Renewable Energy Technologies

Modules : ME2603 - ME5521

Solar Thermal Solar PV Wind Hydro

Tidal Wave Biomass Hydrogen

© 2011, Brunel University, Dr. Z. Dehouche 1

Renewable Energy Technologies – ME2603/ME5521
MAIN AIMS OF THE MODULE
• To consider principles of the main renewable resources
• To provide an understanding of renewable energy technologies
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE MODULE
• The module provides opportunities for students to develop and demonstrate knowledge
and understanding, qualities, skills and other attributes in the following areas:
A- Knowledge and Understanding of:
• Physical, technological and economic factors that determine the design and use of
renewable energy systems
• System design and sizing for solar heating (solar thermal) and solar electricity
(Photovoltaics)
• Wind power generation and wind turbine sizing
• Hydro electricity generation
• Biomass power systems
B- Cognitive (thinking) Skills which facilitate:
• Design and analysis of renewable energy generation systems
C- Other Skills and Attributes (Practical/Professional/Transferable)
which develop:
• The ability to present results in a structured written report
• The ability to carry out internet searches for up-to-date technical information on
renewable technological solutions and products
2
MAIN TOPICS OF STUDY
The role of Renewables: Economics. Renewable Energy Resource
Assessment. National and European Policies. Barriers to implementation
of Renewables. Case studies
Solar Thermal: Availability of solar radiation. Types of solar water heating
systems. Solar water heating system design, sizing and performance
Solar Electricity: Introduction to Photovoltaics. Materials and
Components. Photovoltaic system design and sizing
Wind Power Generation: Availability of Wind. Turbine types. Electricity
generation. Planning issues. Turbine sizing and economics.
Hydro Electricity: Types of hydro-electric installations. Power generation
from waves and tides. Turbines. Environmental considerations.
Biofuels: Sources of fuel. Energy extraction techniques. Case-studies
Building Integrated Renewables: Case studies
ASSESSMENT (ME2603): Formal 3 hours Examination (60%)
ASSESSMENT (ME3301): Formal 3 hours Examination (70%)
ASSESSMENT (ME5521): Formal 2 hours Examination (75%) and
Assignment (25%)
3
READINGS
1 ESSENTIAL READING: Lecture Notes (provided as course material)
2 RECOMMENDED READING
Boyle G (Ed), Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future – Oxford and
Open University Press, 2004
John A. Duffie and William A. Beckman, Solar Engineering of Thermal processes,
A Wiley-Interscience Publication, 1991
Tom Markvart et al., Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications. Elsevier
2003, Ebook
3 OTHER
1. Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins and Ervin Bossanyi, Wind Energy
Handbook. Wiley 2001
2. Aldo V. Da Rosa, Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Processes, Elsevier
Academic Press, 2005
3. Tester, J. W., E. M. Drake, M. W. Golay, M. J. Driscoll, and W. A. Peters,
Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005
4. Gilbert M. Masters, Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems, Wiley-
IEEE Press 2004
5. Peter F. Smith, Sustainability at the Cutting Edge: Emerging Technologies for Low
Energy Buildings. Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Architectural Press 2007
6. Boyle G, Everett B and Ramage J (Eds), Energy systems and Sustainability,
Oxford University Press, 2003
4
3 OTHER
www.cibse.org (The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers)
CIBSE is the standard setter and authority on building services engineering
It publishes Guidance and Codes, and sets the criteria for best practice in the
profession
www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/statistics/publications
Department of Energy and Climate Change: Statistical Energy publications
The UK Government’s domestic and international energy strategy and
regulation to ensure secure and sustainable energy supply and a low-carbon
economy
Atlas of UK Marine Renewable Energy Resources: Technical Report,
Government's Renewables Obligation Policy
http://www.solar-trade.org.uk/solarenergy/ukresource.htm
The UK's large solar energy resource (UK solar irradiation)
http://www.windfinder.com/windstats/windstatistic_london-heathrow.htm
Wind & Weather Reports
http://www.greenworks-energy.co.uk/
Greenworks provide renewable energy solutions for builders
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE)
http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_basics.html
National Renewable Energy Technology

