SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Our technological development has strong impacts on the natural as

well as the social components
Development does not mean an increase in GNP (Gross National
Product) of a few different nations
They have touched the greatest heights of scientific and
technological development but at what cost? The air we breathe, the
water we drink, and the food we eat have all badly polluted
Our natural resources are just dwindling due to over exploitation. If
this growth continues in the same way we will be facing a doom’s day
as suggested by the world’s famous report “The limits to growth”
Development has to be visualized in a holistic manner, where it
brings benefits to all, not only for the present generation but also for
future generation
According to G.H.Brundtland (Norwegion Prime minister & Director
of WHO) Sustainable development is defined as “meeting the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generation to meet their own needs”.

Principles of Sustainable development

 Improving the quality of human life

 Economic growth for all
 Environmental development

Objectives of sustainable development

 To protect our biodiversity

 To increase forest cover
 To prevent pollution
 To reduce waste
 Design ecofriendly technology
 To control population growth

Key aspects for sustainable development:

1) Inter – generational equity:

We should minimize any adverse impacts on resources and
environment for future generations
We should handover a safe, healthy, and resourceful environment to
our future generations
This is possible only if we stop over exploitation of resources, reduce
waste discharge and emissions and maintain ecological balance.
2) Intra – generational equity:
The development process should seek to minimize the wealth gaps
within and between nations
The technology should address to the problems of developing
countries, producing drought tolerant varieties for uncertain climates,
vaccines for infectious diseases, clean fuel for domestic and industrial
use.
This will support the economic growth of poor countries, narrowing the
wealth gap and lead to sustainability

MEASURE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Using appropriate technology:-

-It is one which is locally adaptable, eco-friendly and resource efficient

and culturally suitable.
-This concept of Nature – often taken as model is called “design with
Nature”.
-The technology should use less of resources and should produce
minimum waste.

Adoption 3 R’s (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle):-

-The 3-R approach advocating minimization of resource use, using

them again, recycling the materials goes a long way in achieving the
goals of sustainability.
-It reduces pressure on our resources as well as reduces waste
generation and pollution.

Promoting Environmental Education & Awareness:-

-Making environmental education the center of all learning process

will, greatly help in changing the thinking and attitude of people
towards our earth and the environment.

Resource Utilization as per carrying capacity:-

-In order to attain sustainability it is very important that consumption

should not exceed regeneration and changes should not allow to
occur beyond the tolerance capacity of the system.
Urbanization

Urbanization is the movement of human population from rural areas to

urban areas for the want of better education, communication, health,
employment, etc.

Causes of urbanization

People move from rural areas to urban areas because cities offer
more favorable conditions for the resolution of environmental and
social problems than rural areas. A few specific reasons for
urbanization are summarized below:
(i) People move into cities to seek jobs and income.
(ii) With good governance, cities can deliver education,
health care and other services more efficiently than rural
areas.
(iii) Cities provide opportunities for women’s empowerment
and social mobilization.
(iv) Density of urban life relieves pressure on areas of
biodiversity and natural habitats.
(v) It is through cities that foreign money flows into a
country (whether the source is tourism or trade).
(vi) Restaurants, movie theaters, theme parks and other
varieties of entertainment are available in cities.
Drawbacks of Urbanization

Often people who leave rural areas to find better jobs in the city
have no choice but to settle in slums, where they lack access to
decent housing, drinking water, sanitation, health care and
education.
 Crimes: Chances of robbery, murder, assault, etc.,
increases with unplanned urbanization.
 Poverty: Poverty is growing faster in urban than in rural
areas. One billion people live in urban slums, which are
typically overcrowded polluted and dangerous. Urban
areas are not self-sustaining. They survive only by
importing food, water, energy, etc. However, they also
produce large quantities of waste.
 Urban Heat Island: As urban and industrial areas are
developed, the majority of the sun’s energy is absorbed by
urban structures and asphalt. Thus, during warm daylight
hours, less evaporative cooling in cities allows surface
temperatures to rise higher than in rural areas. Additional
 city heat is given off by vehicles and factories as well as by
domestic and industrial cooling and heating units. This
effect causes the city to become 1 to 6°C warmer than
surrounding landscapes. Impacts also include
intensification of carbon dioxide emissions and reducing
soil moisture. The urban heat island has become a growing
concern and is increasing over the years.

Urbanization is also responsible for pollution (air, water, noise, etc.)

and traffic congestion.

Urban Problems Related to Energy

Urban center use enormous quantities of energy. In the past, urban

housing required relatively smaller amounts of energy than we use at
present. Traditional housing in India required very little temperature
adjustments as the material used, such as wood and bricks, handled
temperature changes better than the current concrete, glass and steel
of ultra-modern building.

The urban growth is so fast that it is becoming difficult to

accommodate all the industrial, commercial and residential facilities
within a limited municipal boundary. As a result there is spreading of
the cities into the sub-urban or rural areas too, this phenomenon is
known as “urban sprawl”.

In developing countries, urban growth is very fast and pollution is

uncontrollable and unplanned growth. When compared to rural people,
an urban person consumes a lot of energy and materials and
generates a lot of waste. This is because urban people have a higher
standard of life and their life style demands more energy inputs.

Examples for energy demanding activities

1. Residential and commercial lightings.

2. Transportation means including, motor cycle, car and public
transport for moving from residence to work place.
3. Industries using large proportional energy.
4. Modern life-style using a large number of electrical gadgets (fan,
fridge, washing machine, A/C, water heater, etc.) in everyday life.
5. Control and prevention of pollution, need more energy dependent
technologies.
The two sources of energy are renewable and non-renewable energy
sources. Optimal usage shall be the ideal mode for energy
conservation. For an integrated management system we should have
renewable energy as well as non-renewable energy sources.

