MATERIALS AND METALLURGY I

COURSE OUTLINE

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

 Types of engineering materials
 Properties of engineering materials ; physical and mechanical

STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS
 Crystalline state
 Crystal structures
 Terminologies
PRODUCTION OF STEELS AND CAST IRON
 Types of ores
 Charging materials
 Types of furnaces
 Classification of alloy steels
 Corrosion resistant steels and their applications
 Ferritic , martensitc and austenitic stainless steels
 Weld decay and sigma phase
 Heat resisting steels
 Tool steels
NON-FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
 Non-ferrous metals
 Production of non-ferrous metals
 Properties of non-ferrous metals
 Forms of supply
 Brass, Bronze, Cupronickels
 Duralumin
 Cast and Wrought Alloys
PLASTICS, WOOD AND RUBBER
 Types of plastics
 Properties of plastics
 Additives
 Adhesives / resins
 Processing of polymeric materials
 Wood; Types, Seasoning, Structure
 Rubber; Types, Uses, Properties

BEARING MATERIALS
 Metals
 Non-Metals
 Bearing properties
CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION
 Types of corrosion
 Corrosion prevention
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HEATING TREATMENT
 Annealing
 Tempering
 Normalizing
 Hardening
 Case hardening

STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

- Classification of Engineering Materials

(i) Metals and their alloys
(ii) Non-metals
- Types of Engineering Materials
(a) Metallic materials – include (i) Ferrous – contain iron as the chief constituent : these are
pig iron ,cast iron, steels and their alloys
(ii)Non Ferrous – all other metals and their alloys that do not
contain iron as the chief constituent.
(b) Ceramics – include engineering ceramics (e .g silicon oxide) and naturally occurring ceramics
consisting mainly of clay.
(c) Composites – consists of more than one type of engineering material e.g a metal and non -
Metal
(d) Organics- contain mainly Carbon as the main element in their structure: include plastics and
Rubbers and are also referred to as Polymeric materials.
- Forms of supply
 Sheet

 Plate

 Strip

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  Bars

 Tubes

 Rolled sections

 Granules, pellets and powder

- Metals - are solid at room temperatures.

- are malleable and ductile.
- have good electrical and thermal conductivities.

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 - have high density and high melting points.
- have good strength and hardness.
- In liquid state , they are used as metallic sprays.

- Non – Metals - can be used in solid or non- solid state

- - in solid state, they are brittle and have poor electrical and thermal conductivities
- - in non- solid state, they are either viscous or have low viscosity

- Solid substances are either amorphous or crystalline in nature.

- Amorphous – atoms (or molecules) are arranged in a disorderly and indefinite manner.
- Crystalline - atoms (or molecules) are arranged in an orderly and definite manner forming
------------------------------- --crystals.
- Molecules - contain more than one atom of the same or different elements.
- Element – consists of atoms of one type only
- Atom - smallest and chemically indivisible particle of matter and the smallest quantity of an ------
------------------- element which can exist on its own though in rare circumstances
- the atom consists of a minute (very small) nucleus that contains protons that are -----------
------------------ positively charged and neutrons that are negatively charged.
- The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by negatively charged electrons whose number is equal to
--------- -the number of protons so as to keep the atom electrically neutral.
- The number of protons determines the type of element and is indicated as the Atomic Number
-----------of the element.
- Atomic Number – is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
- Atomic Mass (Atomic Weight) - is the number of both protons and neutrons in the --------
--------------------------------------------------------------nucleus of an atom of an element.
- Isotopes - are atoms of the same element (i.e have same number of protons) but with different
------------------------atomic weight (i.e have different number of neutrons)
- Electrons of an atom are arranged in a series of orbits (shells or energy levels) around the nucleus
- Each shell contains a specific number of electrons. e.g the first shell nearest the nucleus contains a
--------maximum of two electrons, the second a maximum of eight electrons etc
- Due to their opposite charges , electrons are attracted to the protons in the nucleus of the atom.
--------But the electrons in the outermost shell known as valence shell may be attracted to the protons in
------- the nucleus of neighbouring atoms leading to formation of bonds between atoms.
-Bond - refers to the attraction between atoms (or ions or molecules)

- Types of Bonds

i) Ionic bond (electrovalent bond)

- formed when one or more electrons in the valence shell of an atom are transferred to the
valence shell of another atom.
- Note – this leaves both atoms having the maximum number of electrons in their outermost ------
---------shells .
- the two atoms become oppositely charged atoms(ions) that attract each other to form the ionic
bond.
- the bond is formed between a metal and a non – metal

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- example .

ii) Covalent bond

- formed when the valence electrons of an atom are shared with valence electrons of another or
other atoms.
- formed between atoms of non-metals
- the bond is typical of most gas molecules.
- example

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 iii) Van der waals forces
- occurs in neutral molecules or atoms e.g in inert gases whose atoms have their valence shells
containing the maximum number of electrons.
- when the atoms or molecules are brought together, there is a separation of the centres of
positive and negative charges and a weak attractive force occurs ; the van der waals forces of
attraction .

iv) Metallic bond

- valence electrons of metal atoms are loosely held by their nuclei and at room temperature , the
atoms lose their valence electrons which form an electron cloud or pool of electrons
surrounding the now positively charged atoms(atoms)
- the positively charged ions repel each other and arrange themselves in regular pattern in which
they are firmly held in position by the attractive force of the electron cloud

- Note : the regular arrangement of atoms makes them crystalline in nature and due to the
nature of the bond , metals are ductile , good conductors of electricity and heat and are lustrous
in appearance.

Space Lattice (crystal lattice)

- metals are crystalline in nature i.e the atoms are arranged in a definite and orderly manner.
- The three dimensional network of imaginary lines connecting the atoms of a crystalline element
is called Space Lattice

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- Unit Cell – is the smallest unit in the space lattice having the full symmetry of the crystal
- The unit cell is defined by the parameters a , b and c which are the edges of the unit cell and
the angles , and between the edges.

- Currently , there are fourteen known types of space lattices which are grouped into seven
systems or classes.

Classes (Systems) of space lattices(crystal structure)

1. Cubic system - has three equal axes that are mutually perpendicular
i.e a = b = c and = = = 900
- types of cubic system crystal structures are:
a) Simple cubic

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 b) Body Centred Cubic (B C C)

- Examples of metals with bcc crystal structure are Chromium(Cr) , Tungsten(W),

Molybdenum(Mo), Vanadium(V),Sodium(Na), α - iron , δ - iron
c) Face Centred Cubic (F C C)

- Examples of metals with fcc crystal structures are Aluminium(Al), Nickel(Ni),

Copper(Cu),Gold(Au), Silver(Au), Lead(Pb),Platinum(Pl) and γ – iron.
2. Tetragonal System – has three perpendicular axes of which only two are equal.
i.e a = b but not = c and = = = 900
- types of tetragonal system crystal structures are
a. Simple Tetragonal

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 b. Body Centred Tetragonal (BCT)

3. Hexagonal System - has three equal co – planar axes at 1200 and a fourth unequal axis
perpendicular to their to plane.
i.e a = b but not = c and = = 900 γ = 1200
- the Close Packed Hexagonal (c p h) crystal structure shown below
belongs to this system

- Examples of metals with c p h (h c p) crystal structure are magnesium(Mg). Beryllium(Be),

Zinc(Zn). Cadmium(Cd)

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 Note
I. Ability of an element to exist in more than one space lattice is known as Polymorphism
e.g Carbon(C) can exist either as graphite which is very soft or as Diamond which is very
hard

II. Ability of an element to exist reversibly in more than one crystal structure is known as --
--------------------Allotrophy. E.g iron can exist as α – iron , γ – iron or δ – iron depending on temperature

Mechanism of crystallization (Dendritic solidification of metal)

- Atoms of a liquid are in constant motion and possess kinetic energy.They are only contained in
one space by the container.
- When a liquid metal solidifies , the kinetic energy of each atom is reduced and is given out as
latent heat of solidification which for a pure metal occurs at a constant temperature as shown
in the cooling curve below.

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- Mechanism of Solidification - Solidification begins by the formation of small nuclei scattered at
random in the cooling liquid metal. At these points , a few atoms arrange themselves in an
orderly manner to form the unit cell of the crystal structure.
- Growth of the crystal takes place in three dimensions .

- From the main arms of the crystal , secondary growth occurs resulting in small tree-like crystals
called dendrites.

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 - Growth of the crystals continues until all metal between the branches has solidified.The crystals
outward growth is stopped when two crystals meet.
- Each of these small crystals is called a grain and the contact surfaces between adjacent crystals
are called grain boundaries.

- Grain – a small crystal consisting of atoms arranged in an orderly and definite manner

Alloying of metals
- Pure metals are rarely used in engineering work because they have poor mechanical properties
- In order to make these materials suitable for engineering use, some other materials are added
to them to form an alloy
- Alloy – a substance that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more chemical
elements of which at least one is a metal
- The metal , which is present in the alloy in large proportions is known as base metal while all the
other elements (metal or non-metal) that are added are called alloying elements
- Alloying is done to improve mechanical properties.Many physical properties are also
improved . Corrosion resistance of many metals can also be improved by alloying
- Effects of alloying include :
(i) Melting temperature is lowered : it is easier to melt and cast metals at lower
temperatures.
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 Note : melting point of copper is raised by alloying with copper.
(ii) Electrical conductivity is lowered : pure metal is best for electrical conductivity
(iii) Electrical resistivity is raised : this principle is applied in development of high
resistance electric heater elements.
(iv) Thermal conductivity is lowered
(v) Tensile strength is raised
(vi) Fatigue strength is raised
(vii) Ductility is lowered

- Properties of a metal can also be improved by

(a) Reduction in grain size - a fine-grained material possess high tensile strength and better
mechanical properties than coarse – grained material.
- stirring of melt and fast cooling rates causes formation of fine grain
(b) Strain hardening (cold work) – this is a process of deforming a metal at room
temperature to improve its hardness ,tensile strength etc.
- ductility is lowered by cold work
- mechanical work that do not cause strain hardening is
known as hot work
(c) Heat treatment – effective in alloys ; pure metals do not show any improvement in strength
by heat treatment and are only strengthened by cold work.
- in alloys, alloy metal atoms are dispersed throughout the crystal structure
for the optimum effect
- among the alloys that respond to heat treatment are the steels and
aluminum alloys

Definitions and concepts related to alloying

(i) Solid solution – this is a microscopically homogeneous and random distribution of atoms
of one kind throughout atoms of another kind in solid state .
- any solution is composed of two parts ; a solute and a solvent . The solute is
the minor part of the solution while the solvent is the major portion of the
solution
- solid solutions are like liquid or gaseous solutions except as differences exist
between solid , liquid and gaseous states of matter
- a gas can dissolve an unlimited amount of any other gas but a gas , liquid or
solid can only dissolve a limited amount of liquid or solid.
-similarly , solubility limits of most solutions of one pure metal in another
metal exist except in solutions of copper- nickel and silver-gold.
Types of solid solutions
(a) Interstitial solid solution – occurs when solute atoms whose atomic radii
-8
are less than 10 cm disperse themselves in
spaces between solvent atoms e.g. atoms of
Hydrogen (H) ,Carbon (C) ,Boron (B) , Nitrogen (N)
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 e.g. iron – carbon solid solution
(b) substitutional solid solution - solute atoms replace some solvent atoms so that
they lie at normal lattice points in the crystal
structure

e.g. copper- nickel solid solution

- both types of solid solutions produce distortion of the crystal structure
accompanied by an increase in strength and hardness and a loss in ductility
and electrical thermal conductivity.
Conditions for a solution
(a) Unsaturated – if the solvent is dissolving less of the solute than it could dissolve
at a given temperature and pressure
(b) Saturated - if the solvent is dissolving the limiting amount of solute at a given
temperature and pressure
(c) Supersaturated - if the solvent is dissolving more of the solute than it should
under equilibrium conditions.
- supersaturated solutions are unstable and given enough time
and energy , solution tends to become stable by rejecting or
precipitating the excess solute
(ii) Intermetallic compound – tends to form when the difference in the electronegativity of the
elements forming an alloy is very large
- usually forms in solid solutions when the limit of solubility is
exceeded
Electronegativity - ease with which an atom gains or looses an
electron
(iii) Mechanical mixtures – formed when a liquid solution of an alloy is cooled and the crystals
of its constituents separate simultaneously from one another to form
a close mechanical mixture also known as eutectic mixture
(iv) System - a series of alloys made from the same components
(v) Components – the pure metals or compounds of which the alloy is made.
(vi) Phase - this is a homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform physical and chemical
properties.
- thus solid solutions are phases , pure metals are phases and the various states of
matter(liquid,gas,solid) are phases.
- if a metal can exist in more than one crystalline form , the different crystal structure
represent different phases.
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(vii) Constituent – microscopically identifiable portion of an alloy
- phases being microscopically identifiable are constituents but constituents
are not always single phases
(viii) Equilibrium - this is when a condition of no net change exist in a system.
- with regard to alloys , a system is said to be in equilibrium when there is no
net change between the amounts and compositions of the phases present.
- the atoms of a solid metal are relatively immobile and when the temperature
changes , the attainment of equilibrium takes a longer time.
Thus by quenching (cooling rapidly) a solid metal , it is possible to
leave equilibrium conditions so far behind that the metal reaches a
pseudostable state at room temperature.
(ix) Equilibrium diagram – this is a convenient graphical representation of the relationship
between temperature and the compositions of phases present
in an alloy system at equilibrium conditions.
- do not show the rate of reaction but only the phases present at
different temperatures.
- equilibrium diagrams are sometimes called phase diagrams if they
show phases present or constitution diagrams if they show
constituents present in an alloy system .

uses of equilibrium diagrams

(a) Predict what phases are in equilibrium for selected alloy composition
at desired temperatures.
(b) Predict phase transformation which occur if the alloy is subjected to very
slow cooling or heating.
(c) Determine the microstructure as a result of phase transformation.