5
http://www.doe.gov/energysources/renewables.htm
US Department of Energy
http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_Energy/renewable.htm
Sandia National Laboratories: Renewable Energy Technologies Division
http://www.ewea.org/
The European Wind Energy Association
http://www.biomassuk.com/
Biomass UK is able to provide innovative biomass solutions
http://www.retscreen.net/
NRCAN – RETScreen: Clean Energy Project Analysis Software
http://www.bwea.com/
The British Wind Energy Association
http://www.res-group.com/
Renewable Energy Systems (RES) developers
http://www.british-hydro.org/
British Hydropower Association
http://www.uk-energy-saving.com/
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/magazine/

World Energy Council: www.worldenergy.org/publications

International Energy Agency (IEA): http://www.iea.org
6
www.energyinst.org.uk
The professional body for the energy industry, delivering good practice
and professionalism
http://www.beaufortcourt.com/
Innovative low-carbon head office for Renewable Energy Systems (RES)
(Egg Farm Lane, Kings Langley Hertfordshire, WD4 8LR)
Several types of clean, renewable technology designed to provide all of our
heat, cooling and power needs are demonstrated
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/highlights.html
The Annual Energy Outlook 2011 (DOE/EIA-0383(2011)) by the Energy
Information Administration (EIA) of the US Department of Energy

Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center

http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/home.html
The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) is the primary
climate-change data and information analysis centre of the US Department of
Energy (DOE)

The World Factbook provides information on the history, people,

government, economy, geography, energy, communications, transportation,
military, and transnational issues for 266 world entities
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ 7
Computing Resources
RETScreen: Clean Energy Project Analysis
Software, provided free-of-charge, can be
used :
• To evaluate the energy production and
savings, costs, emission reductions, financial
viability and risk for various types of
Renewable-energy and Energy-efficient
Technologies (RETs)
• The software also includes products, projects,
hydrology and NASA climate data-bases
http://www.retscreen.net/
8
TRNSYS: is a complete and extensible
environment for the dynamic simulation of
buildings and their equipment
TRNSYS applications include:
 Solar systems (solar thermal and PV)
 Low energy buildings and HVAC systems
with advanced design features (natural
ventilation, thermal slab, double façade, etc.)
 Renewable energy systems, Cogeneration
and fuel cells

TRNSYS: TRaNsient SYstems Simulation Program 9

Chapter 1: Introduction to Renewable
Energy Technologies
Learning Objectives
• Obtain an outlook on global energy structure and use and how this is
categorised (presents long-term projections of energy supply, demand,
and prices through 2030 )

• Be able to consider the potential of contribution from various

renewable energy sources

The contents of this chapter are based on various sources:

IEA, Total, BP and Exxon mobile energy outlooks, DOE and NREL
publications. The Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC):
www.decc.gov.uk . The Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers (CIBSE) publications: www.cibse.org

10
Renewable Energy Technologies
• Renewable energy describes power generated from natural
sources that are constantly replenished
• It is energy generated from solar, wind, biomass, hydropower,
geothermal, and ocean resources, and biofuels and hydrogen
derived from renewable resources
• Renewable energy technologies turn these fuels into usable
forms of energy—most often electricity, but also heat, chemicals,
or mechanical power

(Primary energy)

*Primary energy is energy that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process.
Primary energy includes renewable energy and non-renewable energy 11
Why is the energy business important?
 THE ENERGY INDUSTRIES’ CONTRIBUTION TO
THE UK ECONOMY (UK Energy in Brief, 2010 - DECC)
3.7% of GDP (Expenditure measure: This is the value of the goods and services purchased
by households and by government. Output measure: This is the value of the goods and services produced
by all sectors of the economy: agriculture, manufacturing, energy, construction, the service sector and
government . Income measure: The value of the income generated mostly in terms of profits and wages)

