MODULE II

2.4 Working With Windows Operating System

The Desktop :

The desktop is the main screen area that you see after you turn on your computer and log on
to Windows. When you open programs or folders, they appear on the desktop. You can also
put things on the desktop, such as files and folders, and arrange them as you want.

Working with desktop icons

Icons are small pictures that represent files,

folders, programs, and other items. When

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you first start Windows, you'll see at least one icon on your desktop: The Recycle Bin. Some
examples of desktop icons are shown in picture.

Double-clicking a desktop icon starts or opens the item it represents.

Adding and removing icons from the desktop

You can choose which icons appear on the desktop—you can add or
remove an icon at any time. If you want easy access from the desktop to
your favorite files or programs, you can create shortcuts to them. A
shortcut is an icon that represents a link to an item, rather than the item
itself. When you double-click a shortcut, the item opens. If you delete a shortcut, only the
shortcut is removed, not the original item. You can identify shortcuts by the arrow on their
icon.

Common desktop icons include Computer, your personal folder, the Recycle Bin, and
Control Panel.

1. Right-click an empty area of the desktop, and then click Personalize.

2. In the left pane, click Change desktop icons.

3. Under Desktop icons, select the check box for each icon that you want to add to the
desktop, or clear the check box for each icon that you want to remove from the
desktop, and then click OK.

To move a file from a folder to the desktop

1. Open the folder that contains the file.

2. Drag the file to the desktop.

Moving icons around

Windows stacks icons in columns on the left side of the desktop. But you're not stuck with
that arrangement. You can move an icon by dragging it to a new place on the desktop.

You can also have Windows automatically arrange your icons. Right-click an empty area of
the desktop, click View, and then clickAuto arrange icons. Windows stacks your icons in
the upper-left corner and locks them in place. To unlock the icons so that you can move them
again, click Auto arrange icons again, clearing the check mark next to it.

Selecting multiple icons

To move or delete a bunch of icons at once, you must first select
all of them. Click an empty area of the desktop and drag the
mouse. Surround the icons that you want to select with the
rectangle that appears. Then release the mouse button. Now you
can drag the icons as a group or delete them.

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Hiding desktop icons
If you want to temporarily hide all of your desktop icons without removing them, right-click
an empty part of the desktop, click View, and then click Show desktop icons to clear the
check mark from that option. Now no icons are displayed on the desktop. You can get them
back by clicking Show desktop icons again.

Windows Explorer:

Windows Explorer is the file management application in windows. Windows explorer can be
used to navigate your hard drive and display the contents of the folders and subfolders you
use to organize your files on your hard drive. Windows Explorer is automatically launched
any time you open a folder in windows XP.

The Recycle Bin

When you delete a file or folder, it doesn't actually get deleted,it goes to the
Recycle Bin. That's a good thing, because if you want that deleted file, you can get
it back.

If you won't need the deleted items again, you can empty the Recycle Bin. Doing that will
permanently delete the items and reclaim any disk space they were using.

Start Menu:
The Start menu is the main gateway to your
computer's programs, folders, and settings.
It's called a menu because it provides a list
of choices.

Use the Start menu to do these common

activities:

• Start programs
• Open commonly used folders
• Search for files, folders, and
programs
• Adjust computer settings
• Get help with the Windows
operating system
• Turn off the computer

• Log off from Windows or switch to

a different user account.

Getting started with the Start menu

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To open the Start menu, click the Start button in the lower-left corner of your screen. Or,
press the Windows logo key on your keyboard.
The Start menu has three basic parts:

• The large left pane shows a short list of programs on your computer. Clicking All
Programs displays a complete list of programs.
• At the bottom of the left pane is the search box, which allows you to look for
programs and files on your computer by typing in search terms.
• The right pane provides access to commonly used folders, files, settings, and features.
It's also where you go to log off from Windows or turn off your computer.

Opening programs from the Start menu

1. Start menu is used to open programs installed on your computer. To open a program
in the left pane of the Start menu, click it.
2. Clicking All Programs, The left pane displays a long list of programs.
3. Clicking one of the program icons starts the program, and the Start menu closes.
4. Move the pointer over its icon or name, a box appears that contains a description of
the program.

The search box

The search box is one of the most convenient ways to find
things on your computer. The exact location of the items
doesn't matter. It will also search your e-mail messages,
saved instant messages, appointments, and contacts.

To use the search box, open the Start menu and start typing. You don't need to click inside
the box first. As you type, the search results appear above the search box in the left pane of
the Start menu.

A program, file, or folder will appear as a search result if:

• Any word in its title matches or begins with your search term.
• Any text in the actual contents of the file matches or begins with your search term.
• Any word in a property of the file, such as the author, matches or begins with your
search term.
Click any search result to open it. Or, click the Clear button to clear the search results and
return to the main programs list. You can also click See more results to search your entire
computer.
Search box also searches your Internet favorites and the history of websites you've visited. If
any of these webpages include the search term, they appear under a heading called "Files."

The right pane includes

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1. Personal folder. This folder, in turn, contains user-specific files, including the My
Documents, My Music, My Pictures, and My Videos folders.
2. Documents. Opens the Documents library, where you can access & open text files,
spreadsheets, etc.
3. Pictures. Opens the Pictures library, where you can access and view digital pictures and
graphics files.
4. Music. Opens the Music library, where you can access and play music and other audio
files.
5. Games. Opens the Games folder, where you can access all of the games on your
computer.
6. Computer. Opens a window where you can access disk drives, cameras, printers,
scanners, and other hardware connected to your computer.
7. Control Panel. Opens Control Panel, where you can customize the appearance and
functionality of your computer, install or uninstall programs, set up network connections,
and manage user accounts.
8. Devices and Printers. Opens a window where you can view information about the
printer, mouse, and other devices installed on your computer.
9. Default Programs. Opens a window where you can choose which program you want
Windows to use for activities such as web browsing.
10. Help and Support. Opens Windows Help and Support, where you can browse and search
Help topics about using Windows and your computer.
At the bottom of the right pane is the Shut down button. Click
the Shut down button to turn off your computer. Clicking the
arrow next to the Shut down button displays a menu with
additional options for switching users, logging off, restarting, or
shutting down.

Taskbar:
The taskbar is the long horizontal bar at the bottom of your screen. It has three main sections:

• The Start button , which opens the Start menu.

• The middle section, which shows you which programs & files you have open &
allows you to quickly switch between them.
• The notification area, which includes a clock and icons (small pictures) that
communicate the status of certain programs and computer settings.

Keep track of your windows

If you open one or more program/file at a time, it's hard to

see what else is what you've already opened.

Whenever you open a program, folder, or file, Windows

creates a corresponding button on the taskbar.

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The button shows an icon that represents the open program. In the picture below, two
programs are open—Calculator and Minesweeper—and each has its own button on the
taskbar. It also highlights the icon whose window is active. Click a taskbar button to switch to
that window

The notification area

The notification area, at the right of the taskbar, includes a clock

and a group of icons. These icons communicate the status of
something on your computer or provide access to certain settings.

When you move your pointer to a particular icon, you will see that icon's name or the status
of a setting. Double-clicking an icon in the notification area usually opens the program or
setting associated with it. For example, double-clicking the volume icon opens the volume
controls.
Windows hides icons in the notification area when you haven't
used them in a while. If icons become hidden, click the Show
hidden icons button to temporarily display the hidden icons.

Click the Show hidden icons button to display all icons in the notification area

Using menus, buttons, bars, and boxes

Menus, buttons, scroll bars, and check boxes are examples of controls that you operate with
your mouse or keyboard. These controls allow you to select commands, change settings, or
work with windows.

Menus:

Most programs contain hundreds of commands that you use to work the program. Many of
these commands are organized under menus. A program menu shows you a list of choices.
To choose one of the commands listed in a menu, click it. Sometimes menus show submenus.

Recognizing menus isn't always easy, because not all menu controls look same or even
appear on a menu bar. When you see an arrow next to a word or picture, you're probably
looking at a menu control.

Scroll bars

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When a document, webpage, or picture exceeds the size of its window, scroll bars appear to
allow you to see the information that is currently out of
view. The following picture shows the parts of a scroll bar.

To use a scroll bar:

• Click the up or down scroll arrows to scroll the

window's contents up or down in small steps. Hold
down the mouse button to scroll continuously.
• Click an empty area of a scroll bar above or below
the scroll box to scroll up or down one page.
• Drag a scroll box up, down, left, or right to scroll
the window in that direction.

Command buttons

A command button performs a command

when you click it. You'll most often see
them in dialog boxes, which are small
windows that contain options for
completing a task. For example, if you
close a Paint picture without saving it first,
you might see a dialog box like this.

Outside of dialog boxes, command buttons vary in appearance.

If a button changes into two parts when you point to it, you've
discovered a split button. Clicking the main part of the button performs a command, whereas
clicking the arrow opens a menu with more options.

Option buttons

Option buttons

allow you to make one choice among two or more options. They
frequently appear in dialog boxes. The following picture shows two
option buttons. The "Color" option is selected.

Check boxes

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Check boxes allow you to choose multiple options at the same time. Click an empty check
box to select that option

To use check boxes:

• Click an empty square to select that option. A check mark

will appear in the square, indicating that the option is
selected.
• To turn off an option, clear (remove) its check mark by clicking it.
• Options that currently can't be selected or cleared are shown in gray.

Sliders :

A slider lets you adjust a setting along a range of values. To

use a slider, drag the slider toward the value that you want.

A slider along the bar shows the currently selected value. In

the example shown above, the slider is positioned midway between Slow and Fast, indicating
a medium pointer speed.

Text boxes:

A text box allows you to type information,

such as a search term or password. The
following picture shows a dialog box
containing a text box. We've entered "bear"
into the text box.

Text boxes that require you to enter a password

will usually hide your password as you type it, in
case someone else is looking at your screen.

Drop-down lists:

Drop-down lists are similar to menus. Instead of clicking a command, though, you choose an
option. When closed, a drop-down list shows only the currently selected option. The other
available options are hidden until you click the control, as shown below.

To open a drop-down list,

click it. To choose an option
from the list, click the
option.

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List boxes:

A list box displays a list of options that you can choose from.
Unlike a drop-down list, some or all of the options are visible
without having to open the list.

To choose an option from the list, click it. If the option you want
isn't visible, use the scroll bar to scroll the list up or down. If the
list box has a text box above it, you can type the name or value of
the option instead.

Tabs :

In some dialog boxes, options are divided into two or more tabs. Only one tab, or set of
options, can be viewed at a time. The currently selected tab appears in front of the other tabs.
To switch to a different tab, click the tab.

Whenever you open a program, file, or folder, it appears on your screen in a box or frame
called a window.

Parts of a window

Although the contents of every window are

different, all windows share some things in
common. For one thing, windows always appear
on the desktop—the main work area of your
screen. In addition, most windows have the same
basic parts.

Parts of a typical window

• Title bar. Displays the name of the document and program
• Minimize, Maximize, and Close buttons. These buttons hide the window, enlarge it to
fill the whole screen, and close it, respectively
• Menu bar. Contains items that you can click to make choices in a program.
• Scroll bar. Lets you scroll the contents of the window to see information that is
currently out of view.

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 • Borders and corners. You can drag these with your mouse pointer to change the size
of the window.

Changing the size of a window

• To maximize window, click its Maximize button or

double-click the window's title bar.
• To return a maximized window to its former size, click
its Restore button or, double-click the window's titlebar.
• To resize a window (make it smaller or bigger), point to any of
the window's borders or corners. When the mouse pointer changes to a two-headed
arrow (as in picture), drag the border or corner to shrink/enlarge the window.
• Drag a window's border or corner to resize it.

Minimizing a window:

To minimize a window, click its Minimize button . The window disappears from the
desktop and is visible only as a button on the taskbar, the long horizontal bar at the bottom of
your screen.
To make a minimized window appear again on the desktop, click
its taskbar button. The window appears exactly as it did before
you minimized it.

Closing a window

Closing a window removes it from the desktop and taskbar. To close a window, click
its Close button .
The taskbar provides a way to organize all of your
windows. Each window has a corresponding button on
the taskbar. To switch to another window, just click its
taskbar button. The window appears in front of all other
windows, becoming the active window—the one you're
currently working in.
To easily identify a window, point to its taskbar button.

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When you point to a taskbar button, you'll see a thumbnail-sized preview of the window. This
preview is especially useful if you can't identify a window by its title alone.

Dialog boxes:

A dialog box is a special type of window that asks you a

question, allows you to select options to perform a task,
or provides you with information. Most dialog boxes
can't be maximized, minimized, or resized. They can be moved.