At local level, biomass energy tapping, use of solar cooker, solar water
heaters and solar photovoltaic cells must be encouraged. This shall be
utilised besides the conventional energy from fossil fuels, hydel,
thermal and nuclear power resources.

Thus due to high population growth and high energy demanding

activities, the urban problems related to energy are much more
magnified as compared to the rural population.

WATER CONSERVATION:

Water being one of the most precious and indispensable resources

needs to be conserved.

The following strategies can be adopted for conservation for water:

1) Decreasing run off losses: This can be achieved by

Contour cultivation on small furrows and ridges across the slopes
trap rainwater and allow more time for infiltration
Conservation bench terracing involves construction of a series of
benches for catching the runoff water
Water spreading is done by channeling or lagoon travelling

Lagoon travelling means small depressions are dug in the area so

that there is temporary storage of water
Chemical wetting agents or conditioners like Gypsum when
applied to soils improves soil permeability and reduce runoff
Surface crop residues Tillage, mulch, animal residues
Water storage structures like farm ponds, dug wells
2) Reducing evaporation losses:
Horizontal barrier of asphalt placed below the soil surface increases
water availability
A co-polymer of starch and acrylonitrile called super slurper absorbs
water 4000 times its weight
3) Storing water in soil:
Soil should be wetted to field capacity
Leaving the soil fallow for one season water can be made available for
the next season for crop growth
4) Reducing irrigation losses:
Use of lined canals to reduce seepage
Irrigation in early morning or late evening
Sprinkling irrigation or drip irrigation
5) Reuse of water:
Treated waste water can be used for ferti-irrigation
Using grey water from washings, bath tubs for watering gardens
washing cars
6) Preventing wastage of water:
Closing taps when not in use
Repairing any leakage from pipes
7) Increasing block pricing:
The consumer has to pay a proportionately higher bill with higher
use of water

RAIN WATER HARVESTING:

Objectives
To reduce runoff loss
To avoid flooding of roads
To meet the increasing demands of water
To raise the water table by recharging ground water

Rain water harvesting techniques:

Rainwater harvesting means collecting rainwater and

storing/conserving it for a later use.

Various Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

There are two main methods of rainwater harvesting:
Storage of Rainwater on the Surface for Future Use: In this
method, traditional water-harvesting structures like artificial lakes,
ponds, etc., are used as such or after proper revival.
Recharge of Ground Water: The structures used for recharge of
ground water are as follows:
(a) Hand Pumps The water should pass through a filter bed before
percolation in existing hand pumps. They are used for
recharging aquifers.
(b) Pits They are 1–2 m wide and 3 m deep. They are also back
filled with gravel and coarse sand to aid filtration before
percolation to the ground. They are used for recharging a shallow
aquifer.
(c) Dug Wells The rain water, after filtration, is put into existing
dug wells for storage.
(d) Roof-Top and Road-Rop Collection of Rainwater In urban
areas, these methods are very useful to recharge aquifers.

How to Harvest the Rainwater?

Rainwater harvesting systems consists of the following components:

 Catchment- Used to collect and store the captured rainwater.

 Conveyance system – It is used to transport the harvested
water from the catchment to the recharge zone.
 Filter – Used for filtering the collected rainwater and removing
pollutants.
 Tanks and the recharge structures: Used to store the filtered
water which is ready to use.
The process of rainwater harvesting involves the collection and the
storage of rainwater with the help of artificially designed systems that
run off naturally or man-made catchment areas like- the rooftop,
compounds, rock surface, hill slopes, artificially repaired impervious or
semi-pervious land surface.
These days, the central ground water board along with the civic
authorities is encouraging artificial recharge of ground water
through rain water harvesting.
 Roof top rain water

Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting

The benefits of the rainwater harvesting system are listed below.

 Less cost.
 Helps in reducing the water bill.
 Decreases the demand for water.
 Reduces the need for imported water.
 Promotes both water and energy conservation.
 Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.
 Does not require a filtration system for landscape irrigation.
 This technology is relatively simple, easy to install and operate.
 It reduces soil erosion, storm water runoff, flooding, and
pollution of surface water with fertilizers, pesticides, metals and
other sediments.
 It is an excellent source of water for landscape irrigation with no
chemicals, dissolved salts and free from all minerals.
Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting
In addition to the great advantages, the rainwater harvesting system
has a few disadvantages like unpredictable rainfall, unavailability of
the proper storage system, etc.
Listed below are a few more disadvantages of the rainwater
harvesting process.

 Regular maintenance is required.

 Requires some technical skills for installation.
 Limited and no rainfall can limit the supply of rainwater.
 If not installed correctly, it may attract mosquitoes and other
waterborne diseases.
 One of the significant drawbacks of the rainwater harvesting
system is storage limits.

WASTELAND RECLAMATION

Land is a precious resource because it is used for agriculture,

pastures and grazing fields, housing, agroforestry, roads,
industrial areas, forestry, etc.
Wasteland is a land which is
(i) abandoned,
(ii) degraded and thus ecologically unstable,
(iii) incapable of producing material or service of value,
(iv) eroded,
(v) unfit for cultivation, unproductive, unfit for grazing as
greenery cannot be sustained, and
(vi) Saline, waterlogged, not being utilized to its potentials.
(A) Classification of Wastelands
Wasteland is broadly classified into the following two types:
(i) Cultivable Wastelands The lands are cultivable but not
cultivated for more than five years due to various reasons such as
being declared as notified forest area or state or private
occupation.
Examples: Waterlogged marshy lands, saline lands, degraded
forests, degraded pas- tures (or degraded grasslands), shifting
cultivation land, gullied land, strip land, etc.
(ii) Uncultivable or Barren Wastelands
These wastelands cannot be brought under cultivation or
 economic use except at a very high cost.
Examples: Barren rocky lands, areas covered by snow or glaciers,
steep sloping areas.
(B) Drawbacks of Wastelands Formation Formation of
wastelands result in the deterioration of ecological balance. The
various components of the ecosystem directly or indirectly
dependent on that particular wasteland are adversely affected.

