10.

A/D, D/A Conversion & Data Acquisition:

Digital-ramp ADC
Aliasing
Flash ADC
VA
Introduction of ADC
• What is ADC?
• Why is ADC important?
• How does it work?
What is ADC?
• ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) is an electronic device that converts a
continuous analog input signal to discrete digital numbers (binary)
• Analog
• Real world signals that contain noise
• Continuous in time
• Digital
• Discrete in time and value
• Binary digits that contain values 0 or 1
 Why is ADC Important?

• All microcontrollers store information using digital logic

• Compress information to digital form for efficient storage
• Medium for storing digital data is more robust
• Digital data transfer is more efficient
• Digital data is easily reproducible
• Provides a link between real-world signals and data storage
 How ADC Works

2 Stages:
• Sampling
• Quantizing and Encoding

Binary
output
 Sampling

• Sampling rate depends on clock

frequency
• Use Nyquist Criterion
• Increasing sampling rate increases
accuracy of conversion
• Possibility of aliasing

Sampling Signal: Tw
1
Sampling Period: Ts 
fs
Nyquist Criterion: fs  2  f max
 Aliasing
 High and low frequency samples are indistinguishable
 Results in improper conversion of the input signal
 Usually exists when Nyquist Criterion is violated
 Can exist even when: fs  2  f max
 Prevented through the use of Low-Pass (Anti-aliasing) Filters
 Quantizing and Encoding
• Approximates a continuous range of values and replaces it
with a binary number
• Error is introduced between input voltage and output binary
representation
• Error depends on the resolution of the ADC
 Resolution

 Maximum value of quantization error

 Error is reduced with more available memory
Vrange=Input Voltage Range
n= # bits of ADC
resolution  Vrange /( 2 n  1)
Example:
Vrange  7.0V
n3 Qerror  resolution/ 2
1V  7V /( 23  1)  .5V

Resolution
 Resolution
 Increase in resolution improves the accuracy of the conversion

Minimum voltage step recognized by ADC

Analog Signal Digitized Signal- High Digitized Signal- Low

Resolution Resolution
FLASH A/D CONVERTER

23-1 = 7 Comparators

3 Bit Digital Output

 Flash A/D Converter Contd.

Pros Cons
• Fastest (in the • Each additional bit
order of nano of resolution
seconds) requires twice the
• Simple number of
operational comparators
theory •Expensive
• Speed is limited • Prone to produce
only by gate and glitches in the
comparator output
propagation delay
Vax=10.4V

1010
MSB

LSB
R/2R Ladder DAC
 Thevenin’s equivalent voltage:

Replacing Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:

In our case,b3=0, b2=1,b1=0,b0=0

 For digital-ramp ADC

For successive approximation ADC

Resolution of binary weighted register DAC:
R-2R ladder ADC:

HW: Calculate percent resolution.

Data Acquisition
Data Acquisition System –
• Data Acquisition is the process of sampling of real world
physical conditions and conversion of the resulting samples
into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a
computer.

The components of data acquisition systems include:

- Sensors that convert physical parameters to electrical
signals.
- Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into
a form that can be converted to digital values.
- Analog-to-digital converters, which convert conditioned
sensor signals to digital values.
- Communication channel for transmission data to a
computer.
Architecture of a Typical DAS

Sensors/ Signal Analog Microcon Commu

Transdu Conditio to nication
troller
cers
cers ners Digital Channel
Conver
ters
Memory

Other components – Firmware and Software

Data Acquisition System
Block Diagram
PC-based Data Acquisition
System Overview
• In the last few years, industrial PC I/O interface products have become increasingly
reliable, accurate and affordable. PC-based data acquisition and control systems are
widely used in industrial and laboratory applications like monitoring, control, data
acquisition and automated testing.
• Selecting and building a DA&C (Data Acquisition and Control) system that actually does
what you want it to do requires some knowledge of electrical and computer engineering.
• • Transducers and actuators
• • Signal conditioning
• • Data acquisition and control hardware
• • Computer systems software
 Data Acquisition System Introduction I

A data acquisition system consists of many components that are

integrated to:
• Sense physical variables (use of transducers)
• Condition the electrical signal to make it readable by an A/D board
 Data Acquisition System Introduction II

• Convert the signal into a digital format acceptable by a computer

• Process, analyze, store, and display the acquired data with the help of
software
Applications of DAS:
• Aerospace: “black boxes” - Data
• Industrial: AMI, SCADA, Monitoring…
• Medical: Patient diagnostic, observation, (including remote), etc…
• Scientific Research
• Semiconductors Testing
• Transportation: traffic statistics, schedule control, traffic violations…
• Weather forecasting
Overview of Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors
• Transducers (piezoelectric mike or speaker, electromechanical…- 2-
way, photovoltiac, electrochemical…- 1-way)
• Gauges (pressure, vacuum, RPM…)
• Detectors (photo, ion, alpha, beta, gamma, X-Ray…)
• Indicators: Test the pH of a substance by means of the dye litmus (see
also indicator )
Sensors from
http://www.sensorsportal.com/HTML/Sensor.htm