Working with files and folders

A file is an item that contains information. On your computer, files are represented with
icons; this makes it easy to recognize a type of file by looking at its icon. Here are some
common file icons:

An empty folder (left); a folder containing files

A folder is a container you can use to store files in. If you
had thousands of paper files on your desk, it would be
nearly impossible to find any particular file when you
needed it. That's why people often store paper files in
folders inside a filing cabinet. Folders can also store other
folders.You can create any number of subfolders, and each
can hold any number of files and additional subfolders.

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Understanding the parts of a window

When you open a folder or library, you

see it in a window. The various parts of
this window are designed to help you
navigate around Windows or work with
files, folders, and libraries more easily.
Here's a typical window and each of its
parts:

Window part What it's useful for

Navigation Use the navigation pane to access libraries, folders, saved searches, and
pane even entire hard disks. Use the Favorites section to open your most
commonly used folders and searches. You can also expand Computer to
browse folders and subfolders.
Back and Use the Back button and the Forward button to navigate to other
Forward button folders or libraries you've already opened without closing the current
window. These buttons work together with the address bar; after you use
the address bar to change folders, you can use the Back button to return to
the previous folder.
Toolbar Use the toolbar to perform common tasks, such as changing the appearance
of your files and folders, burning files to a CD, or starting a digital picture
slide show. The toolbar's buttons change to show only the tasks that are
relevant.
Address bar Use the address bar to navigate to a different folder or library or to go back
to a previous one.
Library pane The library pane appears only when you are in a library (such as the
Documents library). Use the library pane to customize the library or to
arrange the files by different properties.

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Column Use the column headings to change how the files in the file list are
headings organized.
File list This is where the contents of the current folder or library are displayed. If
you type in the search box to find a file, only the files that match your
current view (including files in subfolders) will appear.
Type a word or phrase in the search box to look for an item in the current
Search box folder or library. The search begins as soon as you begin typing—so if you
type "B," for example, all the files with names starting with the letter B
will appear in the file list.
Details pane Use the details pane to see the most common properties associated with the
selected file. File properties are information about a file, such as the
author, the date you last changed the file, and any descriptive tags you
might have added to the file.
Preview pane Use the preview pane to see the contents of most files. If you select an
e-mail message, text file, or picture, for example, you can see its contents
without opening it in a program. If you don't see the preview pane, click
thePreview pane button in the toolbar to turn it on.

Viewing and arranging files and folders

When you open a folder or library, you can change how the files look in the window. For

example, you might prefer larger (or smaller) icons or a

view that lets you see different kinds of information about

each file. To make these kinds of changes, use the

Views button in the toolbar.

Each time you click the left side of the Views button, it
changes the way your files and folders are displayed by
cycling through five different views: Large Icons, List, a
view called Details that shows several columns of
information about the file, a smaller icon view called Tiles,
and a view called Content that shows some of the content
from within the file.

Windows Applications – Notepad, WordPad, Paint ,Calculator.

Start/Accessories menu is used to access convenient tools (application programs) included in
Windows XP that can be used to perform many everyday tasks.
Notepad
Notepad is a text editor, which is a program similar to a word processor but cannot perform
any special editing. No embedded codes are inserted into the document. Text files also called:
unformatted text files and ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
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With Notepad, you can:
• Create simple text documents
• Multi-tasking/create/edit batch files
• Print a file

Formatting with Page Setup and Printing in Notepad

To print a Notepad document, you can locate the document with Explorer or My Computer.
Open the file. Print file by using:
• File/Print command from the menu bar.
• Select Print from the shortcut menu that comes up when you right-click the file.
• Can also drag and drop to a printer shortcut.

You can also open Notepad first and then open the document from
Notepad’s File/Open command. Once the document is opened you can print it. Advantage of
opening Notepad prior to locating file:
• Can apply page formatting before you print.
• Can add a header or footer.
• Can adjust the margins.

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Features of Notepad:
1. Notepad has minimal editing features.
2. Notepad has word wrap which prevents text from running over into the margins and
automatically moves text to the next line.
3. Used to create/save/open/edit file.
4. Can create time log.
5. Within Notepad – cut, copy, and paste text.
6. Copy data to Notepad from other files.
7. Copy Notepad text to other word processing text or database document.

WordPad
WordPad is a simple word processor.
WordPad allows simple formatting:
• Change fonts.
• Character level formatting.
• Margins can be changed/created.
• Insert bulleted charts/graphic and sound files.

Has menu bar and toolbar.

WordPad lacks the powerful features of other word processors such as creating columns,
tables, and spell checking.
You do not need to press <Enter> when you reach the right margin. Word processors will
move to the next line automatically. This is called a soft return. The only time you need to
press <Enter> is to create a new paragraph. This is called a hard return.

Paragraphs:
Traditional English style paragraph includes a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a
concluding sentence. Indented by one tab.
A paragraph, in word processing terms, is all the text between paragraph marks (¶). It can be
one character, one page, or several pages of text.
To indent a paragraph you use the <Tab> key.

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 • Features of WordPad:
Title bar/Name of document first (docucentric approach)
Menu Bar
Toolbar
Format Bar
Document Ruler
Selection Bar: unmarked column along left edge of document window.
Insertion Point: is where you begin keying in text. 2 modes – Insert mode (Default) and
Typeover -Press Insert to toggle between modes.
Status Bar: tells you the status of the document.
WordPad and Microsoft Word both claim .RTF extension.
Rich text format (RTF) allows the exchange of text files between different word processors in
different OS.
Problems can occur when any registered file extension is claimed by more than one program.
The default extension for WordPad documents is .doc. This extension is also used by Word
for Windows, so if Word is installed, a document you create in WordPad might not open with
WordPad when you double-click it.

• Editing a Document in WordPad

To edit text you need to move the insertion point to the correct position.
You can move the insertion point with either the mouse or the keyboard. The keyboard is
usually used for keying in data. The mouse is usually used for editing.
There are several key combinations that can be used to quickly move the insertion point.
The Format Toolbar offers shortcuts to menu commands.
• Formatting Paragraphs and Using Tabs :
You can change paragraph alignment so that it is left-justified, centered, or right-justified.
Left-aligned or left-justified means that the selected paragraph(s) will line up on the left
margin. Right-aligned or right-justified means that the selected paragraph(s) will line up on
the right margin.
Centered means that each line in the paragraph(s) will be centered between the left and right
margins.
The first line of a paragraph can be indented by pressing the <Tab> key. The <Tab> key
moves the first line a preset number of spaces from the left margin.
• Printing and Page Setup in WordPad
You can use the same techniques to print a document from WordPad that you used to print a
document from Notepad.
In WordPad, the only formatting that you can apply to the document (Page Setup) is to alter
the margins.
Headers and Footers are not supported
• Paint
Paint is a graphics application program used to create drawings or images.
Can only create/edit bitmap graphics (.bmp)
Bitmap Graphics:
• Screen divided into pixels (pels)
• Drawing = turning pixels on or off in different colors
• Detailed
• Take up lots of disk space
• Resolution is fixed

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If installed programs (such as Office) have correct graphic filters, Paint can read TIFF, JPEG,
GIF, PCX, Targa and Kodak Photo CD files. Save Paint files in GIF and JPEG format.
Images created can stand alone or be copied to other documents.
Graphics files are identified by file extensions.

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 • Paint Window
The Paint window has many components, some are common to all windows programs, others
are not.
1. Menu Bar – location of choices consistent:

• Choices available depend on program’s purpose.

• Paint choices different than word processing – task different.
• New choice – Image.

2. Tool Box - is actually a toolbar that you select your drawing tools from.

Below the Tool Box is an area called the Tool Options box where the options available for
the selected tool are displayed.
3. Color Box - contains the colors you can use in Paint. The foreground color is the color you
draw with. The background color is the color of your drawing area.
4. Drawing area - is like a canvas and is the area where you draw. Default drawing tool –
pencil. Cursor assumes shape of selected drawing tool.

The Tools:
1. Free-Form Select – Selects a free form cutout in a drawing.
2. Select – Selects a rectangular cutout.
3. Erase/Color Eraser – Changes the foreground color to the background color.
4. Fill With Color – Fills a bordered area with the selected foreground color.
5. Pick Color – Picks a color in your drawing and uses it as your foreground color
or background color.
6. Magnifier – Magnifies a selected area.
7. Pencil – Creates a free-form line.
8. Brush – Draws a free-form brush stroke.
9. Airbrush – Creates a spray can effect.
10. Text – Places text in the drawing.
11. Line – Draws a straight line.
12. Curve – Draws a straight line, then curves it.
13. Rectangle – Creates a rectangle or square.
14. Polygon – Draws a shape with an unlimited number of sides.
15. Ellipse – Creates a circle or ellipse.
16. Rounded Rectangle – Creates a round-cornered rectangle or square.

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 • Fill Styles:
When you select a shape tool, three choices appear in the Tool Options area. Each of these
choices is a fill style.
The effect of each of the fill styles depends on the mouse button used to draw the shape.
• Using the Left mouse button:
Top: Outline in foreground color. No fill color.
Middle: Outline in foreground color. Fill in background color.
Bottom: Solid shape in background color. Has no outline.
• Using the Right mouse button:
Top: Outline in background color. No fill color.
Middle: Outline in background color. Fill in foreground color.
Bottom: solid shape in foreground color. Has no outline.
• Picture Characteristics
Paint used to view existing picture.
Paint can be used to create a new picture.
• Standard settings for new picture.
• Creates picture with default settings.

You can change these default settings.

• The Shape Tools
The Shape tools let you work with pre-defined shapes unlike the free-form tools.
Shape tools include Rectangle, Ellipse, Polygon, and Rounded Rectangle.
Less color means a smaller file.
• Importing and Exporting Graphics
To import is to bring a drawing into your picture from a graphic file.
To export is to save to file a graphic image.
Clip art is a collection of many, usually small, images that you can add to your graphics.
• Clip art can be purchased.
• Can alter clip art and save it as new drawing.
• Using Text and Other Pictures in a
Drawing
You can also add text to your pictures.
You can choose different fonts and styles for your text line in a word processor.
Characters from the font Wingdings can be imported to add pictures to your drawing.
• Printing in Paint
You can print any picture that you create or view in Paint.
Graphics take much longer to print than text and the quality of the printout will depend on the
quality of the printer.
If the printer is not a color printer, the picture will print in shades of gray.
• Using Drawings as Background
Any drawing you create in Paint can be used as desktop background.

1. Using Windows XP Calculator

Like a calculator you keep in a desk drawer, the Windows Calculator is small but saves you
time by performing all the calculations common to a standard calculator.
The Standard Windows Calculator, works so much like a pocket calculator that you need
little help getting started.

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To display the Calculator, open the Start menu and choose Programs, Accessories,
Calculator. The Calculator opens in the same view (Standard or Scientific) in which it was
displayed the last time it was used.
To close the Calculator, click the Close button in the title bar. If you use the Calculator
frequently, however, don't close it; click the Minimize button to minimize the Calculator to a
button on the taskbar.
The Calculator has only three menus: Edit, View, and Help. The Edit menu contains two
simple commands for copying and pasting; the View menu switches between the Standard
and Scientific views; and the Help menu is the same as in all Windows accessories.
2.Operating the Calculator
To use the Calculator with the mouse, just click the appropriate numbers and sign keys, like
you would press buttons on a desk calculator. Numbers appear in the display window as you
select them, and the results appear after the calculations are performed. To enter numbers
from the keyboard, use either the numbers across the top of the keyboard or those on the
numeric keypad (you must first press the NumLock key if the NumLock feature is not
enabled). To calculate, press the keys on the keyboard that match the Calculator keys.

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 3 Introduction to Business Communication Tools
Introduction
Microsoft Office is a collection of different application programs that were originally
designed to be used to perform many of the tasks that are completed every day in an office
setting, but they can also be useful in your personal life as well.
Microsoft Word is a word processing program that can be used to type documents, from
simple letters to illustrated newsletters.
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that can be used to track of lists, numbers and
statistics, such as might be used in accounting.
Microsoft Access is a database program that can be used to track of diverse but related
information, such as customer orders, customer billing information, customer shipping
information, and product inventories.
Microsoft PowerPoint is presentation software that can be used for making fully animated
computer presentations.
Microsoft Publisher is publication design software that can be used for creating greeting
cards, business cards, calendars and more.

3.1 Microsoft Word

1. Introduction
A word processor is a type of computer program that is used to create a variety of documents,
from simple letters to fully illustrated newsletters and fliers. Word Processing applications
display text on a computer screen and allow users to easily add, remove, and change the style,
size, and placement of text in a document without having to retype the entire document as
they would with a typewriter. Microsoft Word is one of the most popular word-processing
software applications in use today.

2. Starting MS-Word 2007

Opening Microsoft Word To open Word, do either one of the following:
• Click once on the Start button on the bottom left corner of the screen. Click on Programs.
Move the cursor to the new menu on the right and then click on Microsoft Office 2007. Move
the cursor to the next menu that opens and click Microsoft Office Word 2007. A blank
document will appear on the screen.