(C) Wasteland Reclamation

Wasteland reclamation is the process of converting sterile, barren
wasteland into something that is fertile and suitable for habitation
and cultivation.

(D) Wasteland-Reclamation Practices

Some of the important wasteland-reclamation practices are briefly
described below:
a) Changing Agricultural Practices: Jhoom or shifting cultivation
should be replaced by crop rotation, mixed cropping or
developing plantation crops which would improve fertility of
land and support a large population.
i) Mulching: It means providing protective cover to stop the
shifting of sand. A mulch is a protective layer formed by the
stubble, i.e., the basal parts of herbaceous plants, especially
cereals, attached to the soil after harvest. Dry stems of
maize, tobacco, and cotton are used as mulch. For mulching,
artificial protective covering can also be used. Mulches act as
wind barriers; so soil erosion due to wind is reduced. By
addition of organic matter, mulches reduce evaporation and
increase soil moisture. Even mulching is useful against
water erosion.

ii) Managing Topography Water running down the hill erodes

soil. The faster it runs, the more soil it carries off the fields.
Soil erosion and wasteland formation can be minimized by
the following methods:
• Strip Farming In alternating strips along the contours,
different kinds of crops are planted. When one crop is
harvested, the other is still present to protect the soil and
keep water from running straight downhill.
• Contour Ploughing The ploughing of land is done across
the hill, and not in up and down style as in contour
ploughing, the ridges created by cultivation make little
dams that trap water and allow it to seep into the soil rather
 than running off.
• Tied Ridges This method involves a series of ridges running
at right angles to each other, so that water run-off is
blocked in every direction and is encouraged to soak into
the soil. Tied ridges are very useful in very heavy rainfall
areas.
• Terracing means shaping the earth in the form of levelled
terraces to hold soil and water. The edges of the terraces
are planted with soil-anchoring plant species. This method
makes it possible to farm very steep hillsides. However, this
method is costly, requires expensive machinery or much
hand labour.
b) Leaching: By providing adequate drainage to flood-prone and
irrigated lands, salinity can be prevented.
By leaching with more water, salt-affected lands can be
recovered, especially in the areas where groundwater table is
not high.
c) Afforestation: It means growing forests over culturable
wastelands for the first time. Previously there were no forests
there due to lack of seeds or other adverse factors.
Reforestation It means growing the forests over the lands where
they were existing earlier; and had destroyed or degraded by forest
fires, overgrazing, excessive felling, shifting cultivation, floods,
waterlogging, soil erosion, etc.
d) Protecting the River Banks: By providing stone, wooden
or concrete pitching or by plantation of trees/vegetation along
the river banks, it is possible to protect river banks against
caving and cutting.
Controlling Formation of Gullies The gullies get widened due to
excess run-off water. This can be checked by constructing dams,
diversion drains, bounds, etc.
e) Protecting Soil Erosion by Providing Ground Cover: After
harvesting, the crop residues are left on the ground. They resist
wind and water from creating erosion. The ground cover
reduces soil temperature and evaporation in the hot season. It
thus protects the ground organisms which are helpful in
aerating and rebuilding the soil.
f) Ecological Succession: This is a natural process of
establishment or re- establishment of an ecosystem. In ecological
succession, the slow-growing native grasses assist in reclaiming
the minerally deficient soils in mining and industrial wastelands.
g) Drainage: It is required for waterlogged soil reclamation
 where excess water is removed by artificial drainage.

In areas where waterlogging happens after heavy rains,

surface drainage is facilitated to remove the excess water.

Subsurface drainage is better because chances of evaporation of

water leading to accumulation of salt almost become nil in this
method.
RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION ISSUES:

Various development projects often lead to displacement of native or

tribal people who are poor and very often not educated. Their
rehabilitation is a major socio economic issue.

Problems and concerns:

Displacement problems due to dams:

The big river valley projects have one of the most serious socio
economic impacts due to large scale displacement of local people
from their ancestral home and loss of their traditional profession or
occupation.
In India due to big dam construction, more than 20 million people
are estimated to have been directly or indirectly affected by these
dams
The Hirakund dam has displaced more than 20,000 people residing
about 250 villages.
The Bhakra Nangal dam was constructed during 1950’s and till now
it has not been possible to rehabilitate even half of the displaced
persons.
Tehri dam and Sardar sarovar dam also have same issues.

Displacement due to mining:

Mining is another developmental activity which causes displacement

of the native people.
Several thousands of hectares of land area is covered in mining
operation and the native people are displaced.
Sometimes displacement of local people is due to accidents
occurring in mined areas like subsidence of land that often leads to
shifting of people.
Jharia coal fields, Jharkhand have been posing big problems to the
residents due to underground fires and they are asked to vacate the
area.
 According to latest estimation, about Rs.18,000 crores will be spent
for shifting the population while the cost of extinguishing the fire would
be around 8,000 crore.