10.1% of total investment (5.8% in 2005)

49.6% of industrial investment (32% in 2005)
2.1% of annual business expenditure on R&D
150,200 people directly employed (5% of industrial
employment)
Many others indirectly employed (e.g. an estimated
239,000 in support of UK Continental Shelf activities)
DECC: Department of Energy and Climate Change
GDP: gross domestic product 12
 TWh=1012 Wh

The barrel of oil

equivalent (BOE) is
the energy released
by burning one
barrel (159 litres) of
crude oil (6.1 GJ or
1.7 MWh)

13
• Meeting the increase in demand for energy will pose a major
supply challenge and lead to an important increase in carbon
emissions
• Renewable energy can help to fill the gap…
• Renewable sources of energy are effective alternatives to fossil fuels
and can meet our energy requirements without disturbance of the
balance in the environment (reduce greenhouse gas emissions)
Outline
Wind onshore Solar Hydro Biomass

Wind offshore Wave Tidal Hydrogen

14
 GDP:GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (BASED ON PURCHASING POWER PARITY)

6.7 billion today

OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation

and Development

• Sustained global economic growth, along with population expand (8 billions in 2030),
will drive the overall increase in the demand for energy over the next 25 years. China,
and to a lesser extent India, will see especially dramatic increases in energy
consumption 15
Global Energy Demand – By Fuel and Sector
• Oil, natural gas and coal are indispensable to meeting this energy demand, even with
rapid growth in renewables
• Global energy demand from all sources expressed in million barrels per day of oil
equivalent (MBDOE) is expected to increase 1.3% per year on average from 2005 to
2030
• Transportation and Power generation sectors will experience considerable growth
through 2030.  

Average Growth / Yr. Average Growth / Yr.

MBDOE 2005 - 2030
350 2005 – 2030
350
1.3% 1.3%
300
300
Renewables 1.5% 0.7%
250
250 2.0% Res/Comm
Nuclear 200 1.2%
200 0.9%
150
150
1.7% 1.7%
Industrial
Coal 100
100
Gas Transportation
50 1.5%
50 1.2%
Oil Power Generation
0 0
1980 2005 2030 1980 2005 2030
MBDOE = Millions of Barrels per Day of Oil Equivalent Source: Exxon Mobile 2007
16
 OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries

• Total oil demand will increase from roughly 84 million barrels per day
in 2010 to more than 100 million barrels in 2030, an increase almost as
large as OPEC's current production 17
UK energy consumption by fuel type, 1980 to 2010

Source: UK Energy in Brief, decc, July 2011

Since 1980 consumption of natural gas and primary electricity

(nuclear) has risen considerably, whilst consumption of oil has
remained around the same and coal has fallen 18
UK, Energy consumption by end use, 1980 to 2010

Source: UK Energy in Brief, decc, July 2011

Since 1980 energy consumption by individual sectors has

changed substantially: there have been rises of 65% for
transport, 15% for the domestic sector and 6% for the service
sector, whilst consumption by industry has fallen by 37%
19
 Source: www.berr.gov.uk/energy/statistics/publications/
UK, Oil demand by product * DERV: diesel engined road vehicle

In 2008
transport fuels
increased their
share of
overall oil
demand when
compared with
1980

Transportation
is the fastest
growing sector
and the one
most
important to
oil demand

20
Gas demand mainly driven by power generation, the
fastest-growing energy demand segment

Sources: Total, AIE

Tcm = trillion cubic meters Alternative Policy Scenario

• Gas and coal are the main fuels used for power generation

• Renewables are expected to increase their share

• Natural gas usage will grow by 2.5% per year through 2030,
mainly stemming from the tripling of gas consumption in Asia
21
UK, Natural gas consumption, 1980 to 2008
• Gas consumption by
electricity generators grew
rapidly
• Industrial consumption
peaked in 2000 but has
fallen since then by around
28%
• Power generation is the
largest sector today and the
one with greatest
anticipated volume growth
going forward.