• Main screen of a Microsoft Word 2007 Document

The screenshot below is the opening screen for Microsoft Word 2007. Here we will review
screenshots and documentation on how to navigate some of the basic menus and the steps
necessary to format a basic paper correctly.

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 • Page Setup and Margin Formatting
The screenshot below displays the menu path to change the margins in a paper. According to
APA, all margins are set at 1 inch.

1. From the menu tab at the top of Word, select Page Layout.
2. In the Page Layout menu, the margins button will allow you to change the margins to the
correct format.

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3. Select Normal to set all margins to one inch.

• Formatting Font
The screenshot below displays the menu path to change the font. Use a traditional font such
as Times New Roman or Courier in 12-point size.

1. Select the Home tab.

2. From the Font menu, you may adjust the font, style, and size to the correct format.

• Formatting Spacing
The standard spacing format for a paper is double-spacing. Double-space the entire
document, including the reference page. The screenshot below displays the menu path to
change the spacing format to double.

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1. Select the Home tab.
2. From the Paragraph menu, you may adjust the line spacing from the Line Spacing
dropdown menu.
(Note: Word 2007 places extra space between paragraphs. You will need to adjust this by
selecting the Page Layout menu. Then access Paragraph and Indents and Spacing. Under the
Spacing heading, set the spacing option to 0 pt. before and 0 pt. after. Click OK.)

• Page Headers
Identify each page with the first two or three words of the title and with the page number
placed on the upper right hand corner of the page. Use five spaces between the title and the
page number. Do not use your name to identify each page. Be sure the font type and size are
the same as that used in the document.
To create a correct APA header with a page number in Word 2007, use the following
guidelines:
1. Click on the Insert tab.
2. Click on the Header tab.

1. Click on the Blank header tab from the drop-down menu. This will put the curser inside
the header.
2. Click on the Page Number tab.
3. Place the curser on the drop-down menu over Top of Page to bring up another drop-down
menu.
4. Click on Plain Number 3 on the drop-down menu (the third choice). This will place a
page number inside the header at the right margin.
5. Type the portion of the title to go in the header and add five spaces. Your header is
complete.
6. Click on Close Header and Footer on the far right.

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 • Hanging Indent
Select the text that requires a hanging indent OR create a hanging indent before typing the
text. From the Home menu, click on the Paragraph command (see Picture One). This will
bring up the Indents and Spacing tab (see Picture Two). Under Indentation in the Special
box, click on Hanging and OK.

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 • Centering Text
The screenshot below is an example of text that is centered and that is not centered. In order
to center text highlight the text that requires centering and select the icon in the formatting
toolbar as shown.

1. Select the Home tab.

2. Highlight the text to be centered.
3. Click the button to center the text on the Paragraph toolbar.

3.2 Microsoft Excel

1.Introduction to Microsoft Excel 2007
Microsoft Excel is a very powerful tool for you to use for numeric computations and analysis.
Excel can also function as a simple database but that is another class. Today we will look at
how to get starting with Excel and show you around the neighborhood sort of speak.

2. Starting MS-Word 2007

To start Microsoft Excel :
• Click once on the Start button on the bottom left corner of the screen. Click on Programs.
Move the cursor to the new menu on the right and then click on Microsoft Office 2007. Move

66
the cursor to the next menu that opens and click Microsoft Office excel 2007. A blank
document will appear on the screen.

Main screen of a Microsoft Excel 2007 Document

This is a workbook. A workbook is a collection of worksheets (spreadsheets) and macros. By

default, Excel creates 3 worksheets in a new workbook. The worksheets are designated at the
bottom part of the window where you see the file folder-like tabs. The tabs are named Sheet1,
Sheet2, and Sheet3. If you click on Sheet2, you will be in Sheet2 and not Sheet1 so you need
to
be aware of which worksheet you are in.

Office Fluent user interface

In Excel 2007, the new Office Fluent user interface replaces the traditional menus and
toolbars
from previous versions of Excel with a single mechanism designed to help users find the right
features more efficiently. The interface contains three main components; The Office Button,
The
Quick Access Toolbar, and The Ribbon.

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Open a New Workbook
Some times you have to create a new workbook.
1. Click on the Office Button

2. Click on New

You are now able to open recently used or new workbooks from this panel. You can also
open up templates that are available with Excel or ones that you create. If you click on Blank
workbook, Excel will create a new workbook for you.

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What are Columns, Rows, and Cells?
Columns are the vertical markers in the worksheet and are denoted by the alphabet i.e. A, B,
C.
The rows are the horizontal markers in the worksheet and are denoted by numbers i.e. 1, 2, 3.
Cells are the single box that you get where the column and row intersect i.e. A1, B3, and C2.
You will often need to know the cell reference. The cell reference is the cell’s name and you
can
find that by looking at the toolbar. This means that the cell that is selected is named C28.

selecting a cell
1. We are going to select C28. Look for the C column.
2. Look for the Row number 28.
3. You may use your finger to follow the column C down to where row 28 is.
4. Once you have located it, click on it.
5. Look at the toolbar; the cell reference box should say C28. If it does not, try again.
6. After you have done this, click on a different cell and note the cell reference box.

selecting a group of cells A4 to D10

1. Click on the first cell A4
2. Click and Hold the mouse button down. Drag the cursor down to D10.
3. Let go of the mouse button.
4. If you did it correctly, you should see a Highlighted box around those cells. If not, try
again. Please see the picture on the next page.

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Selecting cells A4 to D10

Basic data entry, fill handle

From the example above, we have numeric (year, numbers) and text (months) entered as data
in our worksheet. Let us practice by re-creating the example on our own.

Method 1
1. Click on cell A2 to select it.
2. Type in 1981 and hit Enter. Notice by hitting Enter, we automatically move down to the
next row. (we can also do the same by hitting the down arrow)
3. Click on cell B1 to select it.
4. Type in January and hit Tab. By hitting Tab (or right arrow), we move to the next column.
We can continue to doing this to enter the data from 1981 to 1992 and so on, but Excel
provides
us with a tool to complete sequences.

Method 2
1. Click on cell A2 to select it.
2. Type in 1981 and hit Enter.
3. Type in 1982, and then select both cells A2 and A3.
4. Move your mouse cursor over the fill handle (small black box on the bottom right of the
active cell) so that the cursor turns into a cross.
5. Click and drag the fill handle down to the cell desired.

Copy, Cut, Paste

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You can Copy, Cut and Paste anything into your worksheet. You can copy from one
worksheet
to another worksheet in another book. Let’s concentrate on the basics. We are going to copy
cells D4 to H9.
Cut/Copy and Paste to the same worksheet
1. Using the same worksheet, select cells A4 to D10.
2. Use CTRL-c to copy and CTRL-x to cut the selected cells.
3. Click on cell E29. It should be blank
4. Use CTRL-v to paste the data. You can also use the toolbar shortcuts for cut/copy/paste
as the functionality is the same.

Insert & delete columns, rows, and cells

Have you ever entered all of your data and realized that you are missing an entry in the
middle
of the worksheet? If yes and you did not know how to add columns or rows, it would be
really
difficult to fix. Well, there is an easier method.
You can insert columns, rows, or cells in any spot on your worksheet.
Exercise 9: Insert columns
Before you can insert a column or row, you need to know how Excel inserts a column or a
row.
• For columns, Excel inserts new column(s) to the left of the selected column(s).
• For rows, Excel inserts new row(s) above the selected row.
1. We want to insert a new column for Last Name between Full Name and Address.

2. Since Excel inserts to the left, you need to click on the column letter B. Column B
should
be highlighted.
3. Point (do not left click) the arrow at the B column and then right click.

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 4. 4. A pop-up menu should appear. In the menu you should see Insert.

5. Click on the word Insert. Excel will insert a blank column between Full Name and
Address.
6. Click on B1 and type in Last Name..

Insert rows
1. We want to insert a new row for Anne Frank’s contact information between John Doe
and Fred Johnson.

2. Since Excel inserts rows above the selection, you need to click on row number 3. Row 3
should be highlighted.
3. Right click while pointing at the number 3
4. A pop-up menu should appear. In the menu you should see Insert.
5. Click on the word Insert. Excel will insert a blank row between John Doe and Fred
Johnson.
5. Click on A3 and type in Anne Frank’s contact information

Using the sort feature

1. We want to insert a new row for Anne Frank’s contact information between John Doe
1. and Fred Johnson but this time we will create her record in line 5.

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 2. Select cells A1 to G5
3. Go to the Data tab, then click on Sort

3. In the sort option window, use the pull down boxes to select the sort criteria. In this
case we want to sort by Last Name, ascending order A-Z, then click on OK.

4. Your data should look like this.

Delete columns and rows

We all make mistakes. It is very easy to remove a column or rows.
1. Select the column or row that you want to delete.
2. Point at the highlighted column name or row name and right click.
3. A pop-up menu should appear
4. Select Delete
5. The column or row should be gone.

Inserting & deleting new worksheets

There will be many times when you need to add a whole worksheet rather than columns or
rows.

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Exercise 14: Insert a worksheet
1. Right Click on the tabs where the name of the worksheets are.
2. Click on Insert

2. Select what kind of insert you want from the window.

4. To move the worksheet, click and hold the left mouse button on the worksheet tab. Drag
the tab to where you want it to be placed. Note: you can only move the worksheet tabs
to the left or right.

Delete a worksheet
1. Click on the tab of the worksheet that you want to delete.
2. Right Click on the same tab of the worksheet
3. Click on Delete

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Printing
Printing your worksheets out to a printer would be a nice thing to know how to do. If the
information that you have on the worksheet fits on an 8.5”x11” paper, you have no trouble
printing your worksheet out. The problem arises when you have a larger worksheet. You may
have noticed that your worksheet has dashed lines running down and across it; this is your
print
area.

Setting the print area

1. On your worksheet, click on the Page Layout tab.
2. Click and drag to select the range of cells that you would like to print.
3. Under Page Layout, click on Print Area, then Set Print Area.

How to print with Print Preview

1. You may click on the paper with the magnifying glass icon or click on the Office
Button
and click on Print, then Print Preview.

2. The menu at the top is important because there are many print functions that you can
use for your worksheet. Here are some examples, turn on the gridlines, shrink to fit one
page, print headers or footers.
3. Click on Print. You will be at the Print menu.
4. Click Page Setup. You will see a control panel that will allow you to make some cosmetic
changes to the way the worksheet prints.

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3.3 Microsoft Powerpoint
Introduction to Microsoft Office Powerpoint 2007
PowerPoint enables anyone to produce, with a little practice, beautifully laid out
presentations, either as on-screen shows, or as OHP slides. The aim of these notes is to
introduce you to the basics of PowerPoint. It will tell you how to create attractive animated
presentations that include animation, images, charts, tables, and links to other software.
Users of previous versions of PowerPoint will notice that the user interface has changed
dramatically, but, these changes give PowerPoint a lot more features, in a very intuitive
layout.
Files produced in PowerPoint 2007 have the file extension ".pptx", and the files themselves
are very different from previous file formats. If you wish to use an old PowerPoint
presentation in PowerPoint 2007, PowerPoint will switch to compatibility mode, to let you
work on the old file with no problems.

Starting MS-Powerpoint 2007

To use PowerPoint:
Click the Start button and select All Programs, then from the sub-menu, select Microsoft
Office, then select Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2007. When PowerPoint loads you will see
the following screen.

Main screen of a MS-Powerpoint 2007

The area in the centre displays the slide layout. The area on the left displays the
structure of your presentation as it builds. The area below the slide is labeled Click to
add notes. You can use this area to write notes, which you can read from as you
deliver your presentation, these notes can be printed out and are not visible whilst you
show the slides.

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The three buttons on the bottom left of the screen offer you different views of the
presentation.

The normal view shows all elements of the PowerPoint screen as above.

Slide sorter view shows all slides together, allowing you to re-order the
slides.

Presentation view lets you see each slide as it will appear in the presentation.

Building Slides
• PowerPoint presentations consist of a series of slides. In building up a presentation
you construct each slide adding titles, list points, and graphics as necessary. You can
either start with a blank slide, or start with a template with ready-made entries for
titles, lists and graphics.
• With PowerPoint loaded, you can build your first slide. To add a title to your slide
click on the text labeled Click to add title. As soon as you click, the text will
disappear and be replaced by a flashing insertion point. Type in text from the
keyboard, using the Backspace and Delete keys to correct mistakes. When you have
entered the title you can click on the next area of the slide to enter a subtitle in the
same way.
• To add a new slide to your presentation, from the Slides group on the Home
tab, click the top of the New Slide button to add a general slide.

click the bottom of the New Slide button to reveal a menu of slide designs.You will see a
collection of slide themes, which contain various combinations of titles and content.Content
is represented as a large, rectangular box, with a dotted border, containing a palette of
coloured icons. The dotted box is used to create a bulleted list, and each icon can used to
include a table, picture, or media clip. In creating each slide, you use whichever content
element that you require and ignore the other tools, the icons and dotted line do not appear on
the finished presentation.