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 Diagram below shows an equilibrium diagram of an alloy system between metals A and B in which
there is no limit of solubility . i.e. metal A can absorb any amount of metal B

Liquidus – line on an equilibrium diagram above which alloy compositions are always liquid

Solidus – line on an equilibrium diagram below which alloy compositions are always solid

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 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Properties – quantity which defines the specific characteristics of a material

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
- Properties that define the behavior of a material under the action of external loads/forces.
- Mechanical properties assist the engineer in selecting a suitable material for various structures
and components of a machine.
- Most mechanical properties are expressed in terms of stress , strain or both.

- Stress – internal resistance set up by the molecules of a material to resist deformation due to
application of external forces
- mathematically stress is expressed as the force/load per unit area of cross-section

i.e ( ) (units N/M2) P = force applied (N) A = Cross-section area (m2)

- Strain - deformation or change in length per unit length under the external forces
- mathematically

( ) units (m/m) L1 = original length (m) L0 = final length (m)

- According to nature of load applied , there are various types of stresses and corresponding
strains : e.g.
(i) Tensile stress -stress induced at any section of the material when subjected to
two equal and opposite axial pulls.

- the ratio of increase in length to the original length is tensile strain

(ii) Compressive stress – stress induced at any section of the material when subjected
to two equal and opposite axial pushes.

- the ratio of decrease in length to original length is compressive strain

- mechanical properties include :

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 (i) strength – ability of a material to withstand or support an external force or load
without failure/rupture/fracture
- depending on nature of stress , types of strength include ,tensile strength
, compressive strength etc.
(ii) Elasticity - ability of a material to retain its original size and shape after the
removal of load or force
(iii) Plasticity - ability of material to deform permanently without fracture under the
action of external forces
(iv) Ductility - ability of a material to be drawn into wire or be elongated by the
application of a tensile force before rupture takes place.

- ductility is measured by

(a) L0 =original length

L1 =final length

(b) =

A0 =original cross- section area

A1 = final cross- section area
(v) Malleability – ability of a material to be hammered to shape or rolled into thin
sheets

Note : a malleable material should be plastic but not necessary strong but a
ductile material must be both plastic and strong

(vi) Brittleness – property that makes a material break or fracture without any
significant deformation or change in size
(vii) Toughness - ability of a material to absorb maximum energy before fracture
(viii) Hardness - ability of a material to resist wear , scratching , indentation and
machinability
- its also the ability of a material to cut another material
(ix) creep - a slow and permanent deformation of a material at a constant stress
usually at an elevated temperature
(x) Fatigue - failure of a material at a stress below the yield point stress when the
material is subjected to repeated or cyclic stresses.
(xi) Stiffness (rigidity) – ability of a material to resist deformation or deflection under
stress

PHYSICAL PROPERTES
- Properties that are inherent in a material and are determined by electronic structure
and bond

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 - Physical properties include :
(i) Melting point – temperature at which a solid material changes to liquid
(ii) Density - weight of a material per unit volume
- ratio of density of a material to density of water is known as specific gravity
(iii) colour - display particular hue in normal daylight
(iv) lustre – ability of surface to reflect light
others include thermal and electrical conductivity etc.

TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
- Properties which define the behavior of a material during shaping ,forming and fabrication
operations during the manufacturing process
- Technological properties include :
(i) Machinability - indicates the ease with which a material can be cut or removed by
cutting in various machining processes such as turning ,drilling ,milling
etc.
(ii) Weldability - indicates the ease with which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined,
with or without application of pressure , with or without the use of filler
metal
(iii) Formability /workability – indicate the ease with which a material can be formed i.e
pressed into different shapes and sizes
(iv) Castability – indicate the ease with which a material can be cast into different shapes
and sizes

TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

- Materials mainly used in Machine Shops and Tool Rooms are metals which are broadly classified
into :

(a) Ferrous metals - contain Iron as their chief constituent

- these are pig iron , cast iron ,steels and their alloys
(b) Non-ferrous metals - metals which contain a metal other than iron as the chief constituent
- these include aluminum , copper etc. and their alloys.

IRON (Fe)
- Pure iron exists in more than one crystal structure i.e it is allotropic in nature.
- Figure below is a heating curve for pure iron showing the temperatures over which each
crystal structure is stable.

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 - From room temperature to 9100c, pure iron has a b.c.c structure called α-iron which is magnetic
upto 7680c (curie point).
- Above 9100c upto 14040c , pure iron has an f.c.c structure called γ- iron.
- Above 14040c , pure iron has a b.c.c structure called δ- iron which has longer cube edges than α-
iron and is stable upto 15390c , the melting point (m.p) of iron.
- Pure iron is greyish , soft and ductile metal with a tensile strength of 29000 psi (200 mpa) ,
specific gravity (s.g) of 7.7 and %age elongation of 41% in 2 inch.

NOTE : 1 psi (pound per square inch or lbf/inch2) = 6895 N/m2

1 pa (pascal) = 1 N/m2
1 mpa (megapascal) = 1 x 106 N/m2

ALUMINUM (Al)
- is a silverly white , soft , ductile , light metal with an f.c.c structure.
- has a tensile strength of 13000 psi (90 mpa) , specific gravity of 2.7, melting point 6600c and a
%age elongation of 45% in 2 inch.
- have good corrosion resistance , good electrical and thermal conductivities and a high
reflectivity to both heat and light.

COPPER (Cu)
- is a reddish brown , soft , malleable and ductile metal with an f.c.c structure.
- has a tensile strength of32000 psi (221 mpa) ,specific gravity of 8.9 , melting point 10830c and
%age elongation of 45% in 2 inch.
- have good corrosion resistance , good electrical and thermal conductivities and good soldering
characteristics.

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 NOTE : (i) Copper has as good electrical and thermal conductivities as Aluminum and is non-corrosive
under ordinary conditions.It is easily joined by soldering making it superior to Aluminum in
the electronic industry.
(ii) Due to its light weight, Aluminum is used for overhead cables for transmission of electricity
while copper being heavy is used for indoor electrical wiring
(iii) Due to the non-toxicity of the corrosion products of Aluminum , it is used in making cooking
utensils and in the food industry.
iv Copper can be cast ,forged ,rolled and drawn to wire and is extensively used for electrical
conductors and heat exchangers.

Structure Properties and Uses of common Non-Ferrous Metals

Metal & Physical Mechanical properties Other properties Uses
structure properties
Zinc (Zn) - bluish white - soft,malleable & - readily worked & rolled into - coating steel sheets
h.c.p - m.p ; 4200c ductile at 1000c thin sheets at 1000c (galvanized iron)
- s.g ; 7.1 - tensile strength 19-25 - high resistance to - coating fencing wires,nails
- boiling point ; mpa atmospheric corrosion -alloying element in copper
9400c for making brass
Nickel (Ni) - silvery white -good corrosion resistance - alloying element in steel &
f.c.c - m.p ; 14520c - resistant to attack by most cast iron;stailess steel,alloy
- s.g ; 8.85 acids but dissolves readily in cast iron
- ferromagnetic nitric acid -coating steel & copper
Tungsten (w) - m.p ; 34100c - strong and stiff -good corrosion resistance - making carbide tools for
b.c.c -Stiffness ;345 000 psi machining at high speeds
-tensile strength of -alloying element in tool
0.46φ wire ; 246 000 psi steel
0
Molybdenum -m.p ;2460 c -Good corrosion resistance -Uses as for Tungsten
(mo) b.c.c
Titanium (Ti) -m.p ; 16700c (Structure changes to -Excellent corrosion -Used as a substitute for
h.c.p - s.g ; 4.5 b.c.c at 8820c) resistance and high stainless steel where weight
temperature strength saving is important
Magnesium -Very light -Brittle -Easily machinable but thin -Used in equipment where
(Mg) h.c.p -s.g ; 1.74 -soft chips and dust can be a fire weight is a problem e.g
-m.p ;6500c harzard portable ladders,handdrills
-Flashlight powder
-In alloys of zinc
,Aluminum,copper etc
Vanadium (V) - m.p ; 17100c - Harder than quartz but -Used as alloying element in
b.c.c - s.g ; 5.68 malleable and tough alloy steels
Tin (Sn) - Brightly - soft -Making solder
b.c.t shinining white - ductile -Coating iron/steel
-Making thin sheets (tinfoil)
Lead (Pb) - Bluish grrey - Very soft - resistant to corrosion and - rechargeable batteries
- m.p 3260c acids - lining acid tanks,cisterns
- s.g ; 11.36 -no longer used in water
(heavy metal) pipes as its toxic
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 PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL

PIG IRON

- is the crude form of iron used as a raw material for the production of other ferrous materials
(steel, cast iron etc)
- obtained by smelting iron ores in a blast furnace.
- Iron ores are found in various forms :-

(i) Oxides - include heamatite(Fe2O3 –widely used),magnetite(Fe3O4), limonite(Fe2O3.H2O)

(ii) Carbonates - include siderite(FeCO3)
(iii) Sulphides - include pyrites(FeS2)

- other than iron ores , other charging materials in the blast furnace are :-
(a) Fuel - hard coke is most commonly used ; provides heat for melting iron ore and combines with
oxygen to form carbon monoxide which reduces the ore.
(b) Flux - limestone (CaCO3) is most commonly used ; limestone decomposes to give lime(CaO)
which removes impurities such ash,sulphur and burnt fuel residue.

- Pig iron is obtained from iron ore in the following steps

(i) Concentration - iron ores obtained from mines are broken into pieces and impurities
such as clay,sand etc removed by washing with water.
(ii) Calcination/Roasting - concentrated ore is heated in shallow kilns to remove moisture ,
CO2 , Sulphur etc.
(iii) Smelting – calcined ore is then smelted i.e reduced by carbon monoxide in the presence
of a flux in the blast furnace.

The blast furnace

- is a chimney-like structure made of heavy steel plates lined inside with firebricks to a thickness
of 1.2 to 1.5 meters.
- it is about 30 meters high with a maximum internal diameter of 9 meters at its widest section.

- Shown below is a section of the blast furnace

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Operation of the blast furnace

- The charge is transferred from the ground level by skip cars travelling on an inclined hoist to
the top of the furnace
- The charge is fed into the furnace from the top through a double cup and cone
arrangement(large and small bell) which prevents escape of gases into the atmosphere while
charging the furnace.
- Fusion zone ( lower part of the furnace)
- heated air under pressure from special heaters(blast stoves) is forced into the
furnace through tuyere’s(blowing pipes)
- Oxygen in the hot air blast combines with carbon in coke to form carbon dioxide
producing a lot of heat.
- Porous iron slinding down from above melts.
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- Heat absortion zone ( middle part of the furnace)
- carbon dioxide rising up is reduced to carbon monoxide by the coke
- limestone sliding down decomposes to give lime and carbon dioxide.
- the lime combines with silica to form calcium silicate (slag)

- Reduction zone(upper part of the furnace)

- iron oxide ore is reduced to spongy(porous) iron by carbon monoxide
- Hearth (bottom of the furnace)
- molten iron sinks while above it the slag floats protecting it from oxidation.

- The slag is tapped off at intervals of 2-3 hours while the iron(pig iron) is drawn off at intervals of
of 4-6 hours and is either poured into sand moulds to solidify or taken directly to steel making
industry to be converted to steel.

- Pig iron contains 90-92% iron , 1-5% carbon ,1-2% silicon ,1-2%manganese and 1-2% sulphur and
phosphorous.

STEEL
- Methods of production include :-

(i) Open Hearth process

- Furnace is of reverberatory type i.e the charge is heated by heat reflected from the roof of the
furnace .It has chambers on either side which are partly filled with built-up rows of checker-
work(evenly spaced) of silicon bricks

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- The charge consists of either iron ore and pig iron or scrap and pig iron
- The pre-heated gaseous fuel (coal gas and air) is conveyed to the hearth through the chamber
on one side and the waste hot gases made to pass to the other chamber to heat the bricks and
the direction then reversed.
- Refining of the metal is effected by the oxidation of the excess quantities of
impurities(silicon,manganese,phosphorous) which passes off as slag.
- Carbon escapes in the form of gaseous oxide and when all carbon is removed , a measured
quantity of ferro-manganese is added.

- This process is suitable when a large quantity of mild steel with definite quality and chemical
composition is required as samples of the metal can be taken out from time to time and
tested.

(ii) Bessemer process

- In the first position , molten pig iron is poured into the refractory-lined egg-shaped vessel called
converter until the level of the blast holes.
- In the second position , the converter is turned upright and cold air under pressure blown
through the molten pig iron until elements like silicon , manganese , carbon are removed.
- Due to heat of molten pig iron ,the air burns out most of the impurities.
- First silicon and manganese burns out as indicated by a brown smoke at the mouth of the
converter .Carbon then oxidizes as indicated by a white flame.

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- When the white flame drops indicating the end of the refining process ,the contents are poured
into a ladle and a small quantity of an alloy rich in carbon and manganese (ferromanganese) is
added.
- The manganese combines with any remaining sulphur and picks up some of the oxygen leaving a
steel with good strength and ductility.
- The carbon is in the right percentage for the required type of steel e.g mild steel,high carbon
steel etc .

- Disadvantages – the air blast contains only 20% oxygen for the refining process and much heat
is carried away by the 80% nitrogen which may lead to the furnace ‘blowing
cold’
- some nitrogen may be dissolved in the charge resulting in poor mechanical
properties for deep drawn mild steel

(iii) L – D Process (Basic Oxygen process)

- in this process , a jet of very pure oxygen is introduced at a high pressure through a nozzle in a
lance suspended above the molten pig iron in a pear-shaped converter that is refractory-lined.
- On striking the molten iron , the oxygen steam produces intense heat(25000c-30000c) which
burns impurities(carbon ,silicon ,manganese ,phosphorous and sulphur)
- The blow is continued for about 18 minutes and after the flame has died out ,the slag is run out
first and adjustment made to the carbon content of the charge and then poured into ladles
before being cast into ingots(blocks of steel)

- Advantages - steel produced is superior to that produced by the Bessemer process

- the basic oxygen process is the only process where sulphur is effectively
reduced under oxidizing conditions
26
 (iv) Electric processes
- Methods include

(a) Direct arc electric furnace

- Consists of a refractory-lined cylindrical steel shell mounted on a roller with bowl-shaped

bottom and a dome-shaped fire-brick cover.
- Electrodes of graphite or amorphous carbon are suspended through the roof and can be raised
or lowered to attain the desired temperature by varying the distance between the charge and
electrodes

- Lime and millscale are added to produce a slag which removes most of carbon ,silicon
manganese , and phosphorous.
- The slag is run off and replaced with a slag containing lime and anthracite which removes
sulphur.
- Ferromanganese is then added to supply desired carbon percentage and if alloy steel is
required, alloying elements are added allowing for half an hour before tapping for proper mixing
of the elements.

