GREGOR MENDEL AND ELEMENTARY GENETICS

Genetics Application of Genetics

- gen means to become or to grow into 1. Plant, Animal and Microbial
something Improvement
- William Bateson in 1906 - includes selective breeding, producing
- Branch of biology that deals with the high yielding crops, advancement in
principle =s of heredity and variation in meat production through breeding that
all living things supplied the protein needs, and the use
of selecte microbial strains that
Heredity improved the fermentation of foods
- is our genetic heritage and foo products
- Passing of traits from the parents to their - GMO, low and high quality
offspring 2. Medicine
- Can be physical, a disease, or behavioural - genetic diseases and abnormalities
have been identified
Variation - appropriate preventives measures are
- the differences in the genetic makeup or prescribed
physical appearance of different 3. Genetic Counselling
organisms - knowledge of the inheritance of
- Seeks to understand the molecular and certain desirable or undesirable
physical bases of biological diversity and characteristics will help individuals,
the principles that govern their heredity prospective parents, and families to to
from one generation to another understand their genetic history and
adapt to the most effective way of
Branches of Genetics treatment, if necessary
- traits na pedeng maipasa sa mga anak
Studies the structure and 4. Legal Applications
Molecular Genetics function of genes at a molecular
level
- Genetics helped solve problems of
Studies the process by which
disputed parentage in settling child
Developmental Genetics organisms grow and develop support, estate claims or even baby
Studies the structure and mix-up in hospitals. DNA profiles or
Cytogenesis function of the cell
(chromosomes) fingerprints of suspects have been
found to be an accurate tool in
Studies how genetic variation
Evolutionary Genetics leads to evolutionary changes identifying criminals.
Studies the relationship between 5. Recombinant DNA Technology
Biochemical Genetics genes, protein, and metabolism - This involves joining of DNA
Study that examines the role of segments from different biological
Behavioural Genetics genetics in animal (including
human) behaviour sources producing genetically
Studies the allele frequency modified organism (GMO) or
distribution and change under transgenic plants, animals, or
the influence of their four main
Population Genetics evolutionary processes: natural microorganisms.
selection, genetic drift,
mutation, and gene flow - Therapeutic proteins, hormones and
Studies the continuously vaccines are also produced using this
Quantitative Genetics
measured traits (such as height technology
and weight) an their
mechanisms

BIOL5 (Lecture)
Beginning of Genetics somatoplasm is formed anew at every
generation
Theory of Pangenesis - Panganay gets the full trait from the
- Charles Darwin in 1869 parent unlike sa mga sumunod na maunti
- gemmules, small particles in the body, na daw yung makukuha
were formed everywhere in the man’s ex: somatic cell nuclear transfer
body and such gemmule reflected the
characteristics of the body part from Gregor Mendel / Johann Gregor Mendel
where it was formed - first to follow a single trait
- Travelled through blood vessels into the - he discovered that hereditary
male reproductive organ then transmitted characteristics were determined by
to the next generation and are responsible elementary factors that are transmitted
for the transmission of traits from parents between generations.
to offspring - he believe that gene is inherited from
example: blood transfusion experiment generation to generation that each
descendant has a physical copy of this
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired material, and gene provides information
Characteristics regarding the structure, function, and
- Jean Baptise de Lamarck other biological properties of the
- Based on the Pangesesis theory characteristic it controls.
- Body modifications acquired by use or Mendelian Observation
disuse could be transmitted to the - he worked with traits that show
offspring because the gemmules formed discontinuous variation that show one of
reflected such modifications two, or very few, easily distinguishable
- Unused - weaker & disappear traits
- Used- stronger & developed - A quantitative approach
- change is made by what organisms want Why does he choose peas:
or need 1. Garden peas are self-pollinating
- Focused in two ideas: 2. Garden peas mature within one season,
1. nature produced successively all the giving Mendel several generations
different forms of life on earth within a short period of time
2. environmentally induced behavioural 3. Large quantities of garden peas could be
changes lead the way in species change cultivated simultaneously, 


Germplasm Theory Mendel observed seven characteristics from

- August Weismann in 1883 (disproved the his garden peas, each with two contrasting
Theory of Pangenesis) traits
- germplasm (genes) or sex cells
perpetuated themselves in reproduction
generation after generation
- somatoplasm or body cells were
produced by germplasm to protect and
reproduce itself
- the germplasm is a continuous stream
from generation to generation, while the

BIOL5 (Lecture)
 Law of Independent Assortment
(Dihybrid Cross)
- lets us predict how a single feature
associated with a single gene is inherited
- states that the alleles of two (or more)
different genes get sorted into gametes
independently of one another.
- In other words, the allele a gamete
receives for one gene does not influence
the allele received for another gene

- Thomas Hunt Morgan (confirmed the

chromosome Theory of Inheritance
through discovering sex chromosomes on
his study about fruit flies.