Displacement due to creation of national parks:

When some forest area is covered under a national park, it is

welcome step for conservation of natural resources.
However it also has a social aspect associated with it.
A major portion of the forest is declared as core area where the
entry of local people is restricted.
So they start destruction activities

The major issues related to displacement and rehabilitation is

Tribals are usually most affected amongst the displaced who are
already poor
Break up of families and women are the worst affected.
The tribals are not familiar with market policies and trends
Kinship systems, marriages, social and cultural functions, their folk
songs, dances and activities vanish with their displacement
Loss of identity and loss of intimate link between the people

The objective of the Ministry of Rehabilitation and Resettlement

(Government of India) is to transfer the benefits, in lieu of the losses
occurred to displaced people due to involuntarily displacement.

This objective may be ensured by implementing the following policies:

(i) To keep them intact in a family or community in which
they were settled prior to being displaced.
(ii) To provide them essential infrastructure such as health,
schooling and credit in resettlement sites
(iii) To govern the displacement process by laws for avoiding
possible problems, to create new rights for them that will
enable them to directly share the benefits of the
development project and to provide adequate
compensation.
(iv) To relocate them to a locality of their preference
(v) To provide them increasing incomes through opportunities of
employment and livelihood, to provide them opportunities
for the enhancement of capabilities and to improve their
standard of living
(vi) To give them proper participation and choice for their
resettlement and rehabilitation
 (vii) To provide them social infrastructure and community services

Environmental Ethics: Issues and Possible Solutions

The work ‘ethic’ is derived from the Greek work ‘ethos’ which
means the character of a person as described by his or her
actions.
Ethics deals with moral duty and obligations. It gives rise to a set
of values, which are used to judge whether one’s behaviour or
conduct is right or wrong.
Trust, honesty, justice, trustworthiness, competence and
accountability are the basis of ethics.
(A) Issues In early 1970s, the world started realizing the
dangers of human actions on the environment. The main
reasons of such concerns were the following issues whose
effects were changing the global environment: “ACNE”
A (i) Reduced purification of atmosphere because of increased
deforestation
C (ii) Increased CO2 concentration and presence of harmful
elements in atmosphere due to enhanced burning of
fossil fuels
N (iii) Depletion of natural resources at a rapid rate due to
consumption by increasing population
E (iv) Deteriorating quality of environment
because of urbanization, industrialization,
deforestation, consumerism, etc.

These issues result in the following serious consequences:

Greenhouse effect, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer
depletion, etc.
(B) Possible Solutions Awareness of consequences like global
warming, etc., has led the society to adopt environmental ethics.
These environmental ethics give equal importance to growth and
sustainability.
The Following ethical guidelines are very useful as possible
solutions for most environment-related problems:
(i) Humans must keep themselves informed about ecological
changes as a result of development.
(ii) Humans must understand that they cannot survive alone
on the earth. The earth is the habitat of all living species.
Living species depend on each other for survival.
(iii) All humans must be cooperative, honest, affectionate and
polite to nature and society.
(iv) Humans must respect nature. They are part of it.
(v) Humans should act locally for protection of environment
globally.
 (vi) Humans must protect natural resources and energies as
resources are depleting fast.
(vii) Humans must reserve scarce resources for the future
and the future generations.
(viii) Humans must involve themselves in the care of the earth.
(ix) Everyone should try to bring about a change in the
attitudes of other persons. They should collectively work
towards conservation, protection and restoration of the
environment.
(x) Each human should plant at least one tree on his or her
birthday.
(xi) Humans should purchase only that much which is essential
because excess turns into wastage.

Climate Change

Weather is the reflection of atmospheric humidity, temperature and

rainfall. Climate is the average weather pattern over longer duration in
a place. Climate change is reflected from the following facts:

 Since the late 19th century, the earth has warmed by 0.3 to
0.6°C on an average.
 By the year 2100,
(a) Temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5°C
(b) Global mean sea levels would rise by 15 to 95 cm
Causes of climate change on a global scale are linked with changes in
the amount of heat that is either let into the earth system or let out of
the earth system.

Depending on proximity to oceans and altitude and amounts of sunlight

received by different regions of the world, climate differs from place to
place.

For example, hot climates are due to greater concentrations of

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which reduce the amount of
heat that is let out of the atmosphere.

Ill effects of climate change are linked to

(i) cyclones,
(ii) floods,
(iii) dry or wet spells of rain fall
(iv) cold and hot spells of temperature.

A) Impacts of Climate Change

(i) Positive Impacts Reduced deaths from cold and higher
 agricultural output in northern regions (at least for a while) are few
positive impacts of global warming.
(ii) Negative Impacts
(a) Submergence of low-lying islands (especially in the Pacific),
vast saline inundations in countries like Bangladesh, etc.,
are linked to rise in sea level. (Global warming is responsible
for melting of ice caps and glaciers, which lead to rise in
sea level.)
(b) The tourism industry will suffer in parts of southern
Europe because of change of climate towards hotter than
ever before (prediction by the European Acacia Project).
(c) Damaging changes in wildlife behaviour like failure of
Scottish seabirds to raise young during the 2004 breeding
season.
(d) The poorest of the poor are most likely to be hit by the
impacts of climate change.
B) Solutions of Climate-change Problems: Some of the simple
solutions are
(i) Reduce the emission of greenhouse gases
(ii) Use renewable energy resources
(iii) Use energy efficient technologies

Example 1 What are the important mitigation technologies and

commercially available latest technologies for tackling the
climate change as per FoUrth Assessment Report of
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?

Solution As per the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, the

important mitigation technologies and practices presently
commercially available are described below:
(i) Industry
• Recovery of heat and power
• Recycling of material
• Green technology
• Efficient equipment, etc.
(ii) Buildings
• Passive and active solar design for cooling and heating
• Efficient electrical appliances
• Improved cooking stoves
• Efficient lighting and day lighting, etc.
(iii) Transport
• Use of public transport systems
• Cycling, walking, etc., non motorised transport
• Use of best fuel-efficient vehicles
• Biofuels
• Proper transport planning, etc.
 (iv) Energy supply
• Renewable energy
• Improved efficiency in supply and distribution, etc.