27
 (b) Coreless Induction type furnace

- Consists of a crucible lined with acid or basic refractory and surrounded by a water-cooled
copper tube coil which acts as the primary for the high frequency.

- When the metallic charge is placed in the crucible and the high frequency supplied to the copper
tube coil , a magnetic field is set up around the primary coil which induces eddy currents in the
secondary circuit(crucible with metal charge).The eddy currents quickly melts the metal.
- This furnace is mainly for melting a charge of carefully selected materials without much change
in composition.

- Advantages of the electric process – easily operated with cold charges

- generation of heat in furnace is perfectly under control
- cleanest process as electricity does not contaminate
charge
- control over addition of oxidizing ,reducing or alloying
elements is possible

28
 CAST IRON

- Cast iron is obtained by re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone in a cupola furnace to
refine it

- Air is blown through

tuyeres placed regularly round the circumference of the furnace near the bottom.
- The limestone combines with impurities left in pig iron and the molten iron obtained is
called cast iron that is cast into moulds or into the desired shape.

PRODUCTION OF NON-FERROUS METALS

ALUMINUM
- Chief ore is bauxite(Al203 .2H2O)
- Ore is first purified and then dissolved in molten cryolite(AlF3.3NaF)
- Aluminum is separated from the solution by electrolysis at 9000c .

29
- When electric current(D.C) passes , Aluminum ions (+ve) are attracted to the lining of furnace
(cathode) and collect at the bottom.
- Oxygen is given off at the anodes which burns and needs to be replaced frequently.

COPPER
- Chief ore is copper pyrites (CuFeS2)
- Ore is concentrated , calcined and then smelted in a blast furnace resulting in molten copper
sulphide known as Matte.
- Charging materials in the blast furnace are ore , silica(sand) and coke.
- The matte is oxidized in a Bessemer converter to obtain Blister Copper (contains some iron)
- Blister copper is then refined in a current of air in a reverberatory furnace treated with coal and
stirred with a green pole to obtain Crude Copper.
- Crude copper is remelted in a furnace to obtain Tough Pitch Copper (contains some copper
oxide)
- Addition of a small amount of phosphorous to tough pitch copper just before casting results in
Deoxidized Copper which is suitable for welding but not for electrical conductivity.

- Pure copper also known as Cathode Copper is obtained from crude copper by electrolysis
(illustrated below)

30
 - Oxygen Free High Conductivity Copper (OFHC Copper) is obtained from cathode copper by
melting it , casting ,rolling and drawing to wire.

MAGNESIUM
- Principle ores ; dolomite(CaCo3.MgCO3) , magnesite(MgCO3)
- Obtained by electrolysis in an airtight vessel the walls of which is cathode(-ve)
- The vessel has a hooded graphite anode from which chlorine gas escapes and collected.
- The electrolyte is a mixture of chlorides of sodium(Na) , potassium(K) , magnesium(Mg).
- Magnesium is liberated at the cathode and rises to the top where it is tapped.

ZINC
- Chief ore ; zinc blende (zinc sulphide)
- The ore is roasted in a reverberatory furnace to convert zinc sulphide (ZnS) to zinc oxide (ZnO)
- ZnO is mixed with some form of carbon , put in clay enclosures with outlets and then put in a
furnace at 11000c
- Zinc distils and is collected outside the furnace through the outlets in the clay enclosures.

NICKEL
- Chief ore ; iron sulphides with 3% nickel
- The ore is roasted to reduce sulphur and then smelted in a blast furnace resulting in a matte
- The matte is put in Bessemer converter to oxidize iron
- Siliceous flux (limestone and quartz) is added to combine with iron oxide to form a slag.
LEAD
- Chief ore ; lead sulphide (PbS)
- The ore is concentrated and then smelted in a reverberatory furnace in controlled air supply so
that only a part of the ore is converted to lead oxide and sulphate.
- Air is then cut off and the temperature raised to red heat and a little lime(CaO) and lead
sulphide added.
- Lead oxide and sulphate react with lead sulphide to give metallic lead.
31
 CARBON STEELS
- Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content from 0.06% to a maximum of 1.5%.
Carbon is present either in free form or in the form of iron carbide. Iron carbide increases the
hardness and strength of the steel.
- Other elements are also present in steel though not intentionally added and do not affect
properties as significantly as carbon does.
- These elements include
(i) Silicon - added to low carbon steels to prevent them from becoming porous . It
removes gases and oxides and prevent blow holes thereby making the steel tougher and
harder.
(ii) Sulphur - combines with iron to form iron sulphide which causes red shortness :-a
form of brittleness occurring in steel when formed at low temperatures.
(iii) Manganese - combines with sulphur to reduce its harmful effect.
(iv) Phosphorous – makes the steel brittle and should not exceed 0.25%
- Most of the steel produced are plain carbon steels or carbon steels and are divided into the
following types depending upon the carbon content
a. Dead mild steel – upto 0.15% carbon
b. Low carbon steel or mild steel – 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
c. Medium carbon steel – 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
d. High carbon steel – 0.8% to 1.5% carbon
- Properties – (i) Low Carbon Steels – are the most ductile and weakest of the carbon steels.
- are not are not responsive to heating and quenching and
are are only strengthened by cold work.
(ii) Medium Carbon Steels – can be hardened by heat treatment as they contain
enou enough carbon.
(iii) High Carbon Steels –are the hardest and strongest but least ductile of the steels
-respond best to heat treatment.
-are not readily welded as welding causes localized hardening
and and loss of ductility.
- Applications – (i) Low Carbon Steels – automobile body parts requiring great ductility and good
d ductility.
- used in large amounts for tin cans
- used for structural members such as I- beams.
- other applications include nails, chains, rivets, screws etc
(ii) Medium Carbon Steels – used for railroad rails and wheels
-connecting rods, steering rods and crankshafts
- other applications include gears,wire ropes, axles etc
(iii) High Carbon Steels -used for agricultural cutting tools, high tensile strength
wire and springs
-other applications include screwdrivers, saws,
hammers,wrenches, dies, cold chisels, punches etc

32
 - Steel produced by various cold working processes is known as Bright Steel.It has a clean and
smooth surface and possess close dimensional accuracy and may be used directly in assemblies.

- Free – Cutting Steels (Free Machining Steels) -contain sulphur and phosphorous in higher
content than other carbon steels. They are used where rapid machining and high quality
surface finish is the most important requirement.

Structure of plain carbon steels

-Pure iron is a polymorphic element appearing in more than one crystal form

-It has a b.c.c structure upto 9100c called α –iron. Above 9100c , its structure changes to an f.c.c
structure called γ – iron. Upon heating to 14040c structure changes to a b.c.c structure called δ –iron
which has longer cube edges than α –iron and is stable upto 15390c ; the melting point of iron. ……. ( α
– alpha , γ - gamma , δ – delta )

Shown below is the heating curve of pure iron.

-Addition of carbon in iron causes the change in structure from b . c. c to f . c . c to occur over
temperature range (not at a constant temperature) during which time structure is a mixture of ferrite
and austenite (α + γ)
33
α –iron can only dissolve in solid solution a maximum of 0.02%c at a temperature of 7230c. γ – iron
dissolves in solid solution a maximum of 2.08%c at a temperature of 11300c.

The solubility limits decrease with decrease in temperature as shown in the Iron – Carbon equilibrium
diagram shown below. The time it takes for change in structure is not shown on the equilibrium
diagram.eg changes in structure for pure iron are shown on the vertical axis i.e 0%Carbon

Note : When the solubility limit is exceeded , an intermetallic compound called iron carbide (Fe3c) or
cementite is formed.

- Ferrite - Its an interstitial solid solution of carbon in α –iron

- has a b . c . c structure
- has a maximum solid solubility of carbon of 0.02%c
-Austenite - its an interstitial solid solution of carbon in γ – iron
- has an f . c . c crystal structure
- has a maximum solid solubility of carbon of 2.08%c
34
- Cementite - it’s the intermetallic compound iron carbide (Fe3c) and contains 6.67%c

The horizontal line at 7230c represents a eutectoid reaction and any austenite present in alloy during
cooling transforms at that constant temperature into a fine eutectoid mixture (in this case, the mixture
is of ferrite and cementite called pearlite)

Pearlite - it’s a eutectoid mixture of ferrite and cementite formed during cooling at 7230c. It consists
of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite.

-This eutectoid reaction is written as

-The horizontal line at 11300c represents a eutectic reaction and any liquid present in an alloy during
cooling transforms into a fine eutectic mixture (in this case , a eutectic mixture of austenite and
cementite known as ledeburite

-This eutectic reaction is written as

-The region of the diagram in which δ – ferrite is not important because these temperatures are not
employed in various mechanical or heat treatment processes

35
-On the basis of carbon content , the diagram can be divided into those alloys containing less
than 2% carbon known as steels and those steels containing more than 2% carbon known as cast irons
The steel portion is further divided into steels containing less than 0.8% carbon known as
hypoeutectoid steels and those containing more than 0.8% carbon known as hypereutectoid steels

Slow cooling of steels

- Consider the slow cooling of a hypoeutectoid steel i.e steel with less than 0.8% carbon
- Diagram below shows a portion of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram showing the changes
in structure that occur when a hypoeutectoid steel is slowly cooled.

36
- Point 1 - steel contains homogeneous austenite ( γ solid solution)

- Point 2 –crystals of ferrite (α solid solution) begin forming at the grain boundaries of
austenite
- Point 2 - 3 –ferrite continues growing at the austenite boundaries
- Point 3 - remaining austenite transform into pearlite at the constant temp. of 7230c
- Pearlite is stable up to room temperature & final microstructure is pearlite
surrounded by ferrite.

- Consider now the slow cooling of a hypereutectoid steel i.e steel with more than 0.8%carbon
- Diagram below shows a portion of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram showing the changes
in structure that occur when a hypereutectoid steel is slowly cooled.

37
 - Point 4 - structure is homogeneous austenite i.e uniform γ solid solution
- Point 5 – cementite , (fe3c) begins to form at the austenite grain boundaries
- Point 5- 6 – cementite continues growing at the austenite grain boundaries
- Point 6 – remaining austenite transforms at the constant temperature of 7230c into
Pearlite which is stable upto room temperature.

A eutectoid steel (steel with 0.8% carbon ) transforms at 7230c from homogeneous austenite into
100% pearlite when slowly cooled

38
 HEAT TREATMENT
-Heat treatment

- an operation or a combination of operations involving the heating or cooling of a metal or metal

alloy in the solid state for the purpose of obtaining certain desirable conditions or properties

- the aim of heat treatment is to achieve one or more of the following objectives

(i) to increase the hardness of metals

(ii) to relieve the internal stresses set up in the material after hot or cold working

(iii) to improve machinability

(iv) to soften the metal

(v) to change grain size

(iv) to improve mechanical properties like tensile strength , shock resistance etc

(vi) to increase the qualities of a metal to provide better resistance to heat, corrosion and

wear.

- Common heat treatment processes are:

1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
5. Case hardening

Heat treatment of Plain Carbon steels (processes)

1. Annealing a) objectives

 Softens steel so that it may be machined or cold worked

 Refines grain size to improve mechanical properties
 Relieve internal stresses due to cold working

Types of annealing

(i) Full annealing a) objectives

 Soften metal
 Refine grain structure (fine grained material have better mechanical properties e.g toughness)
 Relieve internal stresses in metal
 Remove trapped gas in metal

39
 b) Procedure

I. Heat the steel 250c above the upper critical temp. for hypoeutectoid steels or 250c above the
lower critical temperature for hypereutectoid steels ( hatched area in the diagram below
showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram)

II. Hold at that temperature( 3 to 4 minutes for each mm of thickness) to allow for internal
changes to take place (uniform austenite)
III. Cool slowly in furnace. ( switch power off)

(ii) Spherodise annealing

N.B : Slow cooling during annealing produces pearlite in ferrite network for hypoeutectoid steels
and pearlite in cementite network for hypereutectoid steels

a) objectives of spherodise annealing

 Improves machinability of hypereutectoid steels that have been annealed { the hard and brittle
cementite network is broken into spheroidal graphite(rounded) }

b) Procedure

I. Heat to a temperature just below the critical temp.(650-7000c)

(hatched area in the diagram below showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram)
40
 II. Hold at that temperature for a prolonged time (24 hrs.)
III. Cool slowly in furnace

(iii) Process annealing (a) objectives

 Causes recrystallization in low carbon steels [0.3%c] that have been severely cold worked.eg.in
sheet metal or wire industries
 Increases ductility and plasticity

b) Procedure

- Heat the steel to a temp below the lower critical temp (550-6500c)
(hatched area in the diagram below showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram)

41
 I. Hold at this temperature for sometime
II. Cool slowly ( in furnace)

2. Normalizing a)objectives

 Produces a uniform structure that is harder and stronger than that of annealing.
 Improves machinability
 Refine grain structure

b) Procedure

I. Heat 400 above the upper critical temp for both hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels
(hatched area in the diagram below showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram)

42
 II. Hold for the desired time
III. Cool in still air.
 Cooling in air produces less ferrite in hypoeutectoid steel and less cementite in hypereutectoid
steel


3. Hardening a) objectives

 Increase hardness of metal for it to resist wear.