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Text
Text on PowerPoint slides, needs to be formatted to be easily visible to all audience
members.
• To enter text in a title field, click inside the field and type in your text.
• To change the appearance or colour of any text, select the text, then use either the tools in
the Font and Paragraph groups on the Home tab.
• To add an additional text area to your document, click the Insert tab, then from the Text
group, click the Text Box button. Drag a box onto the slide using the mouse.
• To reposition text on your slide click the border of the text area, then drag it to its new
position.
• To remove a text area from your slide, click the border of the text area, then press the
Delete key.

Bulleted Lists
• Most presentations use bulleted lists to summarise points that the speaker can
elaborate upon. To use bulleted lists it is best to choose a slide theme that includes a
bulleted list area.
• When you click inside the bulleted list area you get a single bullet point and a flashing
insertion point. Type in the text for your first point and apply formatting if necessary.
To create subsequent bullet points, simply press the Enter key to start a new line with
a new bullet point.
• If you wish for any of your text lines to be displayed without a bullet you can click in
the line, then click the bulleted list button to remove the bullet point.To create multi-
level bulleted lists, type in the text lines as usual. Click at the start of any lines that
you wish to appear as a lower level list then press the Tab key from the keyboard.

78
 The selected lines will receive an additional indent and will get a different bullet
symbol. Using the Backspace key produces the opposite effect.
• To change the bullet symbols used, first click in one text line of the list level that you
wish to change.
Next, click the down arrow to the right of the bulleted list button in the Paragraph group on
the Home tab. Choose a bullet design from the displayed collection.
• To choose a different button, click the Bullets and Numbering option, then in the
dialog box that
appears, click the Customize button.

Pictures

To place a picture in a new slide, choose a slide theme which contains a content area,
then click the Insert picture from file icon. To add a picture to an existing slide, go to the
Insert tab and in the Illustrations group click Picture. In the dialog box, locate and select
your image file, then click
the Insert button.

A small version of the picture will appear in the current slide. You can click and drag any of
the circles located in each corner of the picture, to change the size of the picture, or you can
click anywhere within the picture and drag it to a new position.

To put a clipart image into your document, click the Clip Art button on a new slide,
or in the Illustrations group on the Insert tab for an existing slide. In the pane that appears
on the right, type in a keyword to search through the clipart gallery.

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Tables

To place a table in a new slide, choose a slide theme which contains a content area, then click
the Insert able icon. To add a table to an existing slide, go to the Insert tab, and from the
Tables group, click the Table button.

Use your mouse on the grid to select the number of rows and columns that your table will
have, here a 7x4 table is being created. As you select cells in the grid the corresponding table
will be drawn in your document. When you release the mouse button the table will be
Created

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Graphs

To place a graph in a new slide, choose a slide theme which contains a content
area,
then click the Insert Chart icon. To add a graph to an existing slide, go to the Insert tab and
in the Illustrations group click the Chart button. In the dialog box that appears, click the
style of chart that you require, then click the OK button.

Microsoft Excel 2007 will then start up and you can input data in the Excel Spreadsheet,
which will then form a chart in your PowerPoint presentation

Re-Ordering your Slides

To change the order of your slides, or insert a new slide into the middle of a
presentation, it is worth switching to slide sorter view. Go to the View tab and in the
Presentation Views group, click the Slide Sorter button, or click the Slide Sorter View
button at the bottom of the screen to see the following layout:

81
From here you can delete any slide by clicking it then pressing the Delete key. You can re-
order slides by dragging any slide to a new position, and you can add a new slide anywhere
by clicking between two existing slides and clicking the New Slide button, from the Slides
group on the Home tab.

Animation and Design

Now that we have covered the construction of slides, we can transform the information into
an elegant presentation. Whilst doing this it is useful to click the Slide Show tab to check
how the slides would appear in a real slide show.

• To look at the current slide, as it would appear in the show, click the From Current
Slide button in the Start Slide Show group.

• To view all slides from the beginning click the From Beginning button in the Start
Slide Show group.
• When you wish to return to the normal view press the Esc key.

Design Templates
To apply a design template to your presentation, go to the Design tab. In the Themes group,
click the bottom button in the column of three to see the available designs.

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 Click any theme to apply it to all slides in your presentation.

Transitions Between Slides

As you move from slide to slide during the presentation, you can have PowerPoint display an
animated effect. To choose an effect, go to the Animations tab.

In the Transition to This Slide group, click the bottom button in the column of three to the
right of the palette. Click any transition to see the effect played out on your presentation
slides in the background. When you have chosen an effect it will work when you move to this
current slide. You can have the effect work on every slide in your presentation by clicking the
Apply to All button.

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The Presentation
To deliver your presentation to an audience from the computer, start PowerPoint andload
your presentation file. Click the Slide Show tab, click the From Beginning button in the
Start Slide Show group.
Use the left mouse button, Enter key, Page Down key to advance through the slides, use the
Backspace, Page Up keys to retreat through the slides. To jump to a specific slide, right-
click the presentation, select Go to Slide then from the submenu select the required slide.

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If you wish to emphasise a point you can use the Pointer Options entry from this menu to
change the cursor into a pencil and you can underline or circle any part of a slide, without
changing the underlying file.

Creating a Show
When your presentation is complete you can save it as a show. When it is opened it starts
directly in a slide show, independent of the PowerPoint environment. To save your
presentation as a show, click the Office button, then from the menu position the mouse cursor
over Save As. In the submenu that appears select the PowerPoint Show option. Provide a
name, then click the Save button.

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 4 Importance of networking
4.1 Introduction

Information and communication are two of the most important strategic issues for the
success of every enterprise.
While today nearly every organization uses a number of computers and communication tools
(like telephone or fax), they are often still isolated. While managers today are able to use
applications like wordprocessors or spreadsheets, not very many of them use computer-based
tools to communicate with other departments or information retrieval programs.
To overcome these obstacles in an effective usage of information technology, computer
networks are necessary. They are a new kind of organization of computer systems produced
by the need to merge computers and communications. Computer networks can manage to put
down the barriers between information held on several systems. Only with the help of
computer networks can a borderless communication and information environment be built.

4.2 Importance of Networking

Computer networks allow the user to access remote programs and remote databases either of
the same organization or from other enterprises or public sources. Computer networks
provide communication possibilities faster than other facilities. Because of these optimal
information and communication possibilities, computer networks may increase the
organizational learning rate

there are other reasons why any organization should have a computer network

• cost reduction by sharing hardware and software resources

• high reliability by having multiple sources of supply
• cost reduction by downsizing to microcomputer-based networks instead of using
mainframes
• greater flexibility because of possibility to connect devices from various vendors

A network is two or more computers connected together to share information and files
between them. Businesses aren't the only ones that can benefit from creating a network.
Home users can enjoy sharing music, movies and printers from any computer.

File Sharing : Computers connected to a network can share files and documents with each
other. Personal computers connected to a business network can choose which files and
folders are available to share on the network.

Printers : Computers can print pages to another computer with a printer on the network.
Additionally, printers can be connected using a print server, which allows direct printing
from all computers.

4.3 Computer Network

4.3.1 Types of Networks

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A)Local Area Networks

Local area networks (LANs) are used to connect networking devices that are in a very close
geographic area, such as a floor of a building, a building itself, or a campus environment.

B)Wide Area Networks

C)Wide area networks (WANs) are used to connect LANs together. Typically, WANs are
used when the LANs that must be connected are separated by a large distance.

D)Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a hybrid between a LAN and a WAN.

.
A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems located at different
places.
In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data
communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and sharing resources. The
computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as server In the
network the individual computers, which access shared network resources, are known as
workstations or nodes.

Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of geographical area in two broad
categories.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

I. Local Area Network:

Networks used to interconnect computers in a single room, rooms within a building or
buildings on one site are called Local Area Network (LAN).
LAN links computers, i.e., software and hardware, in the same area for the purpose of sharing
information. Usually LAN links computers within a limited geographical area because they
must be connected by a cable, which is quite expensive.

Major Characteristics of LAN are as follows:

1 Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the
network
2 High degree of interconnection between computers
3 Easy physical connection of computers in a network
4 Inexpensive medium of data transmission

5 High data transmission rate

Advantages of LAN are as follows:

• The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does
not

87
 effect the functioning for other computers.

• Addition of new computer to network is easy.

• High rate of data transmission is possible.

• Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other computers.

Disadvantages of LAN is

• If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.

Use of LAN : Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used

• File transfers and Access

• Word and text processing
• Electronic message handling
• Remote database access
• Personal computing
• Digital voice transmission and storage

4.4 Network Components

1)Hub

A hub works in the physical layer of the OSI model. It is basically a non-intelligent device,
and has no decision making capability. What a Hub basically does is take the input data from
one of the ports and broadcast the information to all the other ports connected to the network.

Port network

To demonstrate its working, consider a 4 port network as shown in Fig 1. There are 4
computers connected to the 4 ports. Suppose, if Computer A wants to send some data to
Computer B using a Hub, then, Computer A broadcasts the data on the network, and
Computer B, being connected to the network, has access to the data. But, in this case all the
other ports connected to the network has access to the data that is being transmitted by
Computer A. This happens because, the Hub works in the Physical Layer and hence it does
not know about the MAC addresses of the ports connected to the network. So, there is a lack
of security in the Hub.

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 USB Hub

The picture shows a USB Hub, wherein the data is fed into the input port and is broadcasted
to all the other 4 ports. The Network Hubs are outdated and are out of the market.

2)Switch

A switch is an intelligent device that works in the data link layer. The term intelligent refers
to the decision making capacity of the Switch. Since it works in the Data link layer, it has
knowledge of the MAC addresses of the ports in the network.

Switch

Hence, in the Fig 1, if data has to be sent from Computer A to Computer B, then, the data is
transferred to the Computer B only, and not to any other computers connected on the
network. Hence, it establishes a link between the sender and the receiver based on the MAC
addresses. This also means that when data is being sent from A to B, Computer C can
establish a link with Computer D and communication can take place between them. So,
simultaneous data transfer is possible in a switch. Also, Hub divides bandwidth, but a Switch
does not.

It is also to be noted that a switch is a secure device, because it sends information only to the
desired destinations, and also certain security features such as firewalls can be implemented
in the Switches.

3)Bridge

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A bridge is also a device which works in the Data Link Layer, but is more primitive when
compared to a switch. Initial bridges were used to connect only 2 LAN’s, but the most recent
ones perform similar operation as the switches. It also works on the principle of transfer of
information using the MAC addresses of the ports.

Bridge

It can be noted is that the normal ADSL modem can be connected via bridging also. The only
difference is that, when bridging is used, each time the device has to be connected to the
internet, it has to dial to the internet and establish a connection. Also, a bridge alone cannot
be used to connect to the internet, because, the bridge works in the Data Link Layer, and has
no knowledge of the IP Addresses, which are used in the Internet.

4)Router

Any computer can be connected to the internet via MODEM, which performs the
MODulation and the DEModulation operations. But, when there are more than one computer
at home or in an organization, and you have a single internet connection, you need a Router.
Router is a device which is used when multiple devices need to connect to the Internet using
the same IP.

Any Internet Service Provider (ISP) provides a single IP, and especially for personal use, the
IP address is assigned dynamically. This is done because, suppose, an ISP has 1000 IP
addresses, it does not mean that it has 1000 customers. An ISP assumes that not all devices
will be connected to the internet at the same time. Hence, when a user wants to access the
internet, any IP address from the pool of IP addresses from the ISP will be assigned to
connect the user to the internet.

Router

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Hence, the router does the job of connecting multiple devices in a LAN to the internet using
the same IP address. Since the router works in the Network Layer, it does forwarding on the
basis of IP addresses.

Functionality:

When a router receives the data, it determines the destination address by reading the header
of the packet. Once the address is determined, it searches in its routing table to get know
how to reach the destination and then forwards the packet to the higher hop on the route. The
hop could be the final destination or another router.

Routing tables play a very pivotal role in letting the router makes a decision. Thus a routing
table is ought to be updated and complete. The two ways through which a router can receive
information are:

• Static Routing: In static routing, the routing information is fed into the routing tables
manually. It does not only become a time-taking task but gets prone to errors as well.
The manual updating is also required in case of statically configured routers when
change in the topology of the network or in the layout takes place. Thus static routing
is feasible for tinniest environments with minimum of one or two routers.

• Dynamic Routing: For larger environment dynamic routing proves to be the practical
solution. The process involves use of peculiar routing protocols to hold
communication. The purpose of these protocols is to enable the other routers to
transfer information about to other routers, so that the other routers can build their
own routing tables.