(v) Agriculture
• Improved nitrogen fertilizer application techniques to
reduce N2O emissions,
• Improved rice-cultivation techniques and livestock-and-
manure management to reduce CH4 emissions,
• Dedicated energy corps to replace fossil-fuel use,
• Improved crop and grazing-land management, etc.,
to increase soil carbon storage,
(vi) Waste
• Recycling and waste minimization
• Compositing of organic waste
• Waste incineration with energy recovery
• Waste-water treatment, etc.
• Landfill methane recovery
(vii) Forests
• Reduced deforestation
• Forest management
• Afforestation
• Reforestation
• Harvested wood-product management
• Use of forestry products for bio-energy to replace use of
fossil fuel, etc.

Case Study

Climate Change, Perspectives from India

Climate change is the biggest development challenge for the

planet. There is not much difference between managing a
local forest and the global climate—we need a framework
which encourages cooperation. Then a country can have both
growth and less carbon emissions. To tackle the impact of
climate change on food security in India, it has been suggested
to practice soil and water conservation. Small-scale industries
emit substantial greenhouse gases and have the potential for
saving huge amounts of energy.

C) Environment Security and Climate Change

The security of the entire global community is increasingly exposed to risk
by humans through air, water and/or land pollution. Economic activities
cause environmental changes that lead to conflict.
It is important for all countries to cooperate in order to reduce the
effects of environmental degradation. Everyone should contribute by
limiting greenhouse gas emission, conserving natural resources, and
developing and sharing energy-efficient technologies.

Global Warming: The Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse Effect Definition

“Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiations from the
sun are absorbed by the greenhouse gases and not reflected
back into space. This insulates the surface of the earth and
prevents it from freezing.”

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow
plants. The sun’s radiations warm the plants and the air inside the
greenhouse. The heat trapped inside can’t escape out and warms the
greenhouse which is essential for the growth of the plants. Same is
the case in the earth’s atmosphere.
During the day the sun heats up the earth’s atmosphere. At night,
when the earth cools down the heat is radiated back into the
atmosphere. During this process, the heat is absorbed by the
greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. This is what makes the
surface of the earth warmer that makes the survival of living beings on
earth possible.
However, due to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the
temperature of the earth has increased considerably. This has led to
several drastic effects.

Greenhouse Gases
“Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared
radiations and create a greenhouse effect. For eg., carbondioxide
and chlorofluorocarbons.”

The major contributors to the greenhouse gases are factories,

automobiles, deforestation, etc. The increased number of factories
and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the
atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations escape
from the earth and increase the surface temperature of the earth. This
then leads to global warming.
Causes of Greenhouse Effect
The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in
transportation and to produce electricity. Burning of fossil fuels
releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in population, the utilization
of fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Deforestation
Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to
the cutting of trees, there is a considerable increase in the greenhouse
gases which increases the earth’s temperature.

Farming
Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the
greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.

Industrial Waste and Landfills

The industries and factories produce harmful gases which are
released in the atmosphere.
Landfills also release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the
greenhouse gases.

Effects of Greenhouse Effect

The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:
Global Warming
It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature
of the Earth’s atmosphere. The main cause for this environmental
issue is the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide and methane released by the burning of fossil fuels, emissions
from the vehicles, industries and other human activities.
Impact of global warming and greenhoUse effect

(i) Consequences of Global Warming

(a) Melting of polar ice caps, and increase of sea/ocean levels
(b) Flooding of low-lying land
(c) Less water vapour in the atmosphere leading to more drought
(d) Causes extremes of weather hurricanes, flooding and
droughts, difficulties in growing crops and survival
problems
More industrialized countries are responsible for causing high
levels of CO2 in the atmosphere and less industrialized countries
are also contributing by destruction of the rainforest.
(ii) Remedial Measures
(a) Enhance energy efficiency during use by adding insulation to
your walls, and by using CFL bulbs, etc.
(b) Reduce transport sector emissions by less and smart driving.
(c) Promote renewable energy (like solar energy) usage.
(d) Remove subsidies on fossil fuels.
(e) Favour sustainable agriculture.
(f) Recover methane emissions through waste management.
(g) Promote afforestation and reforestations—a single tree will
absorb approximately one ton of CO2 during its lifetime.
(h) Reduce energy consumption by using energy-efficient home
appliances.