Observations that support Chromosome

Theory of Inheritance:
Mendel concluded that the characteristics 1. That, chromosomes, like Mendel’s
can be classified as dominant and recessive genes, come in matched (homologous)
traits. pairs in an organism.
2. the member of the homologous pair
Dominant traits separates in meiosis, so that each sperm
- those that are inherited unchanged in a or egg has just one member (A-Law of
hybridization segregation)
3. the members of different chromosome
Recessive traits pairs are sorted into gametes
- disappear in the offspring of hybridization independently of one another in meiosis
but reappear in the offspring of the hybrids (B-Law of Independent Assortment)

Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

- Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri:
stated that the segregation of pair factors
(in Mendel’s observation) is paralleled by
the separation of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis.
- The individual genes are found at
Chromosomes
specific locations on chromosomes, and
- comes from the Greek words chroma and
the behavior of chromosomes during
soma which stands for colour and body
meiosis can explain why genes are
- are thread-like structures located inside
inherited according to Mendel’s
the nucleus of the cell. It is made up of
observation.
Law of Segregation (Test Cross) protein (histone) and DNA
- only one of the two gene copies present in - are also used as sex determinants
an organism is distributed to each gamete Protein Histone
(egg or sperm cell) that it makes, and the - provides support for the structure of
allocation of the gene copies is random. chromosomes by coiling it and keeping it
highly condensed

BIOL5 (Lecture)
 Without protein histone, DNA molecules in 1. Telocentric - when centromere occupies
a single human cell would stretch up to 6 the terminal position, so that the
feet. For sure, they wont fit inside the chromosome has just one arm
nucleus 2. Acrocentric - when the centromere
Humans - 23 pairs of chromosomes occupies a sub-terminal position, one arm is
Fruit flies - 4 pairs of chromosomes very long and the other is very short
Rice plant - 12 pairs of chromosomes 3. Sub-metacentric - when centromere is
Gods - 39 pairs of chromosomes positioned slightly away from the mid-point
Cats - 19 pairs of chromosomes so that the two arms are unequal
4. Metacentric - when centromere lies in
the middle of chromosome so that the two
arms are almost equal

DNA Structure
- DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid
- provides the information needed to
construct the proteins necessary so that
the cell can perform all its function
- is composed of repeating nucleotides,
which are made up of a pentose sugar
(ribose or deoxyribose), a nitrogenous
base (purines (G, A) and pyrimidines (C,
Centromere T)), and phosphoric acid
- the constricted region of the chromosome - Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and
- helps keep chromosomes properly Maclyn McCarty in 1944 (concluded
aligned during cell division and the that DNA is the genetic material)
attachment site for the sister chromatids - Friedrich Miescher in 1860 (DNA was
Telomere
identified)
- located at the ends of the chromosomes - Erwin Chargaff (showed that there are
- protect the ends of the chromosomes and
four kinds of monomers (nucleotides)
sustain chromosome stability
present in DNA molecule, where two
Chromosome’s arms
types were always present in equal
- regions on either side of the centromere
amount and the remaining two types
P arm - short arm
Q arm - long arm were also present in equal amounts)
- James Watson and Francis Crick
Types of Chromosome According to (concluded that DNA is made up of two
Position of Centromere strands in the form of a double helix)

Central Dogma
- first used by Francis Crick in 1958 to
summarize the series of events from
DNA to RNA to protein production
- explains the flow of genetic information
in making functional proteins
- Replication, Transcription, and
Translation

BIOL5 (Lecture)
Replication Transcription
- first step in Central Dogma - how DNA is transcribed into RNA
- duplication of DNA - The process requires the DNA double
- each of the two strands that make up the helix to partially unwind in the region of
double helix serves as a template from mRNA synthesis
which new strands are copied Transcription bubble - region of
Semiconservative replication - new strand unwinding
will be complementary to the parental or Template Strand - it proceeds from one of
“old” strand the two DNA strands
Steps: - RNA polymerase moves along the
1. The enzyme helicase unwinds the template strand, which is the 3’ to 5’
parental double helix strand. The RNA polymerase separates
Origin of replication - replication process the two strands while complementing
begins DNA template nucleotides with RNA
Replication fork - a Y-shaped structure nucleotides
after the helicase unwind the parental 1. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) - are
double helix complexed with ribosomal proteins to
2. Single-stranded binding proteins form ribosomes
stabilize the unwound parental DNA 2. mRNA (messenger RNA) - provides
3. The leading strand is synthesized the template that contains the nucleotide
continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction by code for the amino acid sequence of a
DNA polymerase (for DNA) protein
4. The lagging strand is synthesized 3. tRNA (transfer RNA) - transfers amino
discontinuously (for RNA) acids from the cytoplasm to the
5. After the RNA primer is replaced by ribosomes