5)Gateway

The Gateway devices work in the Transport layer and above, where the different network
technologies are implemented. A gateway is necessary when there are different technologies
implemented by the different LAN’s which are to be connected together.

Gateway function

The Fig shows the working of a gateway. Consider 2 networks, say in New York, and a
network in London. If data has to be sent from one place to another, we need to ensure that

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the network technologies that are being used by both the networks are the same. If not, we
need to use a Gateway.

In the more common example, we use a telephone network and internet networks, which
works on different technologies. The telephone network follows the ISDN, and the Internet
follows the IP. Here, 2 different technologies are being used. In this case, the router fails to
work, since the router cannot understand the functionalities of both the networks. Hence, we
require a Gateway, which acts as a translator in communicating between the 2 networks.

6)Modems

Modem is a device which converts the computer-generated digital signals of a computer into
analog signals to enable their travelling via phone lines. The ‘modulator-demodulator’ or
modem can be used as a dial up for LAN or to connect to an ISP. Modems can be both
external, as in the device which connects to the USB or the serial port of a computer, or
proprietary devices for handheld gadgets and other devices, as well as internal; in the form of
add-in expansion cards for computers and PCMCIA cards for laptops.

Configuration of a modem differs for both the external and internal modem. For internal
modems, IRQ – Interrupt request is used to configure the modem along with I/O, which is a
memory address. Typically before the installation of built-in modem, integrated serial
interfaces are disabled, simultaneously assigning them the COM2 resources.

For external connection of a modem, the modem assigns and uses the resources itself. This is
especially useful for the USB port and laptop users as the non-complex and simpler nature of
the process renders it far much more beneficial for daily usage.

Upon installation, the second step to ensure the proper working of a modem is the installation
of drivers. The modem working speed and processing is dependent on two factors:

• Speed of UART – Universal Asynchronous Receiver or Transmitter chip (installed in

the computer to which the modem connection is made)
• Speed of the modem itself

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4.5 Network Topology

Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. Each topology is
suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of topology
is dependent upon type and number of equipment being used, planned applications and rate
of data transfer required, response time, and cost. Topology can also be defined as the
geometrically interconnection pattern by which the stations (nodes/computers) are connected
using suitable transmission media (which can be point-to-point and broadcast).

Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily
correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the
computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be
highly unlikely to find a ring topology there. Network topologies are categorized into the
following basic types:
• bus
• ring
• star
• tree
• mesh

More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.

1)Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common
backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared
communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device
wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto
the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message.
bus networks work best with a limited number of Networking made it easy 2 Compiled by
devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance
problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network
effectively becomes unusable

Bus Topology Diagram

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2)Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the
entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token
Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

Definition: Token Ring is a data link technology for local area networks (LANs). It operates
at layer 2 of the OSI model.

How Token Ring Works

Unlike all other standard forms of LAN interconnects, Token Ring maintains one or more
common data frames that continuously circulates through the network. These frames are
shared by all connected devices on the network as follows:
• a frame (packet) arrives at the next device in the ring sequence

that device checks whether the frame contains a message addressed to it. If so, the device
removes the message from the frame. If not, the frame is empty (called a token frame).
• the device holding the frame decides whether to send a message. If so, it inserts message
data into the token frame and issues it back onto the LAN. If not, the device releases the
token frame for the next device in sequence to pick up
• the above steps are repeated continuously for all devices in the token ring

3)Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection
point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub
with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network
generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one
computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire
network also fails.)

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4)Tree Topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form,
only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a
tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network
much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it
generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.

5)Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies,
messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only
travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A
mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown
in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only
indirectly to others.

Mesh Topology Diagram

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4.5.1Wireless networking

Wireless networking is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and

enterprise (business) installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a
building, or as a connection between various equipment locations.

• Do not require physical cabling

• Particularly useful for remote access for laptop users
• Eliminate cable faults and cable breaks.
• Signal interference and security issue.

Moving data through a wireless network involves three separate elements:

the radio signals, the data format, and the network structure. Each of these
elements is independent of the other two. In terms of the OSI reference model, the
radio signal operates at the physical layer, and the data format controls several of the higher
layers. The network structure includes the wireless network interface adapters and base
stations that send and receive the radio signals. In a wireless network, the network interface
adapters in each computer and base station convert digital data to radio signals, which they
transmit to other devices on the same network, and they receive and convert incoming radio
signals from other network elements back to digital data.

A wireless network enables people to communicate and access applications and information
without wires. This provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend applications to
different parts of a building, city, or nearly anywhere in the world. Wireless networks allow
people to interact with e-mail or browse the Internet from a location that they prefer.

Many types of wireless communication systems exist, but a distinguishing attribute of a

wireless network is that communication takes place between computer devices. These devices
include personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptops, personal computers (PCs), servers, and
printers. Computer devices have processors, memory, and a means of interfacing with a
particular type of network. Traditional cell phones don't fall within the definition of a
computer device; however, newer phones and even audio headsets are beginning to
incorporate computing power and network adapters. Eventually, most electronics will offer
wireless network connections.

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As with networks based on wire, or optical fiber, wireless networks convey information
between computer devices. The information can take the form of e-mail messages, web
pages, database records, streaming video or voice. In most cases, wireless networks transfer
data, such as e-mail messages and files, but advancements in the performance of wireless
networks is enabling support for video and voice communications as well.

Types of Wireless Networks

WLANS: Wireless Local Area Networks

WLANS allow users in a local area, such as a university campus or library, to form a network
or gain access to the internet. A temporary network can be formed by a small number of users
without the need of an access point; given that they do not need access to network resources.

WPANS: Wireless Personal Area Networks

The two current technologies for wireless personal area networks are Infra Red (IR) and
Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15). These will allow the connectivity of personal devices within an
area of about 30 feet. However, IR requires a direct line of site and the range is less.

WMANS: Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks

This technology allows the connection of multiple networks in a metropolitan area such as
different buildings in a city, which can be an alternative or backup to laying copper or fiber
cabling.

WWANS: Wireless Wide Area Networks

These types of networks can be maintained over large areas, such as cities or countries, via
multiple satellite systems or antenna sites looked after by an ISP. These types of systems are
referred to as 2G (2nd Generation) systems.Comparison of Wireless Network Types

Type Coverage Performance Standards Applications

Wireless PAN Within reach
of a person Moderate
Wireless Within reach Cable replacement
Moderate Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15, and
PAN of a person for peripherals
IrDa Cable replacement for
peripherals
Within a
Wireless IEEE 802.11, Wi-Fi, and Mobile extension of
building or High
LAN HiperLAN wired networks
campus
Fixed wireless
Wireless Proprietary, IEEE 802.16, between homes and
Within a city High
MAN and WIMAX businesses and the
Internet
Mobile access to the
Wireless CDPD and Cellular 2G,
Worldwide Low Internet from
WAN 2.5G, and 3G
outdoor areas

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 5 Use of Computer in Commerce
5.1 Data Processing
Data is collection of facts- unorganized but able to organized in to useful information.
Information is data arranged in an order.So Data Processing is a series of actions and
operations that convert data into useful information. In the commercial world, data processing
refers to the processing of data required to run organizations and businesses.

5.2 Files- a file is considered as a sequence of bytes, the operating system supplies routines
that can read/write a specified number of bytes. file is a sequence of records of the same
type.

Records-
file is a sequence of records of the same type. A record is a sequence of data bytes together
with control information about the record's size and maybe some attributes.the unit of I/O
operations is one or more record(s).

File organization and access methods are separate but related concepts,organization refers to
the internal structure, access method is an "allowed method" to read/write from/to the file. It
may be possible to access a file in an access method other than the "natural" one.
Possible file organizations are:

1) Sequential - The info in file can be accessed only in the order it was written. The
writing order defines the "natural" order of data, in simple cases the data will reside on the
disk in consecutive locations.

2) Relative - The file is a sequence of equal-sized "data cells" you can access any "cell"
you want using its serial number, and the system will calculate the offset. Relative files are
just like arrays [of structures] but instead of residing in main memory, they are recorded on a
magnetic media.

3) Indexed - The file is made of "data cells", not necessarily of the same size, and
contain "indexes", lists of "pointers" to these cells arranged by some order. Standard
FORTRAN 77 doesn't require that indexed files are to be implemented, but some vendors
supply this nice extension.

5.2 Computer application in Business:

Needs and Scope:-
It has great need to use computer applications in business. because world become a global
market and everyone want to buy a good quality product and ideas. we can share our ideas
through computer aplicantion sell our ideas and discuse about new product.

5.3 Computer Application in various fields of Commerce:

Almost every business uses computers to complete daily tasks. From making contact with
clients to inputting data for reports, computers allow businesses a more efficient way to
manage affairs when compared to traditional paper and manila folders. Businesses use a
variety of different types of computers such as desktops, laptops, servers, smartphones and
tablets, depending on their needs. With computers, employees are able to work anytime,
anywhere.

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Communication

Communication is key when gaining and maintaining clients and other important contacts.
Computers give businesses access to email, instant messaging and custom customer contact
systems. Computerized phone systems allow for automated support during off hours and a
virtual operator can quickly direct callers to the correct department for faster support.

1. Marketing

Computers allow businesses to create websites, stunning ads and complete marketing
campaigns. Marketing videos can be edited and custom ads created in-house with the use of
specialized software. Businesses can completely develop and manage websites with their own
servers or connect remotely to a third-party business to upload their latest content such as
articles, product images and blog posts.

2. Accounting

Accounting without computers presents a high risk for human error. Accounting software
allows businesses to simply input their financial data and instantly see gains and losses. All
necessary tax reports are available the moment the data is entered. Using computers for
invoicing, managing expenses and calculating payroll is vital for ensuring financial data is as
accurate as possible.

3. Storage

Instead of filing cabinets, businesses are able to store millions of files using computers and
servers. Data can be stored centrally for easy access from multiple computers or stored
locally for individual use. Computerized storage saves space and provides a far more efficient
organization strategy. With encryption, passwords and replace keys, data remains secure.

4. Documents and Reports

Most businesses have some sort of productivity software which typically includes a word
processor and spreadsheet application. These two programs allow businesses to create
reports, memos, tutorials and even colorful ads for company events. Spreadsheet applications
give businesses the chance to organize, manage and calculate both numeric and alphabetic
data. With charts and graphs, reporting becomes visual instead of text-based.

5. Education

Businesses use computers to help educate employees on software, company policy, standard
procedures and safety. Instead of hiring teachers, computers can be used to educate
employees at their own pace or through an online webinar with live questions and answers.
This form of education fits the busy schedules of businesses without sacrificing the quality of
the education.

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5.3.1 Personal Administration (Human Resources)

Personnel Administration, commonly known as Human Resources or HR, handles a great

many issues in the workplace. The primary function is the recruiting selecting and hiring of
new employees, but goes way beyond that in most companies. Human Resources is also
responsible to see that workplace standards meet legal and ethical criteria, including the
manner in which employees are treated by their supervisors. In some companies, HR is
responsible for employee training, although this is often done by the department hiring the
new employee. HR also administers employee benefits programs and keeps track of sick time
and vacations. Employee guides are also created by Human Resources, usually with the
assistance of an attorney knowledgeable in personnel law.

Accounting

Definition -The Systematic recording ,reporting and analysis of financial transactions of a

business.

Cost and Budgetary management:-

Preparing a budget is an integral part of establishing the business case for a project. An
evaluation of the financial requirements is central to establishing whether the project is viable
or not. In cases where external funding is being applied for, the budget will form an important
element of the bid and the benefits model. At the most fundamental level, budgeting should
answer the questions:

• ‘What is the cost of undertaking this project?’

• ‘Is any external funding sufficient to cover the costs?’
• ‘Where there is competition for resources, is this project a priority?’, and
• ‘To what degree do cost and benefit balance up?’

Purchasing:-

The activity of acquiring goods or services to accomplish the goals of an organization.

The major objectives of purchasing are to
(1) maintain the quality and value of a company's products,
(2) minimize cash tied-up in inventory,
(3) maintain the flow of inputs to maintain the flow of outputs, and
(4) strengthen the organization's competitive position.

Purchasing may also involve

(a) development and review of the product specifications,

(b) receipt and processing of requisitions,
(c) advertising for bids,
(d) bid evaluation,
(e) award of supply contracts,
(f) inspection of good received, and
(g) their appropriate storage and release.

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Stock-Broking:-

The process of investing in the share market, either individually or through a broker is known
as stock broking, in simple terms. This is primarily done by opening a Demat account. If
done through a broker, he opens an account, helping you to operate through online stock
broking facility. Going ahead the broker suggests investment ideas and strategies suiting
individual requirements and based on his objective of investment. Tenure of investment, the
selected financial instruments and their respective companies, the schemes, the risk taking
ability, the sum available for investment, all are considered while forming investment
choices. After the amount is invested, the broker tracks and monitors the investments,
changes or reinvests depending on the performance and generates reports for them. This
entire process is known as stock broking.