TWh=1012 Wh

22
UK, Coal consumption, 1980 to 2008
• Coal consumption as a
whole declined sharply
during the 1990s, at an
average annual rate of 6%
• Between 1999 and 2006 coal
consumption grew by nearly
3% per year on average but in
2008 it fell back by 8%
because of lower coal
demand in power stations, as
the gap between gas and coal
prices narrowed

23
UK, Electricity supplied by fuel type, 1980 to 2008

• Since 1990, the decline of coal and oil and the rise of gas in electricity
generation have been the most marked features
• Gas rose most markedly over this period from 1.6 TWh in 1980 to 173.5
TWh in 2008

24
Global Power Generation Demand
• The total power generation is expected to grow by about 1% and 2.2% per year
to 2030 for OECD and non-OECD. The contribution from coal is expected to
decline from 40% to 30% for OECD and rise to 50% for non-OECD
• Nuclear, gas and renewable will each gain a considerable share of the mix.
Renewable fuels will grow most rapidly
• Coal will remain the largest source of power. Even with growth of only about 1%
per year, its share of global power generation fuels will be 40% in 2030 and will
have significant implications on overall CO2 emissions

Source: Exxon Mobile 2007

25
Global Transportation Demand
• The OECD total is moving towards a plateau, with an overall growth rate of 0.6%
per year during 2005-2030
• The demand in the non-OECD countries will be five times faster than the OECD
overall: 3 % per year. All sectors will increase significantly, reflecting strong
economic growth and rising incomes
• Heavy duty vehicles lead demand growth. Globally, heavy duty demand will rise
by more than 60% through 2030.

Source: Exxon Mobile 2007

26
Global Residential / Commercial Demand
• Total OECD residential/commercial demand is expected to stay constant,
with energy efficiency gains helping offset the impact of a modest
increase in total population
• Total non-OECD residential/commercial demand is expected to rise
close to 1.0% per year

Source: Exxon Mobile 2007

27
Oil Reserves and Resources

• Proved oil reserves cover around 40 years of today’s demand and are
strongly concentrated in Middle East
•2007 Oil Reserves stand at 1237.9 Billion barrels. Reserves have grown
by 14% over the last decade * Unconventional oil is petroleum that is more difficult or less
economical to extract
28
The production growth challenge
• Mostly because of growth in the transportation sector, global demand for crude
oil will rise by more than 20% from 2005 to 2030

• At current oil prices, producing countries do not need to increase output

• Geopolitical constraints or local troubles in producing countries
• New developments are complex, expensive and time-consuming
29
Oil Reserves and Resources
• Oil sands and deepwater
resources, as well as
OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
biofuels, natural gas liquids
(NGLs), coal-to-liquids,
and
• gains achieved via
improved refinery
processing, will offset
declines in conventional oil
fields
• Natural gas liquids (NGLs)
and biofuels will play an
increasingly large role in
meeting the world’s need Source: exxonmobil.com/energyoutlook

for liquid fuels * Liquid fuels provide a large quantity of energy in small
volumes, making them easy to transport and widely available
30
Gas reserves and resources are more widely
spread

1 m3 = 35.3145 cubic feet

* Unconventional natural gas is gas that is more difficult or less
TCF = trillion cubic feet economical to extract, usually because the technology to reach it has not been
developed fully, or is too expensive

• The world’s proved conventional gas reserves are equivalent to 60.3 years of
2007’s demand (BP)
• 2007 gas reserves stand at 177.36 trillion-m3. Reserves have grown by 21% over
the last decade http://www.naturalgas.org/overview/unconvent_ng_resource.asp 31
Abundant coal reserves

• Widely spread geographical distribution of reserves

• World coal reserves represent about 200 years of today’s
consumption
•The increased use of coal will have a strong impact on CO2
emissions 32
Renewable energies will grow but account for a
small share of the energy mix