 Enable the metal to cut other metals; as a cutting tool

b) Procedure

I. Heat metal 30-500c above the upper critical temperature for hypoeutectoid steels and 30-500c
above the lower critical temp for hypereutectoid steels.
(30-500c approximates to 7600c for hypereutectoid steels)
(hatched area in the diagram below showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium
diagram)

43
 II. Hold at that temperature depending on thickness
III. Quench ( cooling suddenly) in suitable medium usually water

Note: Due to fast cooling, structure becomes martensite

Martensite ; is a super saturated solid solution of carbon in a body centered tetragonal structure and
is responsible for high hardness in hardened steel but the steel is brittle and lacks ductility and may
crack due to stress of uneven cooling of interior and surfaces.

angles between a , b and c = 90 0c

Body Centred Tetragonal (B.C.T) structure

44
4. Tempering a) objectives

 Reduce brittleness of hardened steel and increases ductility

 Removes the internal stresses caused by rapid cooling during hardening process thus
preventing cracking and distortion
 Toughen steel for it to resist shock and fatigue

b) Procedure

Immediately after quenching , reheat the hardened steel to some temperature below the lower critical
temp followed by any rate of cooling

Note: avoid prolonged holding at tempering temp to avoid loss of hardness.

5. Case hardening (surface hardening)

a)objectives

 Produce a steel with a hardened surface (case) that resists wear and tear and a tough and soft
interior(core) that absorbs shock

b) Applications

Gears, ball bearings, rail wheels, slideways etc

c) Methods of case hardening

(A) Carburizing – involves addition of carbon to the surface of low carbon (0.2%c) steel so that only the
surface with higher carbon content will be hardened.

-The low carbon steel is heated at temp. of 900-9500c in an atmosphere containing carbon monoxide

- Types of carburizing methods include

I. Pack carburizing (Carburizing in solid medium)

Procedure
- Steel is surrounded by a carburizing compound and heated to the right temperature, for the
required time and then cooled slowly
N.B
- carburizing compound cosists of hardwood charcoal, coke and 20% barium carbonate as an
energizer
- the closed container ensures for formation of carbon monoxide
- the right temperature is 900-9500c
- cooling slowly is because its not possible to remove steel from the box immediately for quenching
the surface to form martensite.

- -Further treatment to harden surface involves two steps:

45
 Refining the core (interior)
 Due to slow cooling, the interior becomes coarse (large grains)
 To refine core, component is heated to a temperature above the upper critical temperature and
then quenched

Refining the case (surface)

 During refining core, surface becomes coarse

 To refine surface, steel is heated to 7600c and then quenched. N.B 7600C is for hypereutectoid
steel and only surface has enough carbon content for hardening

Advantages of pack carburizing

 Does not require prepared atmosphere (with carbon monoxide)

 Economical for small parts ( in lots) or large parts

Disadvantages of pack carburizing

 Difficult to control surface carbon content

 Parts cannot be quenched directly
 Time is wasted in heating and cooling

II. Gas carburizing (Carburizing in gaseous medium)

- Steel is heated at 900-9500c in the furnace (may also be continuous line production) in contact with
carbon monoxide and/ or a hydrocarbon (methane, propane etc), held for the required time and
then quenched.
- Advantages
 Allows quicker handling by direct quenching
 Lower cost
 Cleaner surroundings
 Closer quality control
 Greater flexibility

III. Liquid carburizing (carburizing in liquid medium)

- Steel is placed in a bath (tank furnace) of molten cyanide salt (usually Sodium Cyanide- NaCN),
heated to 900-9500c (carburizing temp), held for the necessary time and then quenched.
- Advantages
 Freedom from oxidation and sooting problems
 Direct quenching
 Uniform case depth and carbon content
 Rapid rate of carbon absorption

-Disadvantages

 Parts must be thoroughly washed after treatment to prevent corrosion (rusting)

46
  Regular checking and adjustment of bath composition is required as carbon is being absorbed in
metal
 Cyanide is poisonous and extreme care is required
 Some parts are difficult to handle as they float

(B) Cyaniding and carbonitriding

- Produces cases that contain both carbon and nitrogen

- Lower temps (8500c instead of 900-9500c) allows more nitrogen to be absorbed in the case
- Presence of nitrogen in austenite makes it stable at lower temperatures and permits slower
cooling rates during quenching and distortion is avoided

- Cyaniding is similar to liquid carburizing except for the difference in temp (8500c) and
composition of the liquid salt bath (concentration)

Carbonitriding is similar to gas carburizing but atmosphere in furnace contains a mixture of:
 Carrier gas; mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon monoxide
 Enriching gas; propane or natural gas- source for carbon
 Ammonia- source for nitrogen

Applications: screws, small gears, nuts and bolts

Advantages and disadvantages are the same as those of liquid and gas carburizing.

(C) Nitriding

 Process for case hardening alloy steel that contain alloying elements that form nitrides eg.
Aluminum, Chromium, Molybdenum
 Finished Steel articles are placed in airtight container made of high nickel-chromium steel which
has inlet and outlet tubes for ammonia and placed in an electric furnace at 450-5500c for 40-
90hrs
 Ammonia breaks down and reacts with surface of articles to form nitrides.

Advantages of nitriding
 Quenching is not required to form the very hard nitrided surfaces
 Nitrided surfaces are not affected by heating to temps. below original nitriding temps.
(Carburized parts begin to loose hardness at much lower temps. than the hardening
temperatures of 7600c)
 Good wear resistance
 Good fatigue resistance
 Disadvantages
 Long cycles required
 Use of alloy steel
47
  High cost of ammonia atmosphere
 Technical control required
- Applications ; aircraft engine parts such as cylinder liners, shafts, piston rods, cams etc.

(D) Flame hardening

- Surface of a steel part whose carbon content enables the steel to be hardenable throughout is heated
by an oxyacetylene torch and is immediately quenched by a jet of water from a supply built into the
torch assembly so that only the surface is hardened.

- Advantages

 Equipment can be taken to the job and adjusted to treat specific areas
 Parts too large for the furnace can be handled easily and quickly
 Components can be treated after surface finish as there is little scaling or distortion.

Disadvantages

 Possibility of overheating
 Difficulty in producing thin hardened zones (necessary for best properties for a case hardened
surface)

Applications: Slideways, precision gears, shafts, rolls, wrenches etc

(E) Induction hardening

- Surface to be hardened is surrounded by an inductor coil which carries high frequency

alternating current. A high magnetic field is set up which induces high frequency eddy currents
in the metal. Heating at only the surface of metal results from resistance of the metal to the
passage of these currents.
- To avoid conduction of heat into the steel from the surface, provision for rapid quenching must
be made as the carbon content of the steel is uniform throughout and steel may be hardened
throughout.
- Advantages
 Less distortion
 Equipment can be fitted directly into production line
 Unskilled labour can be used as process is automatic
 Less heating time
- Disadvantages
 High cost of equipment
 High maintenance cost
 Not economical for small parts or irregular parts
- Applications
Piston rods, pump shafts, spur gears, cam shafts, brake drums.

48
 ALLOY STEELS
- When carbon is present as iron carbide in plain carbon steels (carbon steels) it increases the
strength and hardness of steels.
- But steels have some limitations .The steels:
i. Are not deep hardenable
ii. Fast quench rates are necessary to attain fully martensitic structure
iii. Have poor corrosion resistance
iv. Have low impact strength at high and low temperature
v. Their strength may not exceed 100,000 psi without loss in ductility
- The limitations are overcomed by use of alloying elements

- Alloy steels; steels whose properties are due to some other element other than carbon.

- Effects of alloying elements in alloy steels

 Lower critical temperatures eg. Nickel(Ni) and Manganese(Mn). Note: Sufficient amounts of
Ni and Mn may lower critical temperatures enough to make austenite stable at room
temperatures and are called austenite stabilizers.
 Raise critical temps eg. Molybdenum(Mo),Aluminum( Al), Silicon(Si), Tungsten(
W),Vanadium(V)
 Enlarge ferrite region and contract the austenite region and are known as ferrite stabilizers
eg. Mo,Chromium(Cr), Si,Titanium( Ti)
 Reduce eutectoid carbon content
 Dissolve in ferrite thus strengthening and toughening it. Eg. Ni, Mn, small amounts of Cr or
Mn
 Improve hardenability by forming carbides which dissolve in austenite before quenching eg.
Cr, W, Mo, V
 Retard softening rate during tempering eg. Cr, W, Mo, V

Types of alloy steels

a) Construction steels
- For machine parts that are highly stressed.
- Include

i) Nickel steels
- Nickel - dissolves in ferrite thus strengthening it and toughening it
- lowers critical temperature thus stabilizing austenite at lower temperatures
- reduces eutectoid carbon content resulting in more pearlite which is stronger.

- Applications ; bus and truck gears, cams and cam shafts, drive gears, connecting rods, bolts
and studs.

ii) Chromium steels

- Small amounts of Cr dissolve in ferrite thus toughening and strengthening the steel
49
 - Higher amounts of Cr increases hardness and wear resistance by forming carbides.
- Applications; Springs , engine bolts, studs, axles, ball and roller bearings, permanent
magnets
iii) Nickel-chromium steels
- Effects of Ni (toughness and ductility) are combined with effects of Cr (hardenability and
wear resistance) but these steels suffer from temper brittleness :- brittleness resulting from
holding or cooling slowly from the tempering temperature.
- Applications; Automotive connecting rods and drive shafts.
iv) Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
- 0.3%Mo eliminates temper brittleness in Ni-Cr steels
- Mo imparts high hardenability
- Applications; Aircraft structural parts :- wing assembly, fuselage, landing gear

b) Heat resisting steels

- Resisting creep and oxidation at high temperatures and retain sufficient strength

- Addition of Chromium, small amount of Silicon increase resistance to oxidation by forming a thin
impermeable surface layer of oxide.

- Small amounts of tungsten, titanium or columbium increase strength at high temperatures by

forming stable carbides

- Applications; exhaust valves for internal combustion engines, conveyor chains in furnaces,
annealing boxes, rotors for steam and gas turbines.

c) Corrosion resistant steels (stainless steels)

- Have high chromium content (at least 12%Cr to make them ‘stainless’) which forms a thin protective
oxide film.

- Types include:

i) Ferritic stainless steels

- Contain 14-27%Cr and less than 0.12%C.

- Cr is a ferrite stabilizer (expands the ferrite region) and these steels do not undergo the ferrite to
austenite transformation and are thus not heat treatable as they remain ferritic

- Properties; Can be cold worked or hot worked, easily cold formed, magnetic, soft, ductile, good
corrosion resistance

- Applications- Deep drawn parts such as vessels for chemical and food industries, architectural and
automobile trim, annealing boxes, quenching racks, automobile exhaust systems, restaurant equipment,
furnace parts

50
ii) Martensitic stainless steels

- Contain 14 to 18%Cr and 0.1 to 1% C

- Carbon in an austenite stabilizer and therefore enlarges the austenite region making the
steel heat treatable forming a martensitic structure.
- Properties; Magnetic, can be cold worked, easily welded and machined, good toughness,
easily hot worked
- Applications; cutlery, surgical and dental instruments, instrument bearings,
nozzles,scissors, steam turbine blades

(iii) Austenitic stainless steels

- These are Chromium-Nickel or Chromium-Nickel-Manganese steels (combination of Cr and

Ni should be not less than 23%)
- Ni and Mn are austenite stabilizers and in 18/8 steels (18% Cr 8% Ni) structure is austenitic
at room temperature and therefore not heat treatable.
- Properties; Readily hot worked, can be cold worked, extremely shock resistant, difficult to
machine, have best high temperature strength and resistance to oxidation among stainless
steels.
- These steels are prone to intergranular corrosion :- precipitation of chromium carbides at
the grain boundaries when alloy is slowly cooled through 10500c. The precipitates cause
chromium percentage in areas next to grain boundaries to fall below 12% necessary for
corrosion resistances
- Intergranular corrosion avoided by
 Lowering carbon content
 Cooling rapidly
 Painting
 Addition of titanium or Columbium(forms carbides at higher temperatures than
chromium)
- Weld decay in stainless steels- a form of intergranular corrosion occurring in welded
stainless steels . Occurs when Chromium carbides are precipitated at grain boundaries in
areas on either side of the weld where the temperature is at 10500c
Weld decay is avoided by the above methods except cooling rapidly

- Applications of austenitic stainless steels; Dye tanks, food processing equipment, turbines,
heat exchangers, oven lining, furnace parts

51
 CAST IRONS
- Are alloys of iron and carbon; contain more carbon than the maximum solid solubility of
carbon in austenite (2.08%c) but high carbon content makes cast iron brittle hence carbon
is limited to 2.5 to 4%c
- Also contain1-3% Silicon .
Effects of elements in cast iron
Silicon :-causes formation of free carbon (graphite) in cast iron which makes it soft and
easily machinable
:- produces sound cast iron free from blow holes -----> it has high affinity for oxygen
Sulphur: Is a carbide stabilizer and makes cast iron hard and brittle and is kept at 0.1%,
 Manganese: Is a carbide stabilizer . it Combines with Sulphur to neutralize its carbide
stabilizing effect
Phosphorous: Aids in fusibility but induces brittleness and should not exceed 1%
- Cast irons are called cast irons as they are intended to be cast to the desired shape rather
than being worked in the solid state; they melt easily and can be cast into complicated
shapes and are cheap.
- Carbon content, alloy and impurity content, cooling rate during and after solidification
and heat treatment after casting determine the type of cast iron, in which carbon is in the
form of cementite (iron carbide-Fe3C) or in form of free carbon (graphite).
- Cast iron is obtained by re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone in a cupola furnace to
refine it

- Air is blown through

tuyeres placed regularly
round the circumference
of the furnace near the
bottom.
- The limestone
combines with impurities
left in pig iron and the
molten iron obtained is
called cast iron that is
cast into moulds.

52
 Types of cast irons include

(i) White Cast Iron

- Due to fast cooling, all carbon is in the combined form of cementite and cast iron structure consists of
pearlite and cementite.