(i) Avoid methane production from biomass decay through

controlled combustion.
(j) Enhance energy efficiency during generation, transmission and
distribution.
(k) Reduce waste, prefer reusable products, recycle paper,
plastic, metals, etc.
(l) Eat locally grown fruits and vegetables and not the imported
ones. The latter requires the burning of fossil fuels for
transport.
Depletion of Ozone Layer
Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the
sun. It is found in the upper regions of the stratosphere. The depletion
of the ozone layer results in the entry of the harmful UV rays to the
earth’s surface that might lead to skin cancer and can also change
the climate drastically.
The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural
greenhouse gases including chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide,
methane, etc.
Ozone-Layer Depletion (Ozone Hole)
(A) Ozone: Ozone (O3) is an allotropic form of oxygen (O2). It is
a pale blue gas. It helps in sustaining life on earth by filtering out
the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation.
(B) Ozone Layer: The total amount of ozone in an overhead
column of the atmosphere is measured in dobson unit (after the
atmospheric ozone pioneer GMB Dobson). One Dobson Unit (DU)
indicates that a 0.01 mm thick ozone layer would be formed if
ozone is compressed into one layer at 0°C and 1 atm pressure.
Across the globe, in the stratosphere, the average thickness of the
ozone layer is about 3 mm at 0°C and 1 atm pressure (or about
300 DU). The stratospheric pool of ozone is known as the
ozonosphere.
(C) Ozone Hole: When the level of ozone in the
stratosphere falls below 200 DU, it is considered to represent
the beginnings of an ozone hole.
(D) Causes of Ozone-Hole Formation: The gradual thinning of
the ozone layer and ozone-hole formation occurs by the
destruction of ozone due to its reactions with nitric oxide,
chlorine, hydroxyl radicals, etc., in the stratosphere.
Flying of supersonic aircrafts, nuclear explosions and various
chemical/ photochemical reactions in the atmosphere generate
nitric oxide. Burning of biomass generates hydroxyl radicals.
Volcanic activity releases chlorine in the atmosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), fluorochloro methane (freons),
difluorodichloro methane (CF2Cl2) and fluorochloroform (CFCl 3)
release chlorine by ultraviolet radiation induced homolytic
cleavage in the atmosphere.
It is estimated that about 6.5% of the total ozone-layer depletion is
due to chlorine radicals from various CFCs.
 The chemical reactions leading to the destruction of ozone layer
by CFCs are given below:

As Cl atoms are regenerated in step (c), a long-chain process is

followed which keeps on consuming ozone. It is estimated that
each atom of chlorine can destroy one lakh ozone molecules
when they diffuse to the stratospheric level.

(E) Problems Associated with Ozone-Layer Depletion: The

ozone layer absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet radiations
coming from the sun in the region (220–330) nm.

In the absence of an ozone layer, these ultraviolet radiations could

cause the following problems:
(i) Swelling of skin and skin cancer; skin aging, burning
sensation
(ii) Death of phytoplanktons in marine environment (the sole
producers) leading the entire ecosystem to collapse
(iii) Reduction in the body’s ability to fight off disease, as UV
suppresses the immune system; premature aging.
(iv) Inhibition and alteration of DNA replication and formation of
DNA adduct; leukamia, breast cancer
(v) Visual impairment, dizziness, cataracts of eyes
(vi) Damage to plants; reduction in crop yields; faster
deterioration of paints, fabrics, plastics
(F) Remedial Measures to Control the Depletion of Ozone Layer
(i) Avoid any fire extinguisher that contains bromine-based
halons. Preferably use water, carbon dioxide or dry
chemical fire extinguishers.
(ii) Spread awareness about the restricted use of CFCs for the
healthy survival of mankind.
 (iii) Avoid purchasing and using refrigerators, air conditioners,
etc., which use CFCs, freons, etc., as coolants.
(iv) Avoid purchasing and using pressurised aerosol cans which
use CFCs, freons, etc., as propellants.
(v) Ban atmospheric nuclear explosions, as they emit NO and
deplete the ozone layer.
(vi) Reduce the air traffic of supersonic aircrafts that fly at
the ozonosphere altitude, as they release large amounts of
NO and deplete the ozone layer.
(vii) Facilitate advanced research to plug the ozone holes that
have already been formed.

ACID RAIN

Acid rain, also called acid precipitation or acid

deposition, precipitation possessing a pH of about 5.2 or below
primarily produced from the emission of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and nitrogen oxides (NOx; the combination of NO and NO2) from
human activities, mostly the combustion of fossil fuels. Acid rain
contributes to the corrosion of surfaces exposed to air pollution and is
responsible for the deterioration of limestone and marble buildings and
monuments.

Chemistry of acid deposition

Normal rainwater is weakly acidic because of the absorption of carbon

dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere—a process that produces carbonic
acid—and from organic acids generated from biological activity. In
addition, volcanic activity can produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric
acid (HNO3), and hydrochloric acid (HCl) depending on the emissions
associated with specific volcanoes. Other natural sources of
acidification include the production of nitrogen oxides from the
conversion of atmospheric molecular nitrogen (N2) by lightning and the
conversion of organic nitrogen by wildfires. However, the geographic
extent of any given natural source of acidification is small, and in most
cases it lowers the pH of precipitation to no more than about 5.2.

Anthropogenic activities, particularly the burning of fossil

fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and the smelting of metal ores, are the
major causes of acid deposition. In the atmosphere, sulfuric and nitric
acids are generated when SO2 and NOx, respectively, react with
water. The simplest reactions are:

SO2 + H2O → H2SO4 ←→ H+ + HSO4 ←→ 2H+ + SO42

NO2 + H2O → HNO3 ←→ H+ + NO3

These reactions in the aqueous phase (for example, in cloud water)

create wet deposition products.

Causes of Acid Rain

The causes of acid rain are Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which
get mixed with the wet components of rain. Sulphur and Nitrogen
particles which get mixed with water are found in two ways either man-
made i.e as the emissions that are given out from industries or by
natural causes like lightning strike in the atmosphere releasing
nitrogen oxides and volcanic eruptions releasing sulphur oxide.
pH 4.2-4.4= Acid rain
pH 5.6= Clean rain

As the pH is log [H+], so each pH unit represents a tenfold

change:

(i) A pH of 5 is ten times more acidic than a pH of 6.

(ii) A pH of 4 is hundred times more acidic than a pH of 6.
 1. Acidic gases (sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) released
into atmosphere from industries, vehicle’s exhaust etc.
2. Acidic gases carried by the wind.
3. Acidic gases dissolve in rainwater to form acid rain.
4. Acid rain kills plant life, pollutes rivers and streams and erodes
stone work.

Effects of Acid Rain

 Acid rain is very harmful to agriculture, plants, and animals. It

washes away all nutrients which are required for the growth and
survival of plants. Acid rain affects agriculture by the way it
alters the composition of the soil.