33
A long transition period in energy supply: 80% of the
energy mix still derived from fossil fuels in 2030

34
Greenhouse gas emissions: a critical challenge for
sustainable growth
• Demand growth and fuel mix will lead to increased CO2 emissions

•Everyone must contribute to more efficient energy use and to CO2

emission reductions
35
Global energy-related CO2 emissions
• CO2 emissions in the World Energy Outlook Reference
Scenario are projected to rise 55% from 27 Gigatons (Gt)
in 2005 to 42 Gt in 2030: 42Gt − 27Gt
100% = 55%
27Gt

42Gt − 34Gt
100% = 19%
42Gt

•Electricity: In UK, the CO2 emission factor used is 0.527 kg/kWh [DEFRA]
•The CO2 generated by burning natural gas is 0.185 kg/kWh [DEFRA]
36
Global CO2 Emissions
• Energy-related CO2 emissions in the OECD are anticipated to be almost constant

*Since the industrial revolution,

concentrations of all the long-lived
greenhouse gases have increased due
to human actions

Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations

(1751-2004)

• In the Non-OECD, energy-related CO2

emissions are expected to increase at a rate of
almost 2% per year, reflecting the tremendous
need for
• power generation, transportation and
industrial fuels and the strong growth in all
fossil fuels Source: Exxon Mobile 2007

37
Global CO2 Emissions
• Energy-related CO2 emissions are expected to increase globally
at about 1.2% per year to 2030, reaching an annual level of 37
billion tonnes (even with aggressive assumptions for energy
intensity improvements)

Source: Exxon Mobile 2007

38
The State of Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere Using
Global Observations through 2006
• Blue regions have
relatively low CO2
and red regions
have relatively high
CO2
• High CO2 values,
mostly from fossil
fuel combustion, are
observed over North
America, Europe
and East Asia

• CO2 from burning biomass (plume) is being transported from Equatorial

Africa towards the Atlantic Ocean
• In 2006, the USA produced about 22% of global CO2 emissions from
burning fossil fuels
• The U.S. economy is the largest in the world and it meets 85 % of its
energy needs through burning fossil fuels
39
Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere
• CO2(56%) is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse
gas, but other gases [CH4(18%), CFCs(13%), O3(7%), Nox(6%)]
also make significant contributions to climate change

• Global NOx
emissions are
increasing, driven by
rising demand for
energy and
transportation
Satellite observations of
tropospheric* NO2, 2006.
* The troposphere is the lowest portion
(layer) of Earth's atmosphere in which all
"weather" occurs

• NOx contributes to many air pollution problems, including ground-level

ozone, smog, acid rain, and climate change
40
Global CO2 emissions from major industrial sources

• Fossil-fueled power generation accounts for over 42% of overall

anthropogenic CO2 emissions (~80% of CO2 emissions from the industrial
sector)
• Conventional power plants (coal-fired units) and other industrial
facilities such as: cement mills, refineries, fertilizer factories, steel mills
and petrochemical plants
• are currently viewed as the installations where CO2 capture appears to
be the most applicable
41
Environmental impact of energy use

Atmospheric CO2 and CH4 concentrations

• The human activity is the main driver in increasing greenhouse gas (CO2, CH4)
emissions and concentrations by burning fossil fuels (oil/petroleum, coal, natural
gas)
• And very likely responsible for the observed rise in global average temperatures
since the mid-20th century (the Earth’s climate has warmed by about 0.5°C)
42
Environmental impact of energy use

Comparison between modeled and observations of temperature rise

• Most greenhouse gases have both natural and

anthropogenic sources
• Climate models produce the best match for current trends
when they are programmed to simulate both natural and man
made factors that drive climate change
43
Environmental impact of energy use
• Human influence indicators on the atmosphere during the industrial era
• The most influential, long-lived greenhouse gases are: CO2, CH4, N2O,
and CFCs