Structure of white cast iron

-consists of pearlite in a cementite matrix (matrix – continuous network)

- Properties: Due to massive cementite network, they are hard, brittle, wear resistant non-
machinable but they have good fluidity and good compressive strength
- Application; Drawing and extrusion dies, rolls, liners for cement mixers, agricultural
implements, raw materials for malleable cast iron.
- Called white cast iron as its fracture is whitish in appearance due to the cementite.

(ii) Gray cast iron

- Called gray cast iron as fracture surface appearance has a grey sootish appearance due to
the carbon being in the free form of graphite which is in the form of flakes (flat sheet like)
- High silicon content promotes graphitization process :
Fe3C→3Fe +C (graphite)
- Structure of gray cast iron : consists of either graphite flakes in a ferritic matrix or graphite
flakes in a pearlitic matrix depending on cooling rate

53
 - More Manganese than that required to combine with Sulphur is added to the cast iron melt
if pearlite structure is required.
- Properties
1. Brittle- due to flakes cutting across grains leading to low tensile strength
2. Good damping capacity (ability to absorb energy caused by vibrations)- due to free
graphite
3. Good machinability- due to presence of graphite
4. Wear resistance- graphite has a lubricating effect and oil is retained in graphite
areas
5. Good fluidity
6. Castability
- Applications
 Piston bore and rings, slideways, brake drums ----due to wear resistance
 Gear covers, cylinder blocks and heads ―> due to damping capacity
 Furnace doors, motor frames, sewer covers, pump housing, lift counterweights,
guards of machines etc.

(iii) Ductile cast iron

- Made by adding special alloy called inoculants (eg Magnesium) to the molten iron which
disrupts the effect of Sulphur of restricting growth of graphite
- Graphite grows in form of nodules or spherical particles which do not interrupt the grain
structure leading to lack of brittleness and good ductility

Structure of ductile cast iron

- Consists of either graphite nodules in a ferritic matrix or in a pearlitic matrix

- Properties; Good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability, good wear resistance, high
strength, toughness, ductility, hot workability, hardenability.
- Applications; Pump bodies, crank shafts, pistons, gears, rollers, slides, clamp frames, chuck
bodies, furnace doors, cylinder heads etc.

54
(iv) Malleable Cast Iron

- Obtained from annealing heat treatment of white cast iron which converts it to a more
malleable and tough structure with graphite nodules that are irregular in shape.
- Matrix (continuous phase) is either ferritic or pearlitic

- Applications; Iron grillwork, railroads, gear cases, chain links, auto hinges

(v)Alloy Cast Iron

- Contains other alloying elements to improve properties such as heat, corrosion, wear and
wear resistances.

- Effects of alloying elements include

a) Chromium (Cr) :- is carbide stabilizer added in small amounts for increase in strength,
hardness, resistance to wear and heat but decrease machinability
b) Copper (Cu) :- is a graphite stabilizer that breaks cementite matrix
c) Molybdenum (Mo) :- is a mild carbide stabilizer; improves fatigue and tensile strength,
heat resistance, hardness and machinability.
d) Vanadium(V) :- strong carbide stabilizer that increases tensile strength, hardness, heat
resistance and machinability
e) Nickel(Ni) :- Graphite stabilizer that slows transformation of austenite thus stabilizing
pearlite.

- Heat resistance alloy cast iron resist oxidation and high temperature scaling and growth
due to addition of either Silicon, Nickel or Chromium.

- Growth is a permanent increase in volume of cast iron at elevated temps due to the
expansion that accompanies the reaction of carbide changing to graphite and oxidation of
iron after graphite is oxidized away as carbon monoxide.

*Chilled Cast Iron

- Has a white cast iron surface layer (case) that is hard and abrasion resistant and a tougher gray
cast iron interior (core).

- Produced by casting the molten metal against a metal or graphite chill to provide rapid cooling
of solidifying metal.

55
 NON FERROUS ALLOYS.
(A) Alluminium Alloys

- Classified into those that are wrought, cast, heat treatable and non-heat treatable
- Cast alloys are cast from the melt into the required shape.
- Wrought alloys are rolled to sheet, plate or strip, drawn to wire or extruded as tubes.
-Non –heat treatable alloys are strengthened by cold working after which they are annealed to refine
the grain size
- Heat treatable alloys are strengthened by age/ precipitation hardening.
- Precipitation/ age hardening- an increase in hardness and strength accompanied by a decrease in
ductility brought about by precipitation of a constituent from a super saturated solid solution.

- If precipitation hardening occurs slowly at room temperature, it is known as natural aging.

- If precipitation hardening is carried out at an elevated temperature, it occurs with a greater speed and
is known as artificial aging or precipitation heat treatment.

- Precipitation hardenable alloys show a rapid decrease in the solubility of one component in another
with decrease in temperature as shown below in a portion of an equilibrium diagram

Most widely used Aluminum alloys include;

56
(i) Wrought Aluminum alloys that are heat treatable

- Best known is of the duralumin type based on 4% Copper

Section of the Al – Cu equilibrium diagram

- Consider the slow cooling of a Al – 4%cu alloy

Point A - Alloy is uniform α- solid solution with 4% Cu

Point B - on slow cooling, precipitates of CuAl2 begin to form at the grain boundaries.

Point C - Most of the Copper is in the form of CuAl2 at the grain boundaries, leaving only 0.2% Cu in

solid solution making alloy brittle and lacking strength.

Precipitation hardening is obtained by:

1. Solution treatment- alloy is heated into the single phase region, held at this temperature until
structure is uniform solid solution.
2. Quenching to room temperature- Copper is retained in super saturated solid solution at room
temp. resulting in an increase in strength.
3. Aging- either natural or artificial; fine CuAl2 precipitates form within crystal lattice resulting in a

further increase in strength.

57
The original Duralumin with 4% Cu, 0.8%Mg, 0.5%Si and 0.7% Mn has high strength and light
weight and is used for stressed aircraft parts . After solution treatment, it is refrigerated to
prevent aging so that if used for rivets, rivet heads may be easily formed.
Other wrought aluminum alloys that are heat treatable contain small amounts of Magnesium
and Silicon that form Mg2Si precipitates.
(ii) Cast Aluminum alloys that are not heat treatable
Most widely used contain 10-13% Silicon.
Silicon improves gas tightness (no absorbed gases), fluidity of castings, reduces shrinkage and
imparts excellent feeding characteristic (filling up of mould cavity)
A section of Al-Si phase diagram

These alloys are approximately eutectic (ie solidify at a constant temperature) making them suitable for
die casting where rapid ejection is desirable. ( note : sand mould is broken up to remove casting)

Eutectic structure of Al-Si casting alloys is coarse but can be refined by Sodium modification; addition of
a small amount of sodium (0.025%) just before casting.

Applications; radiators, gear boxes.

58
B. Copper Alloys

Mechanical properties of copper are improved by solid solution strengthening ie by alloying, in this case
with Zinc(Zn), Tin(Sn), Aliminum or Nickel

Copper-Beryllium(Cu – Be) alloys can be precipitation hardened like Al-Cu alloys.

Most have high solid solubility as shown below in the equilibrium diagrams, with large areas having the
α- solid solution

Note :

The α- solid solution is a tough, ductile phase and these alloys are not heat treatable as they do not
undergo change in structure in solid state and are cold working alloys.

Some alloys with duplex structures (two phases) are also useful and are hot working alloys and can be
heat treated in the same way as steels.

59
Copper alloys include:

1. Brasses – alloys of copper and zinc cointaining upto 45% Zn

Properties;

 high resistance to atmospheric corrosion

 easily soldered
 easily fabricated
 sufficient thermal conductivity for heat transfer.
 Can be electroplated with metals like Nickel and Chromium.

Types of brasses include:

a) α-brasses- containing upto 37% Zn include:

(i) Gilding metal (90% Cu 10% Zn) annealed

Used for imitation jewellery (coins, medals, tokens, emblems) on account of its gold-like colour
(ii) Catridge brass (70% Cu 30%Zn) annealed
Have best combination of strengthen and ductility
Used for catridge and shell cases, radiator cores and tanks, locks, hinges, plumbing accessories.
(iii) Standard brass (65% Cu 35% Zn) annealed
Uses as for catridge brass except ammunition i.e catridge and shell cases.

b) α+β brasses
(i) Yelloy or Muntz metal (60% Cu 40% Zn) hot rolled- presence of β phase makes alloy heat
treatable
Used in sheet form for ship sheathing (covering), condenser tubes, brazing rods.
c) Alloy brasses- contain additional alloying elements other than zinc
(i) Leaded or free cutting brass (58% Cu 39% Zn 3%Pb)
Addition of lead improves machinability
Used for screw machine parts, engraving plates keys, lock parts, gears, watch parts.
(ii) Admirability brass or tin brass (71% Cu 28% Zn 1% Sn)
Addition of tin improves sea water corrosion resistance
Used for condenser, evaporator, distiller and heat exchanger tubing.
Small addition of arsenic (0.04%ar) prevents dezincification :- corrosion attack in which Zinc is
corroded leaving a porous residual of copper
Note:α brasses containing more than 15% Zn in the cold worked condition if in contact with a
trace of ammonia in presence of oxygen and moisture are prone to season cracking also known
as stress corrosion cracking :– failure by cracking under the combined action of stress and
corrosion

Methods of preventing season cracking;

 Stress relieving
 Keep zinc below 15%
 Painting
60
2. Bronzes- originally referred to copper- tin alloys but currently refers to other Copper alloys
except Copper-Zinc ie brasses.
-Types include

a) Tin bronzes- Cu-Sn alloys

Sometimes referred as Phosphorbronze as phosphorous is always used as deoxidizer.
α tin bronze (7%Sn max) cold working alloys are tough, ductile, strong and corrosion resistant;
used in manufacture of springs, coins, sheet metal for ornamental work.
α+δ tin bronze (>10% Sn) are unsuitable for cold working and are used as cast; major
application is as bearing materials and gear blanks
Addition of Zn to tin bronze reduces cost and improves casting performance and alloy is known
as gun metal
High lead tin bronze (25% Pb) is used for bushing and bearings under moderate or light loads.

b) Aluminum bronze- Alloys of Cu- Al

- α aluminum bronze are ductile, have good strength and corrosion resistance and are used for
condenser tubes, nuts and bolts, protective sheathing in marine applications.
- The copper (90%) Al (10%) alloy can be heat treated like steels.
- on slow cooling from the β phase region(A), α forms at the grain boundaries(B) and at the
entectoid temperature(C), remaining β transforms into a entectoid of α + γ2 similar to pearlite in
steels. Quenching from the β phase region produces β’ whose appearance is like martensite in
steels.

61
 ---
Heat treated aluminum bronzes are used for gears, propeller blades, pump parts, bearings,
bushings, non-sparking tools, forging dies etc.
c) Cupro-nickels - alloys of Cu – Ni :- contain upto 30% Ni

- Are single phase alloys (α) and are therefore not heat treatable.

- Have high strength, oxidation resistance and corrosion resistance especially to erosive action of rapidly
moving sea water.

- Used for condenser, distiller, evaporator and heat exchanger tubes for naval vessels and coastal power
plants.

d) Beryllium-bronze- Cu- be alloys with upto 2% Be

- Strengthened by precipitation treatment as they show a rapid decrease in solid solubility with
decrease in temperature

- have very high tensile strength

- Used for tools requiring high hardness and non sparking characteristics such as in gas and chemical
industries; also used as electrical contacts due to high electrical conductivity.

62
 BEARING MATERIALS
Bearings

- Devices used to transmit loads between relatively moving surfaces

- May be either plain bearings involving contact between surfaces or more complex bearings
involving ball or roller components.

Properties

- Must be hard and wear resistance with low co-efficient of friction but also tough, shock
resistant and sufficiently ductile to allow for ‘running in’ (incase of excessive loading)
- Must have high thermal conductivity, good casting qualities, corrosion resistant and be
economical in cost.

The combination of properties can be obtained using an alloy in which particles of a hard intermetallic
compound are embedded in a matrix of a ductile solid solution

Types include:

1. Metallic

a) Copper base alloys- include plain tin bronzes ; Cu- (10-15%Sn) i.e the α+δ tin bronze, and phosphor
bronzes ; Cu- (10-13%Sn) – (0.3-1% P)

Have the α+δ structure where the hard compound δ in a tough matrix of α solid solution fulfils the
requirements of a bearing material.

Copper base bearing materials are used for bearings subjected to heavy pressures due to their high
strength and hardness.

Addition of phosphorous results in improvement in tensile strength , corrosion resistance and in casting
bearing alloys, reduction in coefficient of friction.

b) White bearing materials

Are either tin-base or lead-base

Tin-base white metal (88% Sn 8% Sb 4% Cu) (babbit metal) has better qualities and is used in high
pressure and load areas.

Lead base white metal (83% Pb 15% Sb 1.5% Sn 0.5% Cu) are used for large bearings with light
pressure. (Lead Pb added to reduce cost)

In both Tin (Sn) and Antimony (Sb) form crystals of intermetallic compound SnSb for hardness and low
friction.

Copper (Cu) is added to prevent crystals of SnSb from floating on molten alloy during production thus
trapping the crystals in the network

63
c) Aluminum base alloy

Contain 80% Al 20% Sn

Al forms the continuous strong matrix and Sn the ductile phase.

Aluminum- Tin phase diagram

Diagram shows solidification (A-B) occurring over more than 4000c and the particles may separate
(segregate) and therefore cold rolling and recrystallization is required.

Aluminum base bearings are used widely in automobile design but with a steel back.

2. Non Metallic

a) Polytetraflouroethane (P.T.F.E)- a thermoplastic) and

b) Nylon

Both have very low coefficient of friction but poor mechanical properties and requires strengthening by
filler material.

Both function well as ‘dry’ bearings and are used in machinery for food preparation and textiles where
lubrication is difficult.

*Oil-less bearings are sintered bronze bearings produced by powder metallurgy and retain sufficient
porosily to allow retention of lubricant oil.

64
BEARINGS
A bearing is a mechanical element that limits relative motion to only the desired motion and at the same
time it reduces the frictional resistance to the desired motion.