DNA nucleotides, DNA ligase joins the 

Okazaki fragments to the growing
strand

BIOL5 (Lecture)
Translation
- how RNA is translated into proteins Homozygous - organisms has two identical
- the process by which the mature mRNA alleles
molecule is used as a template for Heterozygous - contrasting trait
synthesizing protein
Codon - a three-nucleotide sequenc Law of Dominance
Genetic code - relationship between a This states that in a heterozygote, one trait
nucleotide codon and its corresponding will conceal the presence of another trait for
amino acid
 the same characteristic. Rather than both
alleles contributing to a phenotype, the
dominant allele will be expressed
exclusively. Recessive will remain latent but
is transmitted to the offspring in the same
manner as the dominant allele.

Genes and Gene Interactions

Gene
- are carried on chromosomes
- unit of heredity occupying a particular
location on the chromosome and passed
on to offspring
Alleles
- gene variants that exist at the same
relative locations on homologous Monohybrid Cross
chromosomes - the fertilization between true breeding
Dominant allele - a hereditary factor that parents that differ by only the
expresses itself when present; expressed characteristic being studied
unit factor; capital leter
Recessive allele - a hereditary factor that is
hidden and expressed only when two
recessive alleles are combined; latent unit
factor; small letter
- Wilhelm Johannsen pointed out
phenotype (appearance of the organism),
genotype (organism’s underlying genetic
make up) Punnett square - a device invented by
The dominant allele is capitalized, and the Reginald Punnett, used for determining
recessive allele is lower case
 probabilities (measures of likelihood)
because it is drawn to predict all possible
outcomes of all possible random
fertilization events and their expected
frequencies


BIOL5 (Lecture)
Test Cross
- way to determine if homogenous or
heterogenous ang parent
- the dominant-expressing organism is
crossed with an organism that is
homozygous recessive for the same
characteristic 


Dihybrid Cross

BIOL5 (Lecture)
 ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Common Characteristic of Animals Animals must convert these

Animal macromolecules into the simple molecules
- came form the Latin word animalis, required for maintaining cellular function.
which means having breath This conversion is a multistep process
- Animals are diverse group of organisms involving :

that make up the Kingdom Animalia Digestion - food particles are broken down
- first animals are thought to have evolved
to smaller components which are later
over 550 million years ago
absorbed by the body
Timbrian Explosion - most of the animals
went extinct
3. Sexual Reproduction
- animal reproduction is necessary for the
Characteristics common to all animals
1. Multicellular survival of species
- animals are composed of many cells that - the genetic material of two individuals
are fused together combines to produce offspring that are
- multicellular bodies of animals consist of genetically different from their parents
tissues that make up more complex - Restores the diploid number and
organs and organ system increases genetic variation
Humans : 30-50 trillion cells
4. Development
Adapted because:
- the process in which an organism
• to obtain the necessary nutrients and other
resources needed by the cells of the body develops from a single-celled zygote to a
multicellular organism is complex and
• to remove the wastes these cells produce
well-regulated
• to coordinate the activities of the cells,
tissues, and organs throughout the body Oviparous - na ngingitlog
Viviparous - hindi na ngingitlog
• to coordinate the many responses of the
individual to its environment
Zygote undergoes rapid cell division to
2. Heterotrophic form blastula in the process termed as
- Animals obtain their energy by cleavage. During cleavage, the cells divide
consuming the bodies of other organisms without an increase in mass; that is, one
- Animals get their energy and required large single-celled zygote divides into
nutrients through ingestion followed by multiple smaller cells. The blastula arranges
digestion and absorption themselves in two layers: the inner mass
Biological molecules necessary for animal cells and the outer layer called the
function: trophoblast. The inner mass cells will go
Amino acids (proteins) on to form the embryo and consists of
Lipid molecules embryonic stem cells. While the trophoblast
Nucleotides will contribute to the placenta and nourish
Simple sugar (carbohydrates) the embryo.
Food consumed consists of:
Proteins Differentiation - the embryonic stem cells
Fat express specific sets of genes which will
Complex carbohydrates determine their ultimate cell type

BIOL5 (Lecture)
5. Movement Main Animal Division
Motility - the ability of an organism to A. Symmetry
move of its own accord by expending 3. Asymmetrical - animals have

energy and it can be in the form of walking, no pattern or symmetry; example is a
slithering, swimming, or flying to propel sponge
themselves through world 4. Radial Symmetry - when any plane cut
Sessility - the biological property of an along the longitudinal axis through the
organism describing its lack of means of organism produces equal halves, but not
self- locomotion a definite left or right side; mostly
- animals can move via external forces such found in aquatic animals
as water currents to protect themselves and 5. Bilateral Symmetry - when an animal
for sexual and asexual reproduction can be divided into roughly mirror-
Nerve tissue - nagpapagalaw image halves only along one particular
Muscular tissue - gumagalaw plane through the central axis