*These measurements show a steady rise in atmospheric GHG concentrations

Source: IPCC, 2001: Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton, J.T., Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai,
K. Maskell, and C.A. Johnson (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
© Dan R. Anderson, UW-Madison (SOA,CAS,CIA 2008)
44
Environmental impact of energy use: Earth's energy balance
• Earth constantly absorbs energy from the sun and radiates energy back
to space

Source: Courtesy Jared T. Williams. © Dan Schrag, Harvard University Retention of solar radiation

• The greenhouse gases inhibit the heat loss from the Earth's surface
45
Environmental impact of energy use
• The abundances of several long-lived greenhouse gases lead to a change in the
radiative balance of Earth’s atmosphere
• Radiative forcing is the change in net irradiance at the troposphere (the
difference between the incoming radiation energy and the outgoing radiation
energy), measured in W/m2
• Increases in ozone occur near the surface as a result of pollution from human
activities

Radiative forcing of climate change from atmospheric Earth’s atmosphere (km)

gas changes (1750-2000)
• Human-driven emissions of greenhouse gases are altering the balance by
retaining more heat in the atmosphere
• All these positive forcing leads to a warming of Earth’s surface 46
Air pollutants and Greenhouse Gases are major
contributors to climate change
• Human influence indicators on the atmosphere during the industrial era

• Severe ozone depletion

or “ozone hole”
• The ozone hole is
shown in the picture at
its largest extent for the
year, measured on
October 4, 2004
(Antarctic ozone hole)

Dobson Units: DU= 2.691020 ozone molecules /m2

Source: National Aeronautics and Space Administration

47
Greenhouse gases effect climate change

• Combined global land and marine surface

temperature record from 1850 to 2006





Source: Climatic Research Unit and the UK Met. Office Hadley Centre
Brohan, P., J.J. Kennedy, I. Haris, S.F.B. Tett and P.D. Jones, 2006

© Dan R. Anderson, UW-Madison (SOA,CAS,CIA 2008) 48

Environmental impact of energy use
Human influence indicators on the planet

Arctic sea ice coverage, 1979 and 2003 Arctic sea ice communities
© National Aeronautic and Space Administration

• Global climate change is shrinking Arctic sea ice coverage. According to NASA,
Arctic perennial sea ice has been shrinking by 9% per decade since the 1970
• Melting on this scale poses a serious threat not only to the microorganisms that
live in Arctic sea ice, but also to the many larger species that are part of Arctic
marine ecosystems 49
• Melting water streams from iceberg calved from
Ilulissat Kangerlua Glacier in 2006

Guardian (“global warming”, “climate breakdown“, ”climate change” or “global heating”) - Photograph: Paul Souders/Corbis

50
• The Petermann Glacier, located 1000 km south of the North Pole has
shrunk by about one quarter with the detachment of the iceberg, which
measured four times the size of Manhattan Island

The Petermann Glacier is 70 km long. Photo credits: AFP

51
Global Warming
• Human influence indicators on the planet

Disappearance of
Lake Chad in Africa
Images provided by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

© Dan R. Anderson, UW-Madison (SOA,CAS,CIA 2008)

52
Recovery of Global Ozone

Kyoto – Montreal greenhouse gas reductions

protocols
• Reduce greenhouse gasses (GHG) 5.2%
below 1990 levels by 2010
• EU target: cut to 20% below 1990 level
by 2020

• Both CFC and ozone levels are showing signs of levelling off and some CFCs
have even started to decrease
•As a result, the world's fragile ozone layer is predicted to gradually return to its
original state by 2050 53
UK, Greenhouse gas and CO2 emissions, 1990 to 2008
• Greenhouse gas
emissions fell by 19%
between 1990 and 2008
• Emissions of CO2 fell by
10.3% between 1990 and
2008
• CO2 is the main
greenhouse gas,
accounting for around
85% of all emissions in
2008

54
UK, nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions
• Reducing emissions of NOx pollutants is important because of the effects they
have on human health and natural ecosystems
• Emissions covered by the EU National Emissions Ceilings Directive (NECD) :