 It causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.

 When acid rain falls down and flows into the rivers and ponds it
affects the aquatic ecosystem. It alters the chemical
composition of the water, to a form which is actually harmful to
the aquatic ecosystem to survive and causes water pollution.
 Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes, which further
results in leaching of heavy metals such as iron, lead and
copper into drinking water.
 It damages the buildings and monuments made up of stones
and metals.
Acid Rain and Taj Mahal

Tourist traffic is not allowed near the Taj Mahal in an effort to

control the deleterious effects of pollution. The degradation
of the Taj Mahal’s marble facades has still not slowed down.
 This is due to acid rain generated from local foundries and an
oil refinery. The once brilliant white Taj Mahal has been losing
its luster, dulling into a sickly pale shade. Two common air
pollutants, SO2 and NOX, cause acid rain.
Nuclear Accidents and Holocaust
A) Nuclear Accidents
Nuclear accidents can occur at any stage of the nuclear fuel cycle.
They may also result from the failure of nuclear devices.

Types of nuclear accidents are discussed below:

1. Nuclear test: Nuclear explosions, carried out in underground,

because settling down the radioactive materials on the earth's surface
and radioactive particles, radioactive rays into the atmosphere.

2. Nuclear power plant accidents: The release of radiation occurs

during the accidents. The nuclear power plant located in the seismic
vulnerable area may cause nuclear accidents.

3. Improper disposal of radioactive waste: It is another source of

accident. Drums stored underground can rust and leak radioactive
materials into water, land and air.
4. Accident during transport: Trucks carrying radioactive wastes or
fuels are involved in frequent accidents.
5. Core melt down: The major accident at a nuclear power plant is a
core melt down.

Effect of Nuclear Radiation

1. Radiations may break chemical bonds such as DNA in cells. This

effect may be instantaneous, prolonged or delayed types. It may be
even carried to future generations.
2. Exposure at low dose of radiation (100-250 rads), people do not die,
but begin to suffer from fatigue, vomiting and loss of hair.
3. Exposure at higher dose of radiation (400-500 rads) affects bone
marrow, blood cells, natural resistance and blood to fail clot.
4. Exposure at very high dose of radiation (10,000 rads) kills the
organisms by damaging the tissues of heart, brain.

World major nuclear accidents

(i) Three Mile Island Accident: On March 28, 1979, a nuclear

accident occurred in US at the Three Mile Island nuclear power
plant. One of two reactors lost its coolant, which caused
overheating and partial meltdown of its uranium core. This resulted
 in release of intense radiation as well as radioisotopes.
Fortunately, the plume emitted into the atmosphere was quite
low for causing toxic effect.
(ii) Chernobyl Nuclear Accident: On April 26, 1986, a nuclear
accident occurred in Chernobyl, near Kiev, Ukraine. Explosion and
fire in the graphite core of one of four reactors released radioactive
material that spread over part of the Soviet Union, eastern Europe,
western Europe and Scandinavia. This is one of the world’s worst
nuclear accidents involving 237 confirmed cases of chronic
radiation illness and 37 deaths. Hundreds of thousands of
Ukrainians, Russians and Belorussians had to abandon entire
cities within a 30 km zone of extreme contamination. About 3
million people, more that 2 million in Belarus alone are still living in
contaminated areas. Figures from the Ukraine Radiological
Institute suggest that over 2500 deaths were caused by the
Chernobyl nuclear disaster.
(iii) Tokaimura Nuclear Accident: On September 30, 1999, a
nuclear accident occurred in a nuclear plant in Tokaimura,
Japan. In a uranium-processing nuclear fuel plant, a chain
reaction went uncontrolled, resulting in emission of high levels of
radioactive gas into the air. Because of this accident, two workers
were seriously injured and one worker got killed.
Populations living in contaminated areas and persons who
helped with the clean- up of the accident were found to have
thyroid or other cancers. Among Ukrainian young children (up to
15 years of age), the average thyroid cancer rate was 4–6
incidents per million before the accident. After the incident, the
cancer rate rose to 45 incidents per million.

People were not told the truth until several years after the
accident. The lack of public information available after the
accident, the stress and trauma of evacuation and concerns of
the people affected and concerns about their children’s health
resulted in significant increases in psychological health disorders
such as depression, anxiety, helplessness, social withdrawal,
mental stress and lack of hope for the future.

Nuclear Holocaust

Holocaust means large-scale destruction of human lives by intense heat

and fire.

It means destruction of biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclear

bombs. In a holocaust, a large number of living beings are totally
destroyed. Usually, these kinds of destructions are happened in a
nuclear war.

Holocaust: Great Destruction Resulting in the Extensive Loss of

Life:
Hiroshima–Nagasaki disaster is a nuclear holocaust. America was
involved in the development of an atom bomb while World War II was
at its peak. The bomb was made and was test fired on 16 July, 1945 in
a desert in Mexico. The 30 m tower on which the bomb was placed
completely melted. The blinding light that spread for a few minutes
turned the sun into a pale ball. Frightened to the core by the resulting
blast, scientists vehemently opposed using it on Japan or anywhere
in the world. US President Harry Truman was determined to win the
war against Japan. He ordered dropping of the bomb on Japan. The
uranium bomb named the Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima on
August 6, 1945. Within minutes, one lakh persons were burnt to death
like moths near a lamp. Just three days later, a plutonium bomb named
Fatman was dropped over Nagasaki. The whole area was burnt and
looked like a desert. Devastating shock waves, deadly gamma
radiations and enormous amount of heat created conditions where
any life cannot survive.