Depending on the design, a bearing may allow free rotation around a fixed axis (eg. Shafts) or free linear
movement or both in some cases.

Bearings may be classified according to:

i) Type of operation

ii) Motions allowed

iii) Direction of loads applied

The most broad classification is according to type of operation where they are classified into two groups.

a) Rolling contact bearings

b) Sliding contact bearings

a) Rolling contact bearings also known as rolling/ antifriction bearings

The two types are

i) Ball bearing- has balls, between inner ring B and outer ring A.

ii) Roller bearing- has rollers instead of balls.

65
Note

Bearings are used to transfer power and to move a certain part by utilizing the small frictional force of
the bearings all the while withstanding the force and weight/ load acting on them.

Bearings are used to support shafts and are designed such that they can support radial load, thrust load
(axial) or combination of both.

Bending movements shorten bearing life and thus a minimum of two bearings spaced apart are needed
to support any shaft.

Ball bearings are most commonly used because;

i) They are more versatile ie – able to adapt or be adapted to many different functions or operations

ii) They can support both radial and thrust loads

Roller bearings are capable of supporting higher loads than ball bearings of similar size because of larger
contact area of rollers but they require more perfect geometry and heavier cages (retainers) to retain
rollers in position.

66
Supporting radial load

The shaft is inserted into the bore of the inner ring and the outer ring is inserted into the housing bore -
the radial load is thus supported and the inner ring will rotate with the shaft.

Theoretically it may be desirable to use interference fit for both bores but this increases the stress on
the bearing balls or rollers which will reduce the life of the bearing.

Therefore for practical reasons, it is recommended to use an interference fit for one and a clearance for
the other.

In most cases, the shaft is rotating and direction of load is fixed and it is recommended to use an
interference fit between shaft and inner ring bore and a clearance fit between the outer ring and the
housing bore.

Note

Advantages of rolling bearings (ball and roller).

1) Bearing specifications are standardized internationally and are thus interchangeable and easily
replaceable.
2) Easy to diagnose and maintain.
3) Small starting torque (difference between starting and operating torque is very small)
4) Radial and axial loads can be applied at the same time
5) Easy to use under high and low temperature

Rolling contact bearings have limited life where the life of a bearing is measured in number of
revolutions of the inner ring at a fixed speed.

Life of a bearing depends on load applied and the operation conditions.

Bearings should be clean, lubricated, sealed against dust , not subjected to high shock and vibration
loads and operate at reasonable temperatures.

Spalling- surface fatigue damage in bearings where small chips of ring race surface start peeling off.

Supporting axial load

When a shaft is subjected to axial (thrust load), the bearing needs to be supported in the axial
direction such that it is able to transfer the axial load from the shaft to the housing.

If multiple bearings are used to support a shaft only one bearing is used to support the thrust load
and is usually the bearing at the end of the shaft.

The most effective means to support such bearings is to have shoulders for both the shaft and the
housing bore as shown below or else a retaining ring is used.
67
 Rolling bearing designation and selection

The three major dimensions used in identifying the size of a bearing are the bore diameter, the
outer diameter and the width.

According to ISO and ABMA (American Bearing Manufacture Association) standards, the size of a
bearing is identified using its bore diameter, a dimension- series code and its type.

The bore diameter is the most important geometric parameter in selecting a bearing where it will
determine if it will fit the shaft or not.

The dimension series code is a two digit number identifying boundary dimensions of a bearing eg

02 – 30
02- dimension series

30- bore diameter

Dimension series – first digit refers to the width

Second digit refers to height ie;difference between outer and inner radius

b) Sliding contact bearing

Simplest kind of bearings in terms of construction where it could simply consist of a shaft rotating inside
a hole (with appropriate clearance between them).

Have a very long life if well designed, lubricated and working under reasonable operating conditions.

More applicable for extreme operational conditions (high loads and rotational speed).

Rely mainly on lubrication to reduce friction, wear and heating of surfaces sliding relative to each other.

68
Lubrication is usually by grease or oil supplied by an oil drip lubricator or ring oiler or by periodic
application of oil from an oil can.

The simplest of these types of bearings is known as a journal (or sleeve or plain) bearing.

A journal bearing is used to support radial loads only (no thrust) and it simply consists of a shaft (journal)
inserted inside a clearance hole (sleeve).

A journal bearing can be made by inserting the shaft inside a hole made in the structure of a machine.

In many cases it is more convenient to use a sleeve housing that can be attached to the machine
structure using fastener, and the bearing is known as pedestal or plummer block bearing and usually
have an oil hole to feed the lubricant to the bearing.

In bushed bearing a bushing made of a softer material (bronze or tin alloy) that will wear faster than the
journal is inserted inside the sleeve to protect the journal and can be replaced when worn out.

Seals

A mechanical seal is a device made from a soft elastic material such as rubber and is used to prevent
leakage or pressure loss in a mechanical system or to exclude contamination from entering the system.
Gaskets prevent leakages at the joint of the two parts fixed together (not moving). Seals prevent leakage
at the interface of the two parts moving relative to each other.

69
 CORROSION OF METALS
Corrosion- Destruction of material by chemical, electrochemical or metallurgical interaction between
metal and the environment.

Caused by instability of metals in their refined form causing them to revert to their natural states of
compounds.

Types include

1. Chemical corrosion (dry corrosion)

Occurs due to chemical reaction between surface of material and gases or vapours in atmosphere in a
process called oxidation.

Oxidation- involves transfer of elections from metallic atom to the oxygen atom so that positively
charged metallic atoms and negatively charged oxygen ions attract each other forming the oxide layer.

Oxidation refers to any reaction in which metallic atoms lose electrons even to other gases other than
Oxygen.

Oxidation occurs rapidly at high temperatures and may lead to scaling and flaking off of oxidation layer
leading to further oxidation.

2. Electrochemical corrosion (wet corrosion)

Occurs as a result of reaction of metal with water or aqueous solution of salts, acids or bases.

This corrosion is an electrochemical process resulting in the metal being transformed into the ionic state
in the solution (electrolyte).

The process requires flow of electricity through the electrolyte.

To complete the circuit, there must be two electrodes; anode and cathode which must be connected.

Atoms of the anode (corroding metal) forms ions and dissolves into electrolyte and is said to be anodic
to the metal at cathode.

Connection between anode and cathode may be a metallic bridge but in corrosion it is usually achieved
by simple contact.

Electrodes may be two different kinds of metals or may be different areas of the same piece of metal
(due to impurity and composition differences).

 Stress corrosion- refers to acceleration of corrosion in certain environments when metals are
externally stressed or contain internal stresses due to cold working.

 Intergranular corrosion- occurs when anode and cathode areas are established between grain
boundary and the rest of grain due to precipitation.

70
  Dezinfication occurs when brass is in contact with sea water or fresh water with high contact of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.zinc corrodes leavin behind mass of porous copper
Methods of prevention of corrosion
i) Use of high purity metals- minimizes inhomogeneities (non uniformitiy) that create anode and
cathode areas on metal
ii) Alloying- Intergranular corrosion in stainless steels may be avoided addition of titanium and
columbium.
Chromium forms a thin protective oxide layer in stainless steels
iii) Heat treatment- leads to homogenization of solid solutions.
iv)Cathodic protection- Obtained by placing the metal that would corrode in electrical contact
with a more active metal which become the anode and metal to be protected the cathode.
v) Surface coatings

Surface coatings

Painting is only effective if paint film is not broken.

Salt and oxide film are obtained by reacting the metal with a solution which produces the desired
protective film.

Metallic coatings may be obtained by the following methods

a) Hot dipping- in a bath of low melting material.

Galvanizing provides a thin layer of zinc coating on iron or low carbon steel by dipping in molten zinc.
Zinc is anodic to iron and will corrode if iron/ steel is exposed. (Application; iron sheets, pipes, fencing
material)

In tin plating, iron is anodic to iron and the tin coating must thus not be broken

b) Electroplating- a thin layer of metal coating is deposited on the metal by passing a direct current
through an electrolyte containing a salt of the coating material .metal to be coated is made the cathode
and the coating metal the anode

*Anodizing

Process by which an oxide film is deposited on metal surface.

An electrolytic circuit is used in which the metal is made the anode

The electrolyte which is an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, oxalic acid and chromic acid gives up
oxygen which forms an oxide film on the metal which being the anode does not corrode.

c) Metal spraying- involves depositing an atomized (molten and sprayed) metal on the metal.

d) Metal cladding- done by hot rolling in which thin sheets of coating metal and base metal are passed
through rollers under pressure and heat.

71
 PLASTICS
-Plastics :- Synthetic organic materials which can be moulded into any desired shape when subjected to
heat and pressure

-synthetic means not naturally occurring.- Organic means carbon in the common element in their make
up)

- Plastics are produced by linking together a large number of small molecules (monomers) to form long
chain molecules (polymers) in a process known as polymerization.

Poly means many and Mers means units or parts hence the term polymeric materials refers to plastics

General properties of plastics

 High resistant to corrosion

 Good thermal and electoral insulators (have poor thermal and electrical conductivity)
 Easy workability
 Good strength and rigidity
 Resistance to abrasion
 Impermeable to water
 Low cost
 Absorbent of vibrations and sound
 Can be made transparent or coloured.

Types of plastics;

1) Thermoplastics (cold setting plastics)

Formed into shape under heat and pressure becoming hard on cooling but become soft and mouldable
again by the successive application of heat.

Thermoplastics can be used and used again. Scrap and rejected articles can be reused.

2. Thermosetting.

Formed into shape under heat (127-1770c) and pressure resulting in a permanent hard product which
cannot be softened by reheating.

The reacting substances soften upon heating and further heating produces cross-linking (linking across
the long chain molecules) and the plastic becomes permanently hard. Reaction is accompanied by a by-
product eg. Water. This type of polymerization is called condensation polymerization

*Addition polymerization involves simple addition of small molecules to form long chain molecules
held together by weak van der waals forces of attraction and is typical of thermoplastics

Types of thermoplastics include

i) Polyethylene (polythene)

-One of the cheapest and widely used.

72
-Obtained by addition polymerization of ethylene (ethene)

Ethene (ethylene) polythene (polyethylene)

NB The double bond between carbon atoms in the monomers is broken to allow joining

of two monomers

- Two types of polythene are manufactured depending on the degree of polymerization

 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
- obtained by low pressure polymerization processes
- it has a specific gravity of 0.96 and softening temperature of 120o-130o
- molecules are linear i.e no side branches
 Low Density Polyethylene
- obtained by high pressure processes
- it has a specific gravity 0.90 and softening temperature of 86 0
- molecules have many side branches

Properties:- translucent in film but opaque in mass, is an excellent thermal insulator, is tough with low
coefficient of friction.have low strength and rigidity. Its flexible at room temperature and low
temperatures and is capable of being heat sealed

- It is prone to degradation and embrittlement by sunlight but can be improved by addition

of black pigment such as carbon black.

Applications:- Domestic articles (buckets etc), cold water pipes and water tanks, insulation for electrical
wires/ cables, packaging (films, bags), sheeting for building construction, lining for lagoons to avoid
water sippage to the underground

73
ii) Polypropylene

- Manufactured by addition polymerization of propene(propylene) in the presence of zieglor-

Natta catalyst

- Owing to the presence of the CH3 group, polypropylene is more stronger and more rigid
than polythene.The extra and bulky side groups provide extra bonding between molecules

Properties;- its one of the lightest plastics available,has high impact and tensile strength,flexibility,
fatigue strength, electrical insulation. It has negligible water absorbtion, is resistant to heat and
chemicals but is attacked by strong acids.

Limitations:- they are brittle at low temperatures, flammable and have poor resistance to ultraviolet
light and weathering.

Applications:-radio and television cabinets, films and sheets for packaging, flashlight casing, vacuum
cleaner bodies, hair driers, vacuum flasks, pipes, tanks, spray nozzles, washing machine parts,
refrigerator parts and automobile parts, electrical insulators

iii) Polyvinylchloride (P.V.C)

- Obtained by additional polymerization of vinyl chloride in the presences of a catalysts.

Vinylchloride Polyvinylchloride (P.V.C)

74
(Vinyls – compounds based on ethylene in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms have been
replaced by a different atom or group of atoms)

- P.V.C is available in two forms

 Flexible (plasticized) P.V.C – is a soft thermoplastic with flux ingredient and can be
converted to suitable shapes by such processes like calendaring.
 Rigid (unplasticized) P.V.C (U.P.V.C) – is a hard thermoplastic which becomes
processible in the temperature range at which decomposition occurs at measurable
rates.

Properties:- has excellent chemical and weather resistance, is a good electrical insulator, is opaque, has
good flame resistance and has a damping and sound absorbtion capacity making it useful for floor tiles

Applications:- electrical insulation, floor tiles, roofing, cold water pipes, cover for motorcar seats and
furniture , handbags, waste pipes(U.P.V.C), garden hose, rain coats, curtains etc.

Limitations:- has a tendency to decompose when heated or exposed to sunlight.A small amount of lead
silicate is added during compounding stage to prevent this.

iv) Polymethylmethacrylate (P.M.MA) : –trade name Perspex glass, Plexiglass or Lucite

- Produced by polymerization of methy methacrylate in presence of a peroxide catalyst

Properties :- Has excellent light transmission and superior to glass in terms of impact resistance and
although it cracks, any fragments are less sharp.Its hard and fairly rigid but it becomes rubber-like at
about 650 making it easy to fabricate

Applications; lenses, transparent windows, roof lights and domes, aircraft windows etc.

Limitations:- low mechanical properties, abrasion resistance, attacked by concentrated acids but not by
alkalis

- P.M.M.A is not only tougher than glass but it can but it is also easily mouldable
- Lenses can be made from P.M.M.A by moulding from powder which is less expensive than
grinding and polishing a glass blank but P.M.M.A scratches easily.

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v) Polytetrafluoroethylene P.T.F.E – sold under the trade name Teflon

- Obtained by addition polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene.