• Total nitrogen oxides emissions fell by 45% between 1990 and 2005 from
3.0 to 1.6 million tonnes
• Road transport is the largest source of emissions of nitrogen oxides
accounting for 42% of the total in 2005 55
UK, sulphur dioxide emissions

• Total emissions of sulphur dioxide fell by 81% between 1990 and 2005
from 3.7 to 0.7 million tonnes
• The main source of emissions is coal use in power stations and other
industries
56
UK, NMVOC emissions

• Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) fell

by 59% between 1990 and 2005, from 2.4 million to 1.0 million tonnes
• Road transport, solvent use, leakage from gas and oil extraction and
distribution are the primary sources of NMVOC emissions 57
UK, Ammonia emissions

• Ammonia emissions fell by 17% between 1990 and 2005

from 383 thousand to 318 thousand tonnes
• 90% of total ammonia emissions in 2005 were from
agriculture 58
Sustainable energy technologies
To cap the global emissions of greenhouse gases:
• Importance of promoting energy efficient solutions to save
natural resources and limit CO2 emissions
• The critical challenge is reconciling two up to now
conflicting targets: meeting energy demand and protecting
the climate
Oil and gas likely to account for more than 50% of world
primary energy consumption in 2030
Develop technical solutions such as CO2 capture &
storage (CCS) to limit related emissions
• Diversify the energy mix:
Necessary development of alternative renewable energy
options such as: Wind, biomass, photovoltaic and other
non-renewables (nuclear power) for energy security 59
Coal Power Generation Options
• There is considerable interest in finding ways to use coal and mitigate
impacts on the environment
• Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plant with carbon capture
and storage (CCS - stored underground)
The gasification of coal produces carbon monoxide and hydrogen
The hydrogen is used to power a combustion turbine, creating
electricity and heat
The heat is used to drive a steam turbine, also producing electricity

60
Combustion process – CO2 Capture techniques

* Gasification technology is a thermal process (partial oxidation) that use high temperatures to break down solid fuels

• The process of capture and

geological storage of CO2 consists of:
CO2 Separation and recovery
from flue gases at large industrial
installations
CO2 transportation and injection
into a suitable underground
formation for storage
• Available technology captures about
85-95% of the CO2
61
Capturing CO2 from large fossil-fuelled combustion installations
• Oxy-fuel combustion is the process of firing a fossil-fueled power plant
with an oxygen-enriched gas mix instead of air

• Thejustification for using oxy-fuel is to produce a CO2 rich flue gas

ready for sequestration 62
Clean Coal Conversion Technologies for power generation
* Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell system – FutureGen Power Plant

• Gasification-based system for producing energy from coal and other

carbon-based feedstocks - Source: Office of Fossil Energy, U.S. Department of Energy 63
Next Generation Coal-Based Electric Power Systems: Efficiency Gains

• Increasing fuel use efficiency at the power plant

can be just as economically and environmentally
beneficial as boosting the energy efficiency of end-
use applications
64
Costs of Generating Electricity
Cost of generating electricity (p/kWh) with no
cost of CO2 emissions included
Source: The Royal Academy of Engineering

Combustion - PF:Pulverised fuel, CFB: Circulating fluidized-bed, BFB: Bubbling fluidized-bed 65

UK, Renewable energy sources, 2010 • In 2010, biomass
accounted for 82.5% of
renewable energy sources
used with most of the
remainder coming from
large-scale hydro (3.5%) and
wind (11.4%) generation
• Renewable energy use
grew by 9.8% between 2009
and 2010 and is now more
than three times the level it
was at in 2000

66
Renewable Energy Share of Global Final Energy Consumption, 2008

• Renewable energy supplies 19% of the world’s final

energy consumption, counting traditional biomass, large
hydropower, and “new” renewables: small hydro (Plants of
<10 MW), biofuels, wind, solar, and geothermal
• The global energy mix remains dominated by fossil fuels