Banking:

Banking is a business of accepting deposits and lending money. It is carried out by financial
intermediaries, which performs the functions of safeguarding deposits and providing loans to
the public.

In other words, Banking means accepting for the purpose of lending or investment of deposits
of money from public repayable on demand and can be withdrawn by cheque, draft order and
so on.

Banking Company: Any company, which transacts the business of banking

Banking System is a principal mechanism through which the money supply of the country is
created and controlled. The banking system enables us to understand Commercial Banks,
Secondary Banks, Central Banks, Merchant Bank or Accepting Houses and Discount Houses
but to exclude the Saving Banks and Investment and other intermediaries.

Insurance:

Insurance is a contract between the insurer and the insured wherein against receipt of certain
amount, called premium, the insurer agrees to make good any financial loss that may be
suffered by the insured, due to the operation of an insured peril on the subject matter of
insurance.
The Life is full of uncertainties.. People opt for insurance purely for the reasons of
uncertainties in life. Insurance gives the insured a kind of peace of mind as he is assured to
making up the loss in the event of such uncertainties in life happen.

Insurance business is divided into four classes , namely :

1) Life Insurance. Popular Products in Life insurance are Endowment Assurance

(Participating), and Money Back (Participating). More than 80% of the life insurance
business is from these products

2) Fire Insurance

3) Marine Insurance

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4) Miscellaneous Insurance. Fire and Miscellaneous insurance businesses are predominant.
Motor Vehicle insurance is compulsory.

Life Insurers transact life insurance business; General Insurers transact the rest i.e. Fire
Insurance, Marine Insurance and Miscellaneous Insurance.

Definition E-governance-

Electronic governance or e-governance is the application of information and communication

technology (ICT) for delivering government services, exchange of information
communication transactions, integration of various stand-alone systems and services between
government-to-customer (G2C), government-to-business (G2B)

E-Governance : Focus

• Greater attention to improve service delivery mechanism

• Enhancing the efficiency of production
• Emphasis upon the wider access of information

Why eGovernance?

eGovernment can transform citizen service, provide access to information to empower

citizens, enable their participation in government and enhance citizen economic and social
opportunities, so that they can make better lives, for themselves and for the next generation.

5.4 Introduction to E-commerce

The exchange or buying and selling of commodities on a large scale involving transportation
from place to place is known as commerce. When all this is done electronically, it is known
as
“e-commerce”. E-commerce from communication perspective is the delivery of information,
products or services, or payments via telephone lines, computer networks, or any other
means-commerce from business perspective, is the application of technology toward the
automation of business transaction and workflows.
Ecommerce from online perspective provides the capability of buying and selling products
and information on the Internet and other online services.

5.4.1Features of e-Commerce

• e-Commerce is doing business online and electronically

• e-Commerce is about buying and selling products and services on the Internet.
• The sellers are individuals, small businesses or large corporations.
• The buyers are consumers or businesses.
• Payment can be made by credit or debit card, money order, cash, check, services or
trade.
• The ranges of things that can be sold using e-commerce is enormous and include art,
apartment, antennas, batteries ,bicycles, books, cars, cells phones, computer,
cosmetics and whatever.

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5.4.2Role of E-Commerce

1. E-commerce is one of the cheapest means of doing business as it is e-commerce

development that has made it possible to reduce the cost of promotion of products and
services.
2. E-commerce reduces delivery time and labor cost thus it has been possible to save the
time of both – the vendor and the consumer.
3. You can do your e-payments with the help of e-commerce.
4. You can pick up the pace of your online business with the help of e-commerce
application
5. There is no time barrier in selling the products. One can log on to the internet even at
midnight and can sell the products at a single click of mouse.
6. E-Commerce provide facility - on-time alerts are meant for the convenience of the
consumers and inform the consumers about new products.

5.5 E-commerce Framework:

The e-commerce framework offers a set of options to the customers. Most of the electronic
commerce plans have different strategies for security and privacy, their skill to deal with the
payments, and their usability to different transactions
Framework tells about the detail of how e-commerce can take place. It defines actually how
e-commerce implemented, how online trading or business can be done. It defines important
components that should be present to do some transaction. Framework of e-commerce can be
viewed as shown below:-

The important components of this framework are:

1. Network Infrastructure is called as “INFORMATION SUPERHIGHWAY” - is the

path through which actual information flows and moves between sender and
receiver. Information Superhighway consists of telecommunication companies that
provide telephone lines.

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2. Multimedia Contents And Network Publishing- The Information Superhighway is
the transportation foundation that enables the transmission of content. The most
prevalent architecture that enables networking publishing is the World
Wide Web. The web allows small businesses and individuals to develop content in
the form of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and publish it on a web server.
Web provides a means to create product information (content) and a means to publish
it in a distribution center. ( network server).

3. Messaging And Information Distribution Infrastructure- The information content

transferred over the network consists of text, numbers, pictures, audio and video. But
the network does not differentiate among content as everything is digital, that is,
combinations of zero’s and one’s. Once contents has been created and stored on a
server, messaging and
information distribution methods carry that content across the network. Messaging
vehicle is called middleware software. Messaging and information distribution
include translators that interpret and transforms data formats.

4. Common Business Services Infrastructure - This infrastructure includes the different

methods for facilitating
online buying and selling processes. In online commerce, the buyers sends an
electronic payment as well as some remittance information to the seller. Settlement
occurs when the payment and remittance information are authenticated by the seller
and accepted as valid. In order to enable online payment for information and ensure
its safe delivery, the payment services infrastructure needs to develop encryption
(making contents indecipherable except for the intended
recipient) and authentication (making sure that customers are who they say they are)
methods that ensure security of contents traveling on the network.

5. Public Policy And Technical Standards- Public Policy And Technical Standards are
two support pillars for all e-commerce applications and infrastructure. Public policy
related to e-commerce encompasses such issues as universal access, privacy and
information pricing. Technical Standards dictate the specifics of information
publishing tools, user interfaces and transport. Standards are essential to ensure
compatibility across the entire network of world.

5.6 E-Commerce Categories-

The two most common participants in ecommerce are businesses and consumers. Based
on this we can come up with four primary ecommerce types:

1. Business to Business Ecommerce (B2B Ecommerce)

In this type of ecommerce, both participants are businesses. As a result, the volume
and value of B2B ecommerce can be huge. An example of business to business
ecommerce could be a manufacturer of gadgets sourcing components online.

2. Business to Consumer Ecommerce (B2C Ecommerce)

When we hear the term ecommerce, most people think of B2C ecommerce. That is
why a name like Amazon.com pops up in most discussions about ecommerce.
Elimination of the need for physical stores is the biggest rationale for business to
consumer ecommerce. But the complexity and cost of logistics can be a barrier to

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 B2C ecommerce growth.

3. Consumer to Business Ecommerce (C2B Ecommerce)

On the face of it, C2B ecommerce seems lop-sided. But online commerce has
empowered consumers to originate requirements that businesses fulfill. An example
of this could be a job board where a consumer places her requirements and multiple
companies bid for winning the project. Another example would be a consumer
posting his requirements of a holiday package, and various tour operators making
offers.

4. Consumer to Consumer Ecommerce (C2C Ecommerce)

The moment you think of C2C ecommerce eBay.com comes to mind. That is because
it is the most popular platform that enables consumers to sell to other consumers.
Since eBay.com is a business, this form of ecommerce could also be called C2B2C
ecommerce (consumer to business to consumer ecommerce).

********************************************************************

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 Term -II

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 1. Internet and Internet Application
1.1 Introduction

It is a worldwide system which has the following characteristics:

• Internet is a world-wide / global system of interconnected computer networks.

• Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
• Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
• IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a
computer’s location.
• A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP
Address so that user can locate a computer by a name.
• For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a
particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is
hosted.
• Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

1.1.1Evolution of the Internet

The structure and makeup of the Internet has adapted as the needs of its community have
changed. Today's Internet serves the largest and most diverse community of network users in
the computing world. A brief chronology and summary of significant components are
provided in this chapter to set the stage for understanding the challenges of interfacing the
Internet and the steps to build scalable internetworks.

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Origins of the Internet

The Internet started as an experiment in the late 1960s by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA, now called DARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. DARPA
experimented with the connection of computer networks by giving grants to multiple
universities and private companies to get them involved in the research.

In December 1969, the experimental network went online with the connection of a four-node
network connected via 56 Kbps circuits. This new technology proved to be highly reliable
and led to the creation of two similar military networks, MILNET in the U.S. and MINET in
Europe. Thousands of hosts and users subsequently connected their private networks
(universities and government) to the ARPANET, thus creating the initial "ARPA Internet."
ARPANET had an Acceptable Use Policy (AUP), which prohibited the use of the Internet for
commercial use. ARPANET was decommissioned in 1989.

By 1985, the ARPANET was heavily used and congested. In response, the National Science
Foundation (NSF) initiated phase one development of the NSFNET. The NSFNET was
composed of multiple regional networks and peer networks (such as the NASA Science
Network) connected to a major backbone that constituted the core of the overall NSFNET.

In its earliest form, in 1986, the NSFNET created a three-tiered network architecture. The
architecture connected campuses and research organizations to regional networks, which in
turn connected to a main backbone linking six nationally funded super-computer centers. The
original links were 56 Kbps.

The links were upgraded in 1988 to faster T1 (1.544 Mbps) links as a result of the NSFNET
1987 competitive solicitation for a faster network service, awarded to Merit Network, Inc.
and its partners MCI, IBM, and the state of Michigan. The NSFNET T1 backbone connected
a total of 13 sites that included Merit, BARRNET, MIDnet, Westnet, NorthWestNet,
SESQUINET, SURANet, NCAR (National Center of Atmospheric Research), and five NSF
supercomputer centers.

In 1990, Merit, IBM, and MCI started a new organization known as Advanced Network and
Services (ANS). Merit Network's Internet engineering group provided a policy routing
database and routing consultation and management services for the NSFNET, whereas ANS
operated the backbone routers and a Network Operation Center (NOC).

The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s.
Initial concepts of packet networking originated in several computer science laboratories in
the United States, Great Britain, and France. The US Department of Defense awarded
contracts as early as the 1960s for packet network systems, including the development of the
ARPANET (which would become the first network to use the Internet Protocol.) The first
message was sent over the ARPANET from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's
laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at
Stanford Research Institute (SRI).

Packet switching networks such as ARPANET, Mark I at NPL in the UK, CYCLADES,
Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using
a variety of communications protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development

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of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a
network of networks.

Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation
(NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) was introduced as the standard networking protocol on the ARPANET. In the early
1980s the NSF funded the establishment for national supercomputing centers at several
universities, and provided interconnectivity in 1986 with the NSFNET project, which also
created network access to the supercomputer sites in the United States from research and
education organizations. Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the
late 1980s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. Private connections to the Internet
by commercial entities became widespread quickly, and the NSFNET was decommissioned
in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.

Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a revolutionary impact on culture and commerce,
including the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, voice
over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone calls, two-way interactive video calls, and the World
Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites.
The research and education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such
as NSF's very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), Internet2, and National
LambdaRail. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over
fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet's takeover of the
global communication landscape was almost instant in historical terms: it only communicated
1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in the year
1993, already 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by
2007.[1] Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online
information, commerce, entertainment, and social networking.

1.1.2 Working of Internet:

The internet is the network of networks around the world. It is a global network of computer.
It consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks. The
Internet connects millions of computers. These computers are called hosts. The
communication protocol used for Internet is TCP/IP. The computers on Internet are linked
through different communication media. The commonly used communication media are
telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave and satellite.

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A large number of books, newspapers, magazines, encyclopedia, and other types of materials
are available in electronic from on the Internet. We can find information or news on about
almost any thing of the world. We can also access latest information or news on any topic. It
means that Internet is an ocean of knowledge.In addition of finding information, we can
communicate with other people around the world. Due to Internet our world has become a
"global village".

Working of the InternetThere is no particular organization that controls the Internet. Different
networks of private companies, government agencies, research organizations, universities etc.
are interconnected together. You can say that the Internet is a collection of millions of
computers, all linked together.

A personal computer can be linked to the Internet using a phone-line modem, DSL or cable
modem. The modem is used to communicate with the server of an Internet Server Provider
(ISP). ISP is a company that provides the Internet connections to the users. There are many
ISP companies in each country of the world. The user has to get an Internet connection from
any ISP company to connect to the Internet.

A computer in a business or university is usually connected with LAN using Network

Interface Card (or LAN card). The LAN of university or business is connected to the server
of ISP using a high-speed phone line such as TI Line. A TI Line can handle approximately
1.5 million bits per second. A normal phone line using a modem can handle 30,000 to 50,000
bits per second.

The user's computer connects to ISP's server makes its connection to larger ISP. The largest
ISPs maintain fiber-optic lines, under sea cables or satellite links. In this way, every computer
on the Internet is connected to every other computer on the Internet.