• Optical sensors • Biosensors • Torque sensors

• Chemical sensors • Position sensors • Level sensors
• Rotation speed sensors
• Proximity sensors • Ultrasonic sensors
• Temperature sensors
• Displacement sensors • Load Cells
• Pressure sensors
• Resonant sensors • Vacuum sensors
• Gas sensors
• Nano-sensors • Flow sensors • Magnetic sensors

• Accelerometers • TEDS (Transducer • Viscosity sensors

Electronic Data Sheet)
• Oxygen sensors (IEEE 1451 plug-and- • Mechanical sensors
play) sensors
• Acoustic sensors • Wireless sensors
• pH sensors • Humidity sensors
• Moisture sensors
• Tilt sensors
• Yaw sensors
• Inclination sensors
Sensor(s) Selection
We will operate with the term “sensor” for our DAS.
The sensor(s) selection is dictated by the requirements to the DAS (MRD ->
Functional Specs -> Hardware Requirements Specification):
• What physical phenomenon(s) to be measured?
• What is the range of the parameter change?
• What is the required accuracy of measurements?
• Any requirements to (non)linearity (calibration)?
• Speed of measurements (samples per second),
• What type of interface does the sensor have to provide?
• What is the price limit?
 Signal Conditioning
Electrical signals are conditioned so they can be
used by an analog input board. The following
features may be available:

 Amplification  Filtering
 Isolation Linearization
Signal Conditioning
• Signal conditioning circuits improve the quality of signals
generated by transducers before they are converted into digital
signals by the PC's data-acquisition hardware.
• Examples of signal conditioning are signal scaling,
amplification, linearization, cold-junction compensation, filtering,
attenuation, excitation, common-mode rejection, and so on.
Signal Conditioning
• One of the most common signal conditioning functions is
amplification.
• For maximum resolution, the voltage range of the input signals
should be approximately equal to the maximum input range of
the A/D converter. Amplification expands the range of the
transducer signals so that they match the input range of the A/D
converter. For example, a x10 amplifier maps transducer
signals which range from 0 to 1 V into the range 0 to 10 V
before they go into the A/D converter.
 Analog to Digital (A/D)
Converter

• Input signal  Resolution

• Sampling rate  Range
• Throughput
 Gain
 A/D Converter:
Sampling Rate
Determines how often conversions take place.
The higher the sampling rate, the better.

Analog 4 Samples/cycle
Input

8 Samples/cycle

16 Samples/cycle
 A/D Converter:
Sampling Rate
• Aliasing.
Acquired signal gets distorted if sampling
rate is too small.
Anti-aliasing Filter
• One way of avoiding the problem of aliasing is to
apply an anti-aliasing filter to the signal, prior to the
sampling stage, to remove any frequency components
above the "folding" or Nyquist frequency (half the
sampling frequency).
• An anti-aliasing filter is a low-pass filter.
A/D Converter:
Resolution
 A/D Converter:
Range
• Minimum and maximum voltage levels that the
A/D converter can quantize

 Ranges are selectable (either

hardware or software) to
accurately measure the signal
Analog Outputs (D/A)
• The opposite of analog to digital conversion is digital to analog (D/A)
conversion. This operation converts digital information into analog voltage
or current. D/A devices allow the computer to control real-world events.
• Analog output signals may directly control process equipment. The
process can give feedback in the form of analog input signals. This is
referred to as a closed loop control system with PID control.
• Analog outputs can also be used to generate waveforms. In this case, the
device behaves as a function generator.
Analog Outputs (D/A)
 Data Acquisition Software
• It can be the most critical factor in obtaining reliable, high
performance operation.
• Transforms the PC and DAQ hardware into a complete DAQ, analysis,
and display system.
• Different alternatives:
• Programmable software.
• Data acquisition software packages.
 Programmable Software
• Involves the use of a programming language, such as:
• C++, visual C++
• BASIC, Visual Basic + Add-on tools (such as VisuaLab with VTX)
• Fortran
• Pascal
Advantage: flexibility
Disadvantages: complexity and steep learning curve
 Data Acquisition Software

• Does not require programming.

• Enables developers to design the custom instrument
best suited to their application.
Examples: TestPoint, SnapMaster, LabView, DADISP,
DASYLAB, etc.
Designing a DAS: Factors to Consider

Is it a fixed or a mobile application?

Type of input/output signal: digital or analog?
Frequency of input signal ?
Resolution, range, and gain?
Continuous operation?
Compatibility between hardware and software. Are the
drivers available?
Overall price.