67
Growth in electricity generation from renewable sources since 1990
• Renewables accounted for
5.5% of electricity generated in
the UK in 2008, and for 5.4% of
UK electricity sales on a
Renewables Obligation (RO)
basis

Renewables support in UK

•The Renewables Obligation is

the UK Government's main
mechanism for supporting
generation of renewable
electricity
• THE RENEWABLE HEAT
INCENTIVE (2011)

68
EU, Renewable energy technology & region, June 2008

• Target of 20% share of renewables in overall

EU energy consumption by 2020; covering:
– Power
– Heating/cooling
– Transport
• At least 10% of final consumption of energy
in transport by biofuels in 2020 in each
country
69
EU, Renewable energy technology
• Renewables expected to experience strong growth rates,
especially in on- and offshore wind
> Onshore wind power:
• Relatively mature technology and markets
• Power generation costs competitive with conventional energy sources
• Still attractive growth rates
> Offshore wind power:
• Immature technology and market
• Strong market growth in medium to long term
• Significant technological challenges remain especially in offshore
foundations and structures
> Biomass CHP:
• Expected to contribute significantly to the EU renewables targets
• Solid biomass plant technology is mature and mainly used for
distributed power generation
> Hydro power: mature technology
• Overall mature market in Western Europe with low growth
• Small hydro plants (< 10 MW) expected to have significant share in
future capacity growth 70
EU, Renewable energy technology
• EU targets a renewable energy share of 20% in primary energy
consumption by 2020
• Mechanisms to support
renewable energy generation in
Europe
 Electricity suppliers are obliged to
have a certain proportion of their
electricity from renewable sources
 Tradable Renewable Energy
Certificates to fulfil renewable
obligations
 Renewable power generators Source: EU Commission, 2008. Proposal for a directive of
the European Parliament and of the Council on the
receive wholesale market price for promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources
generated power plus the value of the
certificate
* In
UK, before the introduction of the Renewables Obligation, the Non-Fossil Fuel
Obligation (NFFO) was the Government’s major instrument for encouraging
growth within the renewable energy industry (http://www.berr.gov.uk) 71
EU, Renewable Energy Targets — Share of Final Energy by 2020

• In early 2007, the European Commission adopted new binding

targets for 2020, including 20% of final energy and 10% of
transport fuels 72
Share of Global Electricity from Renewable Energy, 2008

Renewable power capacities, 2009

• Existing renewable power capacity worldwide reached an estimated

1,230 GW in 2009 and supplies some 18 % of global electricity production
•Global renewable electricity installations (excluding large-scale
hydropower) have more than doubled from 2000-2009 reaching a total
capacity of 305 GW
73
Average Annual Growth Rates of Renewable Energy Capacity, 2002–2006

• Global renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 15–30%

annually for many technologies (period: 2002–2006), including
wind power, solar hot water, geothermal heating, and off-grid solar
PV 74
Annual Investment in New Renewable Energy Capacity, 1995–2007

• An estimated $71 billion was invested in new renewable energy

capacity worldwide in 2007, up from $55 billion in 2006 and $40
billion in 2005
• Almost all of the increase was due to increased investment in
solar PV (30%) and wind power (47%) 75
Summary
• Global energy demand is projected to grow at
1.3% per year
 Underpinned by economic and population growth
 Mitigated by efficiency gains

• Oil will remain essential to meeting transportation

demands
• Power generation to meet rapidly growing
electricity needs will be the biggest driver of
higher energy demand, representing more than
40% of the increase
Growth concentrated in developing countries
76
• Coal will continue as the most prominent
source of power, while gas will have the most
significant growth

• Nuclear power will also expand, primarily after

2020

• Renewables will gain share, with a growth rate

of 1.5% per year overall
Biomass will grow slowly, while wind, solar and
biofuels (ethanol) will increase rapidly

• Energy-related CO2 emissions will rise, driven

by higher demand and the expected fuel mix
77