It is estimated that by December 1945, as many as 1,40,000 had died in

Hiroshima by the uranium bomb and its associated effects. In Nagasaki,
roughly 74,000 people died of the plutonium bomb and its after
effects. In both cities, around 2,14,000 people in total, most of them
were civilians, were killed. In Nagasaki alone, up to 60,000 people
were injured. The radius of total destruction was about 1.6 km,
followed by fire across the northern portion of the city to 3.2 km
south of the bomb.

Radiation poisoning and necrosis caused illness and death after the
bombing in about 1% of Hiroshima residents who survived the initial
explosion. In the years between 1950 and 1990, It is estimated that
hundreds of deaths are attributable to radiation exposure among
atomic-bomb survivors from both Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Effect of Nuclear Holocaust

1. Nuclear winter
Nuclear bombardment will cause combustion of wood, plastics,
petroleum, forest etc. Large quantity of black soot will be carried to the
stratosphere. Black soot will absorb all radiations and will not allow the
radiation to reach the earth. Therefore, cooling will result. Due to this
cooling effect, water evaporation will also reduce. In stratosphere
there won't be significant moisture to rain-out the thick soot. Thus, due
to nuclear explosions, a process known as opposite to global warming
will occur. This is called nuclear winter.

Effect of nuclear winter

(a) Lowers the global temperature, even in summer the temperature

will be at around freezing temperature.

(b) Crop productivity will be reduced causing famines and human

sufferings.

2. It ignites all combustible material; destroy all the living beings,

material crushing and destruction of homes.

Control measures

1. Suitable precautions are to be taken and training must be given to

people for handling these materials to avoid accident.
2. Constant monitoring of the radiation level has to be carried out, limit
exposure to the workers.
3. Regular checks and control measures are done by Atomic Energy
Regulatory Board under the Department of Atomic Energy.

Consumerism and Waste Products

Consumerism is a process and habit of the chronic purchasing of new

goods and services, with less attention to their true need, durability, origin of
the product or the environmental impacts during manufacture and
disposal.

Model of Paul Ehrlich and John Hodlren (1972) :

Population X Consumerism X Waste generation = Environmental

degradation
(No. of persons) x per capita use of resources x waste
generated per unit of resource use = Overall environmental
degradation
In More Developed Countries (MDCs), population is less and
resources are in abundance. Lifestyle is luxurious and per capita
consumption of resources is very high. More consumption of
resources results in more waste generation and greater
environmental degradation.
In Less Developed Countries (LDCs), population is large. Adequate
resources are not available for all, so per capita consumption is less.
However, overall consumption is high. Thus, environmental impact is
same or slightly less in comparison to MDCs.

For example, the population of India is 3.4 times more than that of
USA but its overall resource use and waste generation is less than
1/8th that of USA.
A) Creators of Consumerist Culture
(i) Artificial Beauty: Millions of people use soaps, detergents,
hair dyes, skin-care creams and other cosmetic items to enhance
their beauty artificially. Manufacturers have been able to create
demands for these cosmetic items and the public is busy
spending their money for this temporary beauty enhancement.
Fashion Manufacturers of clothes, textiles, shoes and apparel
keep changing fashions to accelerate the speed of
consumerism through advertisements.
(ii) Greed of Industry: To make more profits, industry and
large businesses want to sell more products. Generally,
products are made for a one-time use. Through regular
advertising a “throwaway society” has been created. This society
prefers disposable items discarding notions of inherent value,
longevity and the environmental consequences of manufacture
and disposal of the product. In the developed world, 200 billion
paper cups, bottles, cans and plastic cartons are thrown away
each year.
(iii) More Money, Less Time: Family ties, friendship,
everything becomes mediated through the spending of money
on goods and gifts and services. A generation is growing up
without knowing what quality goods are. Relations are
promoted only as a vehicle of giving and taking gifts.
(iv) Mega Shows: Manufacturers of items of consumerism (like
automobiles, televisions, radios, refrigerators, air conditioners,
dishwashers, cosmetics) sponsor megashows. They kindle
passion and unquenchable desire for latest items through prizes
and other incentives.
(v) Advertising: Advertising is designed to create both a
desire to follow fashions, and the resultant personal self-reward
system based on acquisition. Thus, a consumerist culture is not
based on natural demand, but on a created demand.
 (vi) Politics Consumerism is encouraged politically so that
population remains satisfied by material needs and politicians
can do whatever they wish for.

B) Drawbacks of Consumerism
Consumerism

i. causes more pollution, creates more waste products, causes

wasteful use of material and energy,
ii. helps lowest-wage, environ- mentally unregulated over- seas
manufacturers,
iii. promotes social unrest,
iv. promotes riots, and other criminalities, and
v. Leads to societal suicide.

C) Measures to Prevent Excess Consumerism

Some of the measures to prevent excess consumerism include the

following:

i. Pigouvian Taxes For encouraging industrial ecology and waste

reduction, manufacturers are taxed for some or all the cost of
recycling or waste disposal.

ii. Ecolabelling It involves the marking of products to indicate

that they are environmentally friendly. Ecolabelling assesses
environmental impact and communicates this to the consumer. It
also encourages manufacturers to reduce the impacts of their
products. Ecomark is used in India for ecolabelling.
iii. Green Marketing It involves communicating green image of the
better, environmental friendly products to the consumer. It helps
in conserving the environment and achieving better marketing
niche. People also happily buy green products like refrigerators
that do not leak ozone-layer-depleting chlorofluoro carbons
(CFC’s) and consumes less electricity.
iv. Self-awareness and Self-control

Having fewer things means enjoying what you have more and
actually getting to use it. It also helps in fewer distractions from
the essentials such as food, family, nature, study, and friends.