Tetrafluoroethylene Polytetrafluoroethylene (P.T.F.E)

Properties:--Due to strong fluorine bond, it is completely inert chemically

-It retains strength upto +3000c and -2000c .With 30% glass fibre filler, it has increased resistance to
creep and is used for gasket and valve seats.Its tough, flexible with moderate tensile strength and
excellent resistance to heat, chemicals and passage of electric current.It has exceptional weathering
resistance, non adhesive properties and very low coefficient of friction

Applications:- used for low friction bearings, gaskets and anticorrosive seals, coating for frying pans,
laboratory equipment(being transparent), corrosion resistant pipe and fittings, high temperature
electronic parts

vi) Polystyrene

- manufactured from styrene by additional polymerization in presence of silicon chrolide

catalyst

Properties:- has excellent resistant to corrosive chemicals such as acids, alkalis and salt solutions.Have
high electrical resistance and negligible water absorption.They are transparent in nature, strong, flexible
and light in weight.They can be cast, moulded and extruded and are easily shaped by sawing, filing and
76
drilling (mouldings are tough at low temperatures and therefore useful as refrigerator parts).They are
degraded by exposure to ultraviolet light.They have poor resistance to many organic solvents

Applications:- packaging applications (bottle caps, liners for boxed goods) , refrigeration equipment
(door liners,tray liners) , houseware (water jugs, mugs, plates, trays) ,sanitary ware (bath and toilet
fittings) , display signs, toys, games and sports equipment

- Polystyrene hollow ware is identifiable by a resonant metallic note it emits when tapped

vii) A.B.S

- Formed by addition co-polymerization of acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene

Properties:-have high impact and tensile strengths and are rigid, possess hard surfaces, dimensional
stability, chemical, heat, weather,creep and electrical resistances, ease of processing and machining,
have low water absorption

Applications:- refrigerator door liners, automobile dashboards, safety helmets, housing for telephone
headsets and business machines, glass-fibre reinforced plastics for car bodywork, sailing and rowing
boats

- ABS plastics are available in form of powders for injection moulding and extrusion. Sheet is
also available for vacuum forming processes

viii) Nylon

- Produced by the reaction of a diamine with an organic acid

- The most commonly used is nylon 6/6 obtained by linear condensation of hexamethylene
and adipic acid

- Each monomer has six carbon atoms hence the name nylon 66
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Properties: - have high strength stiffness and toughness, good abrasion resistance and excellent wear
resistance. Light, elastic and do not absorb water is resistant to acids, does not fade, keeps its shape and
can be dyed.

Applications: - as an engineering material it is used for gears, bushes, bearings and hammer heads. Used
for clothing, curtains, umbrellas, camping equipment and swimming pools

ix) Cellulosics

- Derived from natural cellulose

Properties: - have good toughness, good optical properties, weather resistance, good mouldability,
flame resistance but fairly low strength

Applications: - packaging film and photography film, toys, pens barrels, outdoor signs

Types of thermosetting plastics

(i) Phenol formaldehyde (PF) (Bakelite)

-Obtained by condensation polymerization of phenol and formaldehyde.

A condensation reaction results in a molecule of water as a by-product

Properties: - Has low cost, is hard, has good electrical and heat resistances, excellent resistance to most
chemicals and water. Good mechanical strength. Colour limited to black or brown

Applications: -Used for electrical receptacles (switches plugs etc), handles for cooking pots, knobs, toilet
seats, in printing paper and formica, paints and adhesives
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(ii) Amine formaldehyde

- Obtained by condensation of urea or melamine with a formaldehyde.

Properties:- they are hard,rigid, and chemically resistance to most substances except strong acids

Melamine formaldehyde due to good flowability is used for molded cups, plates, saucers etc

- impact neither taste or odour to foods and are not stained by foods.Resist dish washing enviroment

Urea formaldehyde is used in domestic electrical fittings such as switches, plugs, sockets. Also used for
cabinets, toilet seats, buttons etc

Both are used as coatings and adhesives.

iii) Polyurethanes

- can be linear thermoplastics or cross-linked thermosetting plastics

Properties:-have high strength, resistance to chemicals and solvents. Foamed materials are excellent
thermal and acoustic insulators.

Applications:-

 flexible foam:- upholstery, mattresses, packaging for delicate equipment. Foamed materials can
be cast in slabs, sprayed or molded in place for acoustic or thermal insulation
 liquids:- paints, coatings, clear finishes and adhesives

- Non porous polyurethanes can substitute for rubber in some applications such as solid
wheels, gears, etc.
- One type is used to make broom bristles, fillaments and films

iv) Silicones

- These are inorganic compounds of silicon with a - Si – O – Si – backbone instead of carbon

though organic side groups may be attached to the chains or rings
- They are available as viscous oils, greases, plastics and rubbers
- They are virtually non-combustible and their properties remain constant over a wide
temperature range
- They are water repellant and are widely used for water proofing clothes, shoes etc.
- Liquid silicones or silicon oils possess great wetting power for metals, low surface tension
and show very small changes in viscosity with temperature
- They are used for high temperature lubricants, antifoaming agents, water repellant finishes
for leather and textiles, heat transfer media, damping and hydraulic fluids and cooling fluid
for capacitors and transformers
- Silicones in semisolid form (greases) are obtained by adding fillers like silica, carbon black to
silicon oils and are used in high and low temperatures
- Silicones in the rubber form have high abrasion resistance, high temperature stability and
remain flexible at low temperatures. They are used for gaskets, insulators and as additives
in other rubbers
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Compounding materials and other additives to polymeric materials.
To obtain their desired finish, plastics contain certain materials that are added with the polymer to
reduce cost or to enhance mechanical properties

(a) Binder

The main purpose of a binder is to hold other constituents of the plastic together. It may comprise 30%
to 100% of the plastic and may be a synthetic or natural resin. On the basis of the type used in
preparation the plastic itself is called thermoplastic or thermosetting plastic

(b) Fillers

These are relatively inert substances such as talc, carbonates, silicates or wood flour that are added to
increase bulk and lower the cost with some alteration of physical or mechanical properties such as
compressive strength or impact resistance.

Fillers such as carbon fibres, electroplated carbon fibres, aluminised gloss fibres or mats and metal
flakes induce electrical conductivity in plastics used in parts requiring shielding from electromagnetic
interference as in computer housing.

Thermal insulation, fire resistance and dimensional stability can be improved by use of asbestos.

Co-efficient of friction can be improved by use of molybdenum sulphide or graphite.

It is often essential for thermosetting plastics for reducing mould shrinkage.

(c) Reinforcements

Also known as reinforcing fillers, they are for increasing the mechanical strength of the plastics.

Glass in the form of filaments, woven fibres or randomly oriented fibres are most widely used in both
thermalset and thermoplastics.

For thermosets, low cost reinforcement materials like sisal, cotton, cloth and paper increase impact
strength.

Graphite and aramid (Dupont Kevlar) though expensive may be used if weight saving permits an
increase in payload such as in aircraft construction, missiles and spacecraft.

Kevlar is also used to make super strong textiles having high temperature properties and environmental
stability eg. Sails, bulletproof clothing, protective covering for cables etc.

(d) Plasticisers

These are used in thermoplastics to improve flexibility and reduce brittleness and also reduce the
temperature and pressure required for moulding. But plasticisers may reduce the tensile strength and
chemical resistance of the plastics.

Plasticisers increase the distance between polymer chains thereby reducing the secondary forces and
the tendency to crystallization.

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Plasticisers tend to evaporate from the finished products over the years accompanied by increasing
brittleness and shrinkage. They also tend to breed from phenol thereby discolouring or reacting with
adjacent material.

Commonly used plasticisers are Camphor, paraffins. Phosphates etc.

(e) Stabilizers

Added to minimize the effect of heat, sunlight and ozone.

The stabilizers are added to plastics to improve thermal stability during processing.

Zinc soap is added to Vinyls and phenols to the styrenes.

(f) Colouring agents (dyes and pigments)

Dyes are organic substances that are soluble in polymers to give plastics and especially transparent ones
the desired colour.

Pigments are both organic and inorganic ; organic pigments are used to make translucent objects while
inorganic pigments are used for opaque objects.

Common used pigments are Zinc oxides, barytes etc.

(g) Solvents

Used for dissolving the plasticisers and to improve the flowability of the plastic in the mould.

Alcohol is added in cellulose nitrate plastics to dissolve camphor.

(h) Modifiers

Chemicals added to plastics for changing the mechanical properties of the base resin.

(i) Catalysts

Used to accelerate the chemical reaction during the process of polymerisation.

They act as hardeners and accelerators.

(j) Elastomers

Added to the plastics to provide maximum property of elasticity

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Fabrication process of plastic objects
A specific linear armophous polymer such as polymethymethacrylate or polystyrene can exist in a
number of states according to the temperature and average molecular weight.

At low molecular weight, the polymer will be solid below some given temperature while it will be liquid
above that temperature.

The melting point for such polymers will be quite sharp and at that temperature the molecules have
sufficient energy to move independently.

At higher molecular weights clearly defined melting points no longer occurs and a rubbery intermediate
zone is observed with two transition temperatures

(i) Rigid solid - rubber transition temperature

- In the rubbery range co-operative movement leading to flow is very limited. Molecules take
up a

random coiled conformation as a result of free rotation about single covalent bonds in the chain

backbone.

This temperature is known as glass- transition temperature as the polymers are transparent.

(ii)Rubber – liquid transition temperature

- This is the flow temperature.

- Due to high molecular weight, thermosetting plastics are processed in the rubbery state as
it is difficult to process them in their melt state.

At room temperature, the behavior of thermoplastics is glassy ; hard and brittle. Also the stress is
proportional to strain on a stress strain diagram and the modulus of elasticity is high. As the
temperature is increased, the bonds between molecules are overcome by thermal agitation and flow
becomes viscous. As the temperature increases viscosity decreases and elastic modulus drops.

Thermoplastics are processed in the melt stage.

Thermoplastics are supplied in the fully polymerized state for processing whereas thermosetting are
supplied in two separate components; polymerized resins and curing agents.

Larger plastic manufacturers supply raw materials in the form of powders, granules, pellets and syrups
to fabricators for the production of finished products. Plastics may also be purchased in the form of
extrusions and sheets on which further work is to be carried out.

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The principle methods of fabrication of plastics are moulding and extrusion but raw materials obtainable
in the liquid form may be cast.

Compression moulding

The top half of the moulding plate is placed onto the lower half which contains the moulding material.

A definite amount of thermosetting resin, filler and other ingredients are placed in the mould cavity the
quantity being slightly greater than the volume of the mould cavity.

Both male and female portions of the die are heated usually by steam. If preform or tablets are used,
they are heated by infrared heating lamps to shorten the time during moulding.

Typical products include washing machine agitators and motor instrument panels.

Thermoplastics cannot be economically shaped by compression moulding as the objects must be cool
enough so that they do not distort upon removal from the mould.

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Transfer moulding

This a modification of compression moulding for thermosetting resins used for making parts involving
delicate or complex shapes.

The process is mainly adapted for thermosetting resins (melamine formaldehyde and phenol
formaldehyde).

The solid resin is first placed in the transfer pot where it is heated until it melts. It is then forced as a
liquid into the heated mould cavity.

Pressure is maintained until cooling is complete.

Typical products are; electric plugs, motor car distributor caps.

The curing time for transfer moulding and the loading time are usually shorter than for compression
moulding.

The disadvantage for transfer moulding is that material left in the chamber and sprue leading to the
mould is also cured and is extracted as scrap.

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Injection moulding

Thermoplastic moulding compound is loaded into a hopper, fed into an upper cylinder of the machine.

One stroke of the piston meters the proper amount of compound from upper to lower cylinder.

A ram in the lower cylinder forces the charge forward into a heating chamber where the granular
powder becomes liquid and is forced through a nozzle into the mould cavity.

The mould is cooled by a fluid which keeps it below the melting range of the compound.

Typical products are; toys, tool handles, domestic wares, pipe fittings, crates, control knobs for electric
components.

Injection moulding is faster than compression moulding and is the most economical method for mass
production of a single component. Articles of difficult shape and of thin walls are successfully produced.
Moreover, the material wastage in the spines can be ground up and reused.

Jet moulding

Used for thermosetting plastics.

It is similar to injection moulding but differs in that the mould cavity must be heated.

The heating chamber is hot only shortly before and during the time the mould is being filled to soften
the plastic after which it is cooled quickly to prevent the remaining material from setting.

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Blow moulding

Mostly employed for making thin walled hollow articles especially bottles from thermoplastic materials.

A cylinder of plastic material (parison) is extruded as rapidly as possible and cut to length.

The hot parison is placed between the jaws of a split mould.

When the mould is closed, it pinches off the parison and the product is completed by air pressure which
forces the material against the mould surfaces.

After the product is cooled sufficiently, the mould is opened and the product is removed.

Typical products; bottles, containers, cold water systems.

Vacuum moulding

Used in producing simple shapes from thermoplastic materials in sheet form.

The plastic sheets is first softened and then drawn into a female mould or formed over a male mould
with the help of a vacuum.

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Extrusion moulding

Extrusion means the continuos flow of material through a die.

Extrusion moulding is similar to injection moulding and is used for thermoplastic materials.

A mechanical screw forces the solid thermoplastic compounds through a heating zone where melting
occurs. The viscous liquid is then extruded through a shaped orifice on to a conveyor or run of table
where it is cooled by blowers, water sprays or immersion in a water tank.

Useful for forming continuous shapes like pipes rods, sheets, films, certain rails etc.

Casting

It is the process of producing plastic products in the moulds without the application of pressure.

The plastic is heated to a suitable temperature and the molten resin is poured into the open moulds
which are usually made of lead and cured for several days.

Thermosetting materials that are casted include phenolics, polyesters, epoxies, acrylics and silicomes
due to their good fluidity during pouring.

Useful for making rods, tubes, cylinders and special shapes such as screw driver handles, gears and gear
blanks.

Slush casting

Similar to casting in which no pressure is applied.

The viscous solution of the thermoplastic resin is prepared and poured into the preheated mould which
is rotated until the paste forms a solid ‘gel’ on the inner surface of the mould.