6. Homeostasis
- the constancy of the body’s internal
environment
Feedback Systems - these equilibrium
conditions are maintained by mechanisms
collectively
Negative Feedback - reverses or negates Cephalization - the concentration of
the initial change; pinapababa yung input sensory and brain structure in the anterior
stimulus
 - produces an anterior (head) end, where
Positive Feedback - maintains the direction sensory cells, sensory organs, cluster of
of the stimulus; pinapataas yung input nerve cells, and organs for ingesting food
stimulus are concentrated. The other end of a
Animals can be divided into two groups: cephalized animal is designated
1. those that maintain a constant body posterior and may feature a tail. We also
temperature in the face of differing have the dorsal side that contains the
environmental temperatures cranial and spinal cord and the ventral
2. those that have a body temperature that side that contains the thoracic activity –
is the same as their environment and one that surrounds the lungs and heart.
thus varies with the environment Dorsal - back
temperature. Ventral - front
These animals use their circulatory systems Anterior - head
to help maintain body temperature. Posterior - tail

Thermoregulation - maintaining
temperature B. Germ Layers
Endotherm - warm-blooded animals 1. Ectoderm - gives rise to the nervous
Ectotherm - cold-blooded animals system and the epidermis, which is
Osmoregulation - maintaining water located in the outer layer of body wall

 2. Mesoderm - gives rise to the muscle
cells and connective tissues in the body
3. Endoderm - gives rise to columnar
cells found in the digestive system and

BIOL5 (Lecture)
 many internal organs, gastrodermis,
which is located in the lining of the
guts? cavity

C. Body Cavities
Coelom
- most widespread type of body cavity
- a fluid-filled cavity that is completely
lined with a thin layer of tissue that
develops from mesoderm • Connective Tissues
- Outer wall of the body during - serve mainly to support and bind other
development tissues
Coelomates 3 Categories:
- animals that have coelom 1. Loose connective tissues - also called
- These are the annelids, arthropods, the areolar connective tissue; this
mollusks, echinoderms, and chordates combines with the epithelial tissues to
Pseudocoelomates form the membranes; contain a diffuse
- animals have a body cavity that is not network of protein fibers, surrounds,
completely surrounded by a mesoderm- cushions and supports most organs of
derived tissue the body.
- roundworms 2. Fibrous connective tissues - contains
Acoelomates collagen fibers, which are densely
- animals that do not have body cavity at
 packed in an orderly parallel
all arrangement – a design that contributes
- flatworms and sponges to the flexibility and tremendous
Profostomes - mouth (invertebrates) strength of tendons and ligaments
Deuterostomes - anus (vertebrate) humans
 tendons connect bones to muscles
ligaments connect bones to bones.
Types of Animal Tissue 3. Specialized connective tissues - this
- named according to cell layer and shape includes the cartilage, bone, fat, and
of cells blood.
• Epithelial Tissues Cartilage - covers the ends of bones at
- the body’s gatekeepers, protecting
 joints, provides the supporting framework
regulating the movement of
 for the respiratory passages, support the ears
substances in and out of the body and the nose, and forms shock-absorbing
- bind with connective
 pads between the vertebrae
tissues to form membranes which
 Bone or osseous tissue - has large amount
cover the body and line body cavities
 of two types of matrix material – organic
such as the mouth, the stomach, and
 and inorganic matrix
the bladder Fat cells collectively known as adipose
Types: Number of layers:
 tissue are modified for long-term energy
1. Cuboidal 1. simple storage and serve as insulations to help
2. Columnar 2. stratifies maintain body temperature, and function in
3. Squamous 3. pseudostratified cushioning against damage to body organs
Blood is considered a connective tissue
because it has a matrix

BIOL5 (Lecture)
• Muscle Tissues
- the long, thin cells of muscle tissue
contract (shorten) when stimulated, then
relax passively
3 types that differ by the presence or
absence of striations or bands, the number
and location of nuclei, whether they are
voluntary or involuntary, and their location
within the body:
1. Skeletal muscle - under voluntary, or
conscious control; main function is to
move the skeleton, as occurs when you
walk or turn the pages of a book
2. Cardiac muscle is located only in the
heart; is spontaneously active and
involuntary
3. Smooth muscle lacks the orderly
arrangement of thick and thin filaments;
is embedded in the walls of digestive
tract, the uterus, the bladder, and large
blood vessels; produces slow, sustained
contractions that are mostly involuntary

BIOL5 (Lecture)
Tissues are the building blocks of organs –
discrete structures that perform complex
functions.

BIOL5 (Lecture)