66. The last but not least, the stream profiles of some culvert were loss cause by the villagers have
taken that area for cultivation by make the dikes close around the inlet and outlet.

6.7 Tonle Sap River

67. Tonle Sap, a unique hydrological and ecological system located within Cambodia, is a natural
resource of great regional importance to the GMS, which require protection through regional
cooperation. At its smallest in the dry season, the lake area is about 2,500 square kilometer (km2) and
its depth is about 1 meter (m), however, in the wet season it expands to about 16,000 km2 with
maximum depth of 10m. The Tonle Sap River reverses its flow, draining the lake in to Mekong River
during the dry season, and partially filling the lake from the Mekong River during wet season.
68. The hydrology of Tonle Sap is strongly influenced by upstream developments in the Mekong
River basin. More than 60 percent of the floodwater in the lake comes from the Mekong River and
less than 40 percent of floodwater from its own catchment area.
69. At full flood the lake temporarily stores about 72 billion cubic meter (m3) of water, or 16 percent
of the annual discharge of Mekong River, thus buffering the annual flood in downstream area such as
appeared overflow flooded some section of our target road in Pursat and Battambang province.

6. 8 Conclusion and Recommendation

70. The studies of RRIP II (CW-5) has provides road access to local and transit traffic in three
provinces of Pursat, Battambang and BatheyMeanChey, most of which are scattered all over the
country, to provide reliable all- year road access from provincial towns and agricultural rural areas to
market. On the other hand, the road has a role in irrigation system of its surrounding area. Ideally, at
beginning and toward the end of rain season, the road embankment shall perform as a dike which
sufficiently retains water for rice-field on upstream, while its structures will release water when water is
in excess. Therefore, selecting the correct invert-level for each structure is important for the road as
well as paddy field. If the level is too low, water would be drained out of the upstream paddy field. It
was observed a number of structures were willingly bloc by famers to keep water for their rice fields.
Contrary, if this invert-level is too high, rice filed which surround nearby upstream of the structure
would subject to flood regularly and damage the crop.
71. Hydraulic calculation of structures along the study road in RRIP II project CW-5 has shown the
required structures capacities vary for a wide range from 0.3m3/s to 258.52m3/s, while the biggest one
is to be replace of a bridge water course in Pursat. If a structure was to be proposed accordant to its
individual required capacity, many different types of culverts will be proposed. This may not an
economical solution because this will require different design thus different tools and technique to
construct and quality control. Practically, the proposed small structures along a road should be
standardized. In this regard, proposed structures Improvement for:
• Pipe culverts: the design has been single or multiple cells with concrete pipe in diameter in
detail in table 6-17 above;
• Box culverts: the design has been single or multiples span of width and in high that detail in
table 6-17 above.

72. Map of Catchment Area and Hydraulic Calculation Sheets are attached in Appendix B.

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APPENDICES AND REFERENCES

1. Chow V T, A general formula for hydrological frequency analysis, Trans Am Geophys Un, 32,
231-237, April (1951).

2. Fiddes D, Flood estimation for small East African rural catchments, Proceeding Institution of
Civil Engineers, Part 2, 63, 21-34 (1977)

3. Kirpich Z P, Time of concentration of small agricultural watersheds, Civil Eng (NY) 10, 6, 362
pp, (1940)

4. Road Design Standard, Part 3 - Drainage, CAM PW.03.103.99, July 1999, produced as a joint
Australia-Cambodia project sponsored by the Australian Agency for International
Development (AusAID).

5. Soil Conservation Service, National Engineering Handbook (NEH), Section 4: Hydrology, Part
I: Watershed Planning, US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC (1964)

6. USGCS, COLORADO Department of Transport, Drainage Design Manual, CDOT.2004.

7. Watkins L H and Fiddes D, Highway and Urban Hydrology in the Tropics, Pentech Press,
London, 92-100 (1984).

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