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1.1.3 Use of Internet:

Internet is today one of the most important part of our daily life. There are large numbers of
things that can be done using the internet and so it is very important. You can say that with
the progress in the internet we are progressing in every sphere of life as it not only makes our
tasks easier but also saves a lot of time. Today internet is used for different purposes
depending upon the requirement. Here in this very article we have mentioned then ten best
uses of the internet. Here goes the list.

Internet has been the most useful technology of the modern times which helps us not only in
our daily lives, but also our personal and professional lives developments. The internet helps
us achieve this in several different ways.

For the students and educational purposes the internet is widely used to gather information so
as to do the research or add to the knowledge of any sort of subject they have. Even the
business personals and the professions like doctors, access the internet to filter the necessary
information for their use. The internet is therefore the largest encyclopedia for everyone, in
all age categories.

The internet has served to be more useful in maintaining contacts with friends and relatives
who live abroad permanently. The easiest communication means like the internet chatting
systems and the emails are the best and the most common for the maintaining contacts with
the people around the world.

Not to forget internet is useful in providing with most of the fun these days. May it be all the
games, and networking conferences or the online movies, songs, dramas and quizzes, internet
has provided the users with a great opportunity to eradicate the boredom from their lives.

Internet is also used to upgrade the internet and use special software to work on the projects
and documentation works as the internet enables the user to download a myriad of different
software for a variety of different purposes, making it much easier than buying the costly
software cds.

1. Communication

Easiest thing that can be done using the internet is that we can communicate with the people
living far away from us with extreme ease. Earlier the communication used to be a daunting

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task but all that chanced once internet came into the life of the common people. Now people
can not only chat but can also do the video conferencing. It has become extremely easy to
contact the loved ones who are in some other part of the world. Communication is the most
important gift that the internet has given to the common man. Email, social networking sites
are some of the prime example of it. This is one such gift of the internet which is cherished
by everyone and has made our life easier to much extent.

2. Research

Now the point that has been placed next is research. In order to do research you need to go through
hundreds of books as well as the references and that was one of the most difficult jobs to do earlier.
Since the internet came into life, everything is available just a click away. You just have to search for
the concerned topic and you will get hundreds of references that may be beneficial for your
research. And since internet is here to make your research public, you can then benefit a large
amount of people from the research work that you have done. Research is one such thing which has
got lots of benefit from this evolution of internet. Research process has now got wings and has
gained the most due to the internet.

Education

The next point that we have in this list is education. Yes you read it right. Education is one of
the best things that the internet can provide. There are a number of books, reference books,
online help centres, expert’s views and other study oriented material on the internet that can
make the learning process very easier as well as a fun learning experience. There are lots and
lots of websites which are related to different topic. You can visit them and can gain endless
amount of knowledge that you wish to have. With the use of internet for education, you are
non-longer dependent on some other person to come and teach you. There are various
number of tutorials available over the internet using which you can learn so many thing very
easily. There can’t be any excellent use of the internet other than education as it is the key to
achieve everything in life.

4. Financial Transaction

Mentioned here is financial transaction. Financial transaction is the term which is used when
there is exchange of money. With the use of internet in the financial transaction, your work
has become a lot easier. Now you don’t need to stand in the queue at the branch of your
particular bank rather you can just log in on to the bank website with the credential that has
been provided to you by the bank and then can do any transaction related to finance at your
will. With the ability to do the financial transaction easily over the internet you can purchase

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or sell items so easily. Financial transaction can be considered as one of the best uses of
resource in the right direction.

5. Real Time Updates

Real time updates have been placed at the number fifth position here. This has been
mentioned here in regards to the news and other happenings that may be on-going in different
parts of the world but with the use of internet we come to know about it very easily and
without any difficulty. There are various websites on the internet which provides you with the
real time updates in every field be it in business, sports, finance, politics, entertainment and
others. Many a time the decisions are taken on the real time updates that are happening in
various parts of the world and this is where internet is very essential and helpful.

1.2Overview of World Wide Web(Web Server and Client)

The term WWW refers to the World Wide Web or simply the Web. The
World Wide Web consists of all the public Web sites connected to the Internet worldwide,
including the client devices (such as computers and cell phones) that access Web content.
The WWW is just one of many applications of the Internet and computer networks.

The World Wide Web (WWW, W3) is an information system of interlinked hypertext
documents that are accessed via the Internet. It has also commonly become known simply as
the Web. Individual document pages on the World Wide Web are called web pages and are
accessed with a software application running on the user's computer, commonly called a web
browser. Web pages may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia components, as
well as web navigation features consisting of hyperlinks.

The "Web", short for "World Wide Web" (which gives us the acronym www), is the name
for one of the ways that the Internet lets people browse documents connected by hypertext
links.

The concept of the Web was perfected at CERN (Centre Européen de Recherche
Nucléaire) in 1991 by a group of researchers which included Tim-Berners Lee, the creator
of the hyperlink, who is today considered the father of the Web.

The principle of the Web is based on using hyperlinks to navigate between documents (called
"web pages") with a program called a browser. A web page is a simple text file written in a
markup language (called HTML) that encodes the layout of the document, graphical
elements, and links to other documents, all with the help of tags.
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Besides the links which connect formatted documents to one another, the web uses the HTTP
protocol to link documents hosted on distant computers (called web servers, as opposed to the
client represented by the broswer). On the Internet, documents are identified with a unique
address, called a URL, which can be used to locate any resource on the Internet, no matter
which server may be hosting it.

• http:// indicates that we want browse the web using the HTTP protocol, the default
protocol for browsing the Web. There are other protocols for other uses of the
Internet.
• www.commentcamarche.net corresponds to the address of the server that hosts the
web pages. By convention, web servers have a name that begins with www., to make
it clear that they are dedicated web servers and to make memorising the address
easier. This second part of the address is called the domain name. A website can be
hosted on several servers, each belonging to the same name:
www.commentcamarche.net www2.commentcamarche.net,
intranet.commentcamarche.net, etc.
• /www/www-intro.php3 indicates where the document is located on the machine. In
this case, it is the file www-intro.php3 situé located in the directory www.

1.3Introduction to Search engine and Searching the Web

1.3.1Introduction to Search engine

A search engine is a software system that is designed to search for information on the World
Wide Web. The search results are generally presented in a line of results often referred to as
search engine results pages (SERPs). The information may be a mix of web pages, images,
and other types of files. Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open
directories. Unlike web directories, which are maintained only by human editors, search
engines also maintain real-time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler.

1)Web Crawling
Matthew Gray’s World Wide Web Wanderer (1993) was one of the first efforts to automate
the discovery of web pages Gray’s web crawler would download a web page, examine it for
links to other pages, and continue downloading links it discovered until there were no more
links left to be discovered. This is how web crawlers, also called spiders, generally operate
today.

Because the Web is so large, search engines normally employ thousands of web crawlers that
meticulously scour the web day and night, downloading pages, looking for links to new
pages, and revisiting old pages that might have changed since they were visited last. Search
engines will often revisit pages based on their frequency of change in order to keep their
index fresh. This is necessary so search engine users can always find the most up-to-date
information on the Web.

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Maintaining an accurate "snap shot" of the Web is challenging, not only because of the size
of the Web and constantly changing content, but also because pages disappear at an alarming
rate (a problem commonly called linkrot). Brewster Kahle, founder of the Internet Archive,
estimates that web pages have an average life expectancy of only 100 days And some pages
cannot be found by web crawling. These are pages that are not linked to others, pages that are
password-protected or are generated dynamically when submitting a web form. These pages
reside in the deep Web, also called the hidden or invisible Web

Some website owners don’t want their pages indexed by search engines for any number of
reasons, so they use the Robots Exclusion Protocol (robots.txt) to tell web crawlers which
URLs are off-limits. Other website owners want to ensure certain web pages are indexed by
search engines, so they use the Sitemap Protocol, a method supported by all major search
engines, to provide a crawler with a list of URLs they want indexed Sitemaps are especially
useful in providing the crawler URLs it would be unable to find with web crawling.

Figure 1 below shows how a web crawler pulls from the Web and places downloaded web
resources into a local repository. The next section will examine how this repository of web
resources is then indexed and retrieved when you enter a query into a search engine.

Figure 1 - The Web is crawled and placed into a local repository where it is indexed and
retrieved when using a search engine.

2)Indexing and Ranking

When a web crawler has downloaded a web page, the search engine will index its content.
Often the stop words, words that occur very frequently like a, and, the, and to, are ignored.
Other words might be stemmed. Stemming is a technique that removes suffixes from a word
to improve the content of the index. For example, eating, eats, and eaten may all be stemmed
to eat so that a search for eat will match all its variants.

An example index (usually called an inverted index) will look something like this where the
number corresponds to a web page that contains the text:

cat > 2, 5
dog > 1, 5, 6
fish > 1, 2
bird > 4

So a query for dog would result in pages 1, 5, and 6. A query for cat dog would only result in
page 5 since it is the only page that contains both search terms. Some search engines provide
advanced search capabilities, so a search for cat OR dog and NOT fish would be entered
which would result in pages 1, 5, and 6.

The search engine also maintains multiple weights for each term. The weight might

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correspond to any number of factors that determines how relevant the term is to its host web
page. Term frequency is one such weight which measures how often a term appears in a
web page. For example, if someone wanted to search the Web for pages about dogs, a web
page containing the term dog five times would likely be more relevant than a page containing
dog just once. However, term frequency is susceptible to spamming (or spamdexing), a
technique which some individuals use to artificially manipulate a web page’s ranking, so it is
only one of many factors which are used

Another weight that is given to a web page is based on the context in which the term appears
in the page. If the term appears in a large, bold font or in the title of the page, it may be given
more weight than to a term that appears in a regular font. A page might also be given more
weight if links pointing to the page use the term in its anchor text. In other words, a page that
is pointed to with the link text “see the dogs” is more likely about dogs since the term dogs
appears in the link. This functionality has left search engines susceptible to a practice known
as Google-bombing, where many individuals collude to produce the same anchor text to the
same web page for humorous effect. A popular Google bomb once promoted the White
House website to the first result when searching Google for “miserable failure”. Google has
recently implemented an algorithmic solution capable of diffusing most Google bombs

A final weight which most search engines will use is based on the web graph, the graph
which is created when viewing web pages as nodes and links as directed edges. Sergey Brin
and Larry Page were graduate students at Stanford University when they noted just how
important the web graph was in determining the relevancy of a web page. In 1998, they wrote
a research paper about how to measure the importance of a web page by examining a page’s
position in the web graph, in particular the page’s in-links (incoming links) and out-links
(outgoing links). Essentially, they viewed links like a citation. Good pages receive many
citations, and bad pages receive few. So pages that have in-links from many other pages are
probably more important and should rank higher than pages that few people link to. Weight
should also be given to pages based on who is pointing to them; an in-link from a highly cited
page is better than an in-link from a lowly cited page. Brin and Page named their ranking
algorithm PageRank, and it was instrumental in popularizing their new search engine called
Google. All search engines today take into account the web graph when ranking results.

Figure 2 shows an example of a web graph where web pages are nodes and links from one
page to another are directed edges. The size and color of the nodes indicate how much
PageRank the web pages have. Note that pages with high PageRank (red nodes) generally
have significantly more in-links than do pages with low PageRank (green nodes).

Figure 2 – Example web graph. Pages with higher PageRank are represented with

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 larger nodes.

3)Rank Optimization

Search engines guard their weighting formulas as a trade secret since it differentiates their
service from other search engines, and they do not want content-producers (the public who
produces web pages) to “unfairly” manipulate their rankings. However, many companies rely
heavily on search engines for recommendations and customers, and their ranking on a search
engine results page (SERP) is very important. Most search engine users only examine the
first screen of results, and they view the first few results more often than the results at the
bottom of the page. This naturally pits content-producers in an adversarial role against search
engines since the producers have an economic incentive to rank highly in SERPs.
Competition for certain terms (e.g., Hawaii vacation and flight to New York) is particularly
fierce. Because of this, most search engines provide paid-inclusion or sponsored results
along with regular (organic) results. This allows companies to purchase space on a SERP for
certain terms.

An industry based on search engine optimization (SEO) thrives on improving their

customer’s rankings by designing their pages to maximize the various weights discussed
above and to increase the number and quality of incoming links. Black hat SEOs may use a
number of questionable techniques like spamdexing and link farms, artificially created web
pages designed to bolster the PageRank of a particular set of web pages, to increase their
ranking. When detected, such behavior is often punished by search engines by removing the
pages from their index and embargoing the website for a period of time

Vertical Search
Search engines like Google, Yahoo!, and Bing normally provide specialized types of web
search called vertical search [. A few examples include:

1. Regular web search is the most popular type of search which searches the index
based on any type of web page. Other on-line textual resources like PDFs and
Microsoft Office formats are also available through regular web search.
2. News search will search only news-related websites. Typically the search results are
ordered based on age of the story.
3. Image search searches only images that were discovered when crawling the web.
Images are normally indexed by using the image’s filename and text surrounding the
image. Artificial intelligence techniques for trying to discover what is actually
pictured in the image are slowly emerging. For example, Google can now separate
images of faces and line drawing from other image types.
4. Video search searches the text accompanied by videos on the Web. Like image
search, there is heavy reliance on people to supply text which accurately describes the
video.