The excess fluid is poured out and the hollow formed article removed from the mould.

This process is used for making flexible toys, artificial flowers, dolls’ heads etc.

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Calendering

It is a fast continuous and economical process for manufacturing sheets and films.

The material consisting of thermoplastic resin, plasticizer, filler and colour pigments are compounded
and heated before being fed into the calender.

Before the film is wound, it passes through water cooled rolls.

Vinyl, polyethylene, cellulose acetate films and sheets are produced by calendaring. Uncured rubber
stock in the manufacture is also rolled by calendaring.

Laminating

It is the process of bonding together a variety of materials by heat and pressure to form a single piece
(laminate).

Most laminated plastics consists of sheets of wood, asbestos, fabric and other similar materials.

The materials are first impregnated or coated with thermosetting resins (phenolics, silicones, epoxies,
melamines) and then combined together under heat and pressure.

Laminates are hard, strong and impact resistance and have good machining characteristics permitting
their fabrication into gears, handles, bushings and furniture.

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Machining of plastics

Machining is essential when accuracy greater than can be obtained by moulding methods is required or
when such features such as tapped holes are required.

Most plastics can be machined by using metal working tools and machines but since plastics have a low
thermal conductivity and a high coefficient of expansion, the heat produced must be kept at an absolute
minimum.

To minimize the heat, cutting fluid is used and tools are ground with larger clearance angles than
required for metal cutting.

Light cuts and high cutting speeds with low feed rates should be used.

Joining of plastics

(i) Hot gas welding- the surfaces to be joined are clamped together and hot air from a specially
electrically heated torch at a temperature of 3000 c is directed at the surface and the filler rod (usually of
the same material) is pressed into the joint.

The downward pressure of the filler rod makes the weld which fuses and solidifies as the wielding
proceeds.

Used for welding P.V.C, polypropylene and polythene sheets to fabricate tanks, vessels and pipes.

(ii) Hot sealing- a heated metal strip or bar at a temperature between 1800c and 2300c is placed on the
plastic film or sheets until they are sufficiently soft after which they are held firmly until the melted
plastic cools and makes a firm joint.

Used on nylon and polyethylene such as in the manufacture of bags for packaging.

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(iii) Solvent welding- the solvent is applied to the plastic surfaces whose edges are dissolved by the
solvent.

They are then brought together, moved a bit to obtain mixing and held in position to dry and harden.

(iv) Friction welding- limited to round plastic parts which can be rotated while in contact to generate
heat.

Friction heat melts the interfaces and parts fuse together when the motion is stopped.

(v) Ultrasonic welding- high frequency sound waves are transmitted to the joint and are converted into
frictional heat.

Best suited for thermoplastics which have relatively low melting points.

Testing of plastics
1. Physical observation

Thermosets are generally rigid; any attempt to bend them result in sharp fracture.

Thermoplastics are less rigid and if bent too far will first crack and then separate into two fragments.

Articles made of phenolic materials are of dark opaque colour.

Rubber modified polystyrenes show white streaks on bending.

2. Burning test

Does not burn but retain its shape means presence of thermosetting resins.

Burns in flame and continues to burn after removal; thermoplastic material identified by flame colour
eg. Orange with lot of soot; polystyrene.

Burns in flame but flame is extinguished on removal; presence of p.v.c.

3. Tensile test

Many plastics do not obey Hooke’s law; the elastic strain produced is not proportional to the stress
applied making it difficult to calculate Young’s Modulus.

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The secant modulus is thus calculated.

Secant modulus in the ratio of stress to corresponding strain at a specific point on the stress/ strain
curve.

Slope on the line AB is used to determine the modulus of elasticity (secant modulus for plastics).

At the commencement of the tensile test, an initial force of w (about 10% of expected force necessary
to produce 0.002 strain) is applied to take up stack and straighten the test piece after which the
extensometer is set to zero.

The force is then gradually increased to W which produces 0.2% strain in gauge length

Secant Modulus =

Where A is initial cross-sectional area of the test piece at the gauge length.

Strain value is stated when quoting the secant modulus.

For testing thermoplastics a fixed temperature of 23±20c with atmospheric humidity of 50±5% is
specified with test pieces maintained at these conditions for 88 hours prior to the test.

Plastic materials are also very time- sensitive during mechanical testing and the total deformation
(viscoelasticity) depends upon

(i) Bond bending of the carbon- carbon covalent bonds in the polymer chain.

(ii) Uncoiling of the polymer chains

(iii) Slipping of polymer chains past each other.

The yield strength increases as the strain increases and thus the speed of separation of the tets piece
grips is also specified for different materials.

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The geometry of test pieces differs from that of metals as abrupt changes in shape cause stress
concentrations which are likely to precipitate failure. A typical test piece is shown.

4. Hardeness tests, impact tests and creep tests are similar to those of metals.

Ball identation tests are used for hardness tests for harder plastics but some variations are made in the
identors for testing softer plastics in the durometer with the identors shown being spring loaded.

Both Izod and charpy tests are used for impact tests.

Foamed polymers

Have lower density and elastic modulus than the polymer from which they are made.

They are highly compressible and resilient and are used for heat insulation.

Foamed polymers are produced by three methods

(a) Bubbles are produced throughout the polymer emulsion or partially polymerized liquid by
mechanical agitation.

(b) Bubbles are produced in the liquid polymer by heat or reduction in pressure.

(c) Bubbles are generated with the liquid polymer by a chemical reaction.

Thermosetting and thermoplastics are used with the most common thermoplastics used being
polycarbonate, polyamides, polyphenylene oxide and polyacetal.
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ELASTOMERS

- Elastomers are polymers capable of undergoing large elastic strains due to structural effect of
the polymers chains.

- When carbon atoms are joined together by single bonds in organic compounds , the carbons
atoms or side groups attached to them can rotate freely round the axis of the chain.
e.g

(single bond – a covalent bond in which a pair of electrons (2 electrons) is shared between
the atoms so as to complete the valence shell of each atom)
But- means 4 hence organic compound has 4 carbon atoms along the chain
- A double bond between carbon atoms is a rigid configuration that prevents rotation and carbon
atoms or groups of atoms attached to the unsaturated carbon atoms of a chain molecule
maintain fixed relative positions.
e.g

(double bond - a covalent bond in which 2 pairs of electrons (4 electrons) are shared between
the atoms) -ene indicates compound has a double bond
Butadiene has two double bonds hence di -ene
- If the atoms or groups of atoms alternate on opposite sides of the chain , the chains tend to be
more straight.

- If the atoms or groups of atoms are all one side of the chain , coiling of the polymer occurs
leading to spring like or elastic properties found in elastomers such as rubber.

Rubber
- Is a linear polymer which possesses elasticity and good resistance to corrosive fluids and is
widely used as a lining material in the chemical industry for vessels and piping handling
corrosive fluids. It is also used for conveyors, insulation of wires and cables.
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Characterstics of rubber include :-

(i) Toughness
(ii) Abrasion resistance
(iii) Flexibility
(iv) low permeability to fluids that do not attack it chemically making it wide used in tyres and tyre
accessories
Types of rubber
- There are two types of rubber:
(a) Natural rubber
- This is a polymerised form of isoprene ( 2 methyl -1 , 3 - butadiene)

- The main source of natural rubber is the rubber tree (havea brasliensis) which produces milky
juice called rubber latex. The latex contains upto 45% rubber.

- The latex obtained is purified and then coagulated by weak acetic acid or 95% conc. formic acid
or by smoking operation.

- The resulting spongy mass is then placed through rollers where the water in the latex is
removed . The creep/smoked rubber from the rollers is in form of the thin sheets.

- Its further processed , milled and vulcanized to produce commercial rubber.

(b) Synthetic rubber

- This type of rubber is produced by artificial chemical processes by suitable combination of
several monomers
- Commonly used synthetic rubbers include:

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 (i) Neoprene rubber (polychloroprene)

- Resembles natural rubber but the methyl side group is replaced by a chlorine atom.

- Advantages of neoprene rubber

- has better resistance to heat and light
- has better resistance to oils , grease and petroleum solvents than natural rubber

- Applications
- oil seals, gaskets, LPG hoses, oil and petrol hoses cable insulation , protective clothing,
shoe heels, solid tyres

- Zinc oxide and magnesium oxide are used as vulcanizing agents

(ii) Butyl rubber (Isobutylene isoprene)

- Made by additional polymerization of isobutylene and isoprene

- Advantages of Butyl rubber

- It has better resistance to sunlight , acids and oils than natural rubber.
- It has extremely low permeability to gases
- Disadvantage
- it has poor resistance to greases.

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 - Applications
- widely used for the inner lining for tubeless tyres , steam hoses and diaphrams .
(iii) Buna S or SBR rubber (styrene Butadiene)
- Produced by addition polymerization of butadiene and styrene.

- Advantages of Buna S rubber

- has high abrasion resistance,
- has high load bearing capacity
- has high resilience (ability to absorb energy elastictically
- Applications
- used for car tyres, footwear, conveyor belts, hose pipes and cable insulators.
(Iv) Buna N (NBR ) rubber ( Butadine acrolynitrile)
- Produced by addition polymerization of butadiene and acrylonitrile and are usually called nitrile
rubbers.

- Advantages of Buna N rubber

- has extreme resistance to organic liquids
- has excellent resistance oil and greases
- has better withering resistances (resistance to heat sun light)
- Disadvantage
- are very expensive.
- Applications
- Used in manufacturer of hoses , gaskets and seals , tank linings, as filler for phenol resins and
ingredient for contact adhesives

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 (v) Butadiene rubber
- Produced by additional polymerization of butadiene

- Advantages of Butadiene rubber

- It has high resilience
- It has low heat build up

- Disadvantages
- has poor tear resistance and is thus blended with other elastomers
- has poor tensile strength

- Applications
- Owing to its low heat build up , it is used for truck tyres when blended with natural rubber and
for motor car tyres when blended with Buna S rubber

(vi) Silicone rubbers

- Silicone and oxygen replace carbon in polymer chains

- They are expensive but their high temperature resistance makes them useful for many
purposes.

Vulcanization of rubber
- Vulcanization : This is the curing reaction by which rubber reacts with chemical setting
reagents .
- Vulcanization involves linkage across the chain molecules usually by reaction between Sulphur
atoms and rubber molecules.

- As a result of the chemical reaction between rubber molecules and sulphur atoms , there is loss
of plasticity in rubber and elasticity remains.

- Increasing the amount of Sulphur increases the degrees of cross linking and makes the rubber
harder. Its effectiveness is improved by the use of complex organic chemicals known as
accelerators.

- The accelerators reduces the required amount of Sulphur and speed up vulcanization. E.g a
stock containing 10% sulphur cures in about 5½ hours at 1500c. With accelerators , a similar
stock cures in 3 minutes at 1500c and requires 3% sulphur
97
 TIMBER
- The term timber is used to refer to wood obtained from exogeneous trees after their full
growth. These trees grow outward from the centre adding concentric layers of fresh wood
every year known as annular rings. Endogeneous trees grow inwards e.g bamboo

- Wood is the most useful portion of a tree and consists of long hollow cells whose axes run
parallel to the length of the tree and cells that radiate from the central axis of the tree.
The cells are cemented together by a natural resin called lignin

Resin – solid or highly viscous material of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible
Into polymers - Its usually mixtures of organic compounds - Plants secretes resins
for protection against injury

- Structure of wood

- Pith / medulla - innermost or core of the tree consisting of only cellular tissues
- contains a lot of fluid which nourishes the plant
- Annular rings - concentric circles or rings of woody fibre around the pith
- Heartwood - consists of inner annular rings and is compact , strong , durable , darker in
colour and provides best timber
- Sapwood - contains outer annular rings and is weaker, softer , lighter in colour and is
unsuitable for engineering works
- Cambium layer - is just beneath the bark and is yet to be converted to sapwood.
- Medullary rays - radial fibres from the pith to cambium layer. They hold annular rings together
and carry sap from the outside to the inner side of the tree

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-
Advantages of Timber
- easily available and can be quickly transported
- easy to be worked on by tools
- lighter and stronger than most materials used in construction
- cheap
- suitable for soundproof construction
- non - conductor of heat and electricity
- responds very well to painting and polishing

- Types of Timber
(i) Softwood - obtained from trees having needle shaped leaves known as confers
(evergreen) trees e.g pine which yield softwood .
- softwood is generally light coloured , resinous , light in weight and
weak but easy to be worked

(ii) Hardwood - obtained from trees having broad leaves known as deciduous trees e.g
teak , mahogany , oak , neem , mango which yield hardwood
- hardwood is close grained ,strong , heavy , dark coloured , durable,
non- resinous and do not show distinct annual rings

- Seasoning of Timber
- this is the process of drying timber or removing moisture or sap present in a freshly
felled tree under controlled conditions.

- ideal seasoning of timber aims at producing a moisture content in the wood that is in
in stable equilibrium with moisture content of the surrounding in which it is used.

- seasoning also results in an improvement in most mechanical properties of wood but

toughness may decrease and may cause cracking if moisture is lowered too much.

- Methods of seasoning timber

(i) Natural or Air Seasoning
- logs or planks of wood are stacked in a dry place about 300mm above
above ground with longitudinal and cross pieces one upon another with
spaces in between to allow air circulation around each piece.

- cinder ash or sand is spread on platform to prevent moisture from the

bottom
- stacked wood is turned upside down periodically.

(ii) Artificial or Kiln seasoning

- quickest method which keeps moisture contents under control
- carried out in a chamber under controlled temperature and humidity
with proper air circulation and ventilation
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- Preservation of timber
- Wood is an organic material of natural origin and is thus subject to attack by living
rganisms such as insects and fungi
- wood is also subject to fire attack

- fungi cause decay , rotting or staining . Fungi that attack the cellulose or lignin renders the
wood useless
- coating with antiseptic prevent fungi attack . oil soluble preservatives are also effective.
- water soluble preservatives for prevention of fungi attack contain copper , chrome ,
phenols and zinc

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