Other specialty searches include blog search, newsgroup search, scholarly literature search,
etc. Search engines also occasionally mix various types of search results together onto the
same SERP. Figure 3 below shows how Ask.com displays news and images along with
regular web search results when searching for harding. The blending of results from different
vertical search offerings is usually called universal search .

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 Figure 3 - Ask.com's universal search results.

Personalized Search
In order to provide the best possible set of search results for a searcher, many search engines
today are experimenting with techniques that take into account personal search behavior.
When searching for leopard, a user who often queries for technical information is more likely
to want to see results dealing with Leopard the operating system than leopard the animal.
Research has also shown that one third of all queries are repeat queries, and most of the time
an individual will click on the same result they clicked on before [14]. Therefore a search
engine should ideally present the previously-selected result close to the top of the SERP when
recognizing the user has entered the same query before.

Figure 4 below shows a screen shot of personalized search results via Google's SearchWiki
[15], an experiment in search personalization that Google rolled-out in late 2008. The user
was able to promote results higher in the list, remove poor results from the list, and add
comments to specific results. The comment and removal functions are no longer available
today, but Google does allow users to star results that they like, and these starred results
appear prominently when the user later searches for the same content.

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Figure 4 – Example of Google's SearchWiki.
As smartphones have become increasingly popular, search engines have started providing search
results based on the user's location A location-aware search engine recognizes that when a user
searches for restaurants on their mobile device, they are likely wanting to find restaurants in their
near vicinity.

List of search engines:

• Metasearch engines
• Geographically limited scope
• Semantic
• Accountancy
• Business
• Computers
• Enterprise
• Fashion
• Food/Recipes
• Genealogy
• Mobile/Handheld
• Job
• Legal
• Medical
• News
• People
• Real estate / property
• Television

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• Video Games
1.3.2Downloading Files:
The term downloading is distinguished from the related concept of streaming, which
indicates the receiving of data that is used nearly immediately as it is received, while the
transmission is still in progress and which may not be stored long-term, whereas in a process
described using the term downloading, this would imply that the data is only usable when it
has been received in its entirety.

Increasingly, websites that offer streaming media or media displayed in-browser, such as
YouTube, and which place restrictions on the ability of users to save these materials to their
computers after they have been received, say that downloading is not permitted. In this
context, download implies specifically "receive and save" instead of simply "receive".
However, it is also important to note that downloading is not the same as "transferring" (i.e.,
sending/receiving data between two storage devices would be a transferral of data, but
receiving data from the Internet would be considered a download).

Downloading is the transmission of a file from one computer system to another, usually
smaller computer system. From the Internet user's point-of-view, to download a file is to
request it from another computer (or from a Web page on another computer) and to receive it.

When you download a file, you transfer it from the Internet to your computer. The most commonly
downloaded files are programs, updates, or other kinds of files such as game demos, music and
video files, or documents. Downloading can also mean copying information from any source to a
computer or other device, such as copying your favorite songs to a portable music player.

To copy data (usually an entire file) from a main source to a peripheral device. The term is
often used to describe the process of copying a file from an online service or bulletin board
service (BBS) to one's own computer. Downloading can also refer to copying a file from a
network file server to a computer on the network.

In addition, the term is used to describe the process of loading a font into a laser printer. The
font is first copied from a disk to the printer's local memory. A font that has been downloaded
like this is called a soft font to distinguish it from the hard fontsthat are permanently in the
printer's memory.The opposite of download is upload, which means to copy a file from your
own computer to another computer.

1.4 Introduction to web browser

A web browser is a software application which enables a user to display and interact with text,
images, videos, music, and other information that could be on a website. Text and images on a
web page can contain hyperlinks to other web pages at the same or different website. Web
browsers allow a user to quickly and easily access information provided on many web pages at
many websites by traversing these links. Web browsers format HTML information for display
so the appearance of a web page many differ between browsers.

Purpose:

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 Web browser is used to run the software application that allows retrieving, presenting and
traversing the information from one place to another.

- Web browser provides the resources using the WWW (World Wide Web) this can be
identified by URI (Uniform Resource Identifier).

- Web browser fetches the data like web page, image, video or other piece of content from the
server and displays it accordingly.

- Web browser uses hyperlinks to display the resources and allow the users to navigate their
browsers according to the resources.

- Web browser defines the application software that is designed for the user to access and
retrieve the documents using the Internet.

Protocols and Standards

Web browsers communicated with web servers primarily using HTTP (hypertext transfer
protocol) to fetch web pages. HTTP allows web browsers to submit information to web servers
as well as fetch web pages from them. Pages are identified by means of a URL (uniform
resource locater), which is treated as an address, beginning with “http://” for HTTP access.

The file format for a web page is usually HTML (hyper-text markup language) and is identified
in the HTTP protocol. Most web browsers also support a variety of additional formats, such as
JPEG, PNG, and GIF image formats, and can be extended to support more through the use of
plugins. The combination of HTTP content type and URL protocol specification allows web
page designers to embed images, animations, video, sound, and streaming media into a web
page, or to make them accessible through the web page.

Popular Browsers

1)Firefox

Firefox is a very popular web browser. One of the great things about Firefox is that it is
supported on all different OSs. Firefox is also open source which makes its support group a
very large community of open source developers. Firefox is also known for its vast range of
plugins/add-ons that let the user customize in a variety of ways. Firefox is a product of the
Mozilla Foundation. The latest version of Firefox is Firefox 3.

Some of Firefox’s most prominant features include: tabbed browsing, a spell checker,
incremental find, live bookmarking, a download manager, and an integrated search system that
uses the user’s favorite search engine. Like mentioned before, one of the best things about
Firefox is its vast amount of plugins/add-ons. Some of the most popular include NoScript
(script blocker), FoxyTunes (controls music players), Adblock Plus (ad blocker), StumbleUpon
(website discovery), DownThemAll! (download functions), and Web Developer (web tools).

2)Internet Explorer

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 Internet Explorer (IE - created by Microsoft) is a very prominant web browser for the Windows
OS. IE is the most popular web browser. It comes pre-installed on all Windows computers. The
latest version of IE is IE7 with IE8 in beta. IE was designed to view a broad range of web pages
and to provide certain features within the OS.

IE almost fully supports HTML 4.01, CSS Level 1, XML 1.0, and DOM Level 1. It has
introduced a number of proprietary extensions to many of the standards. This has resulted in a
number of web pages that can only be viewed properly using IE. It has been subject to many
security vulnerabilities just like Windows has. Much of the spyware, adware, and viruses across
the Internet are made possible by exploitable bugs and flaws in the security architecture of IE.
These are were drive-by downloads come into play (see computer security lesson for more
details on that).

3)Others

Safari (created by Apple) is a very popular web browser among Apple computers. Safari is also
the native browser on the iPhone and iPod touch. Safari is available for Windows, but has not
reached a very high level of Windows users since. In May 2008 Safari controlled 6.25% of
marketshare among all web browsers.

Opera (created by the Opera Software company) is another fairly popular web browser. It
handles common Internet-related tasks. Opera also includes features such as tabbed browsing,
page zooming, mouse gestures, and an integrated download manager. Its security features
include phishing and malware protection, strong encryption when browsing secure web sites,
and the ability to easily delete private data such as cookies and browsing history. Opera runs on
Windows, OS X, and Linux.

The browser's main functionality

The main function of a browser is to present the web resource you choose, by requesting it
from the server and displaying it in the browser window. The resource is usually an HTML
document, but may also be a PDF, image, or some other type of content. The location of the
resource is specified by the user using a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier).
The way the browser interprets and displays HTML files is specified in the HTML and CSS
specifications. These specifications are maintained by the W3C (World Wide Web
Consortium) organization, which is the standards organization for the web. For years browsers
conformed to only a part of the specifications and developed their own extensions. That caused
serious compatibility issues for web authors. Today most of the browsers more or less conform
to the specifications.
Browser user interfaces have a lot in common with each other. Among the common user
interface elements are:

• Address bar for inserting a URI

• Back and forward buttons

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• Bookmarking options
• Refresh and stop buttons for refreshing or stopping the loading of current documents
• Home button that takes you to your home page

Strangely enough, the browser's user interface is not specified in any formal specification, it
just comes from good practices shaped over years of experience and by browsers imitating
each other. The HTML5 specification doesn't define UI elements a browser must have, but
lists some common elements. Among those are the address bar, status bar and tool bar. There
are, of course, features unique to a specific browser like Firefox's downloads manager.

The browser's main components are

1. The user interface: this includes the address bar, back/forward button, bookmarking
menu, etc. Every part of the browser display except the window where you see the requested
page.
2. The browser engine: marshals actions between the UI and the rendering engine.
3. The rendering engine : responsible for displaying requested content. For example if
the requested content is HTML, the rendering engine parses HTML and CSS, and displays
the parsed content on the screen.
4. Networking: for network calls such as HTTP requests, using different
implementations for different platform behind a platform-independent interface.
5. UI backend: used for drawing basic widgets like combo boxes and windows. This
backend exposes a generic interface that is not platform specific. Underneath it uses operating
system user interface methods.
6. JavaScript interpreter. Used to parse and execute JavaScript code.
7. Data storage. This is a persistence layer. The browser may need to save all sorts of
data locally, such as cookies. Browsers also support storage mechanisms such as
localStorage, IndexedDB, WebSQL and FileSystem.

1.5 Working with E-mail:

E-mail (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by
telecommunication. (Some publications spell it email; we prefer the currently more
established spelling of e-mail.) E-mail messages are usually encoded in ASCII text. However,
you can also send non-text files, such as graphic images and sound files, as attachments sent
in binary streams. E-mail was one of the first uses of the Internet and is still the most popular
use. A large percentage of the total traffic over the Internet is e-mail. E-mail can also be
exchanged between online service provider users and in networks other than the Internet, both
public and private.

E-mail can be distributed to lists of people as well as to individuals. A shared distribution list
can be managed by using an e-mail reflector. Some mailing lists allow you to subscribe by
sending a request to the mailing list administrator. A mailing list that is administered
automatically is called a list server.

E-mail is one of the protocols included with the Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) suite of protocols. A popular protocol for sending e-mail is Simple Mail Transfer

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Protocol and a popular protocol for receiving it is POP3. Both Netscape and Microsoft
include an e-mail utility with their Web browsers.

1.5.1 How to Create a Email

Gmail has been increasing in popularity since it was first introduced in 2004. With the
decline of Yahoo!, AOL, and Hotmail, more and more people are moving to Google's
services. Creating a Gmail account is quick and easy, and also provides you access to other
Google products such as YouTube, Google Drive, and Google Plus.
1 . Creating Your Account
Suppose If u want to open your account on gmail.com. then follow the steps given below
Open a Web browser ( internet explorer or google chrome or mozilla etc)

write in address bar www.gmail.com and you will get below image

Now click on "CREATE AN ACCOUNT", as shown in below (check the red arrow) .

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After clicking on "CREATE AN ACCOUNT " button you will get a window as shown in
below image

Fill all the details, here the user name is the desired user ID which you want to create.

after felling all the details click on "Next step" Button (check the red arrow)

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after next step it will ask for Phone number for verification, enter cell phone number and
click on next

now click on "next step " button and you will get you inbox .

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Congs you have created your new gmail ID.

Enjoy your new Gmail account. You're finished! Click on "Continue to Gmail" to access your
inbox, read your emails, and write new ones.

1.5 Use of Email

Email is one of the most important forms of communication in today's digital age. It's the way
that millions (if not billions) of people stay in touch with each other. Luckily, this form of
near-instant communication is completely free. Make a free email account today to start
sending and receiving email immediately. Read on below the jump for detailed instructions
on registering a new email account with several of the internet's most popular email
providers.
Go to Gmail.com. The first step to creating an email account with Gmail, Google's free email
service, is to visit Gmail's main site. Type "gmail.com" into your browser's navigation bar, or,
alternatively, type "Gmail" into your search engine of choice and click the relevant result.

The email is actually used to transfer messages between one to another. It is also used for :-

1. Group discussion by making groups in hotmail, yahoo, etc

2. Stay in touch with users attached in the group.
3. Transmitting documents through attachments
4. Group email to multiple users
5. Convineint way of sending job application.
6. Easy method of advertisement.
7. Receiving conformation of service.
8. Service subscription

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