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UNIT V FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Types of signal

Analog signal and digital signal

Definitions of Analog vs Digital signals

An Analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature
(variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity,
i.e., analogous to another time varying signal. It differs from a digital signal in
terms of small fluctuations in the signal which are meaningful.

A digital signal uses discrete (discontinuous) values. By contrast, non-digital (or

analog) systems use a continuous range of values to represent information.
Although digital representations are discrete, the information represented can be
either discrete, such as numbers or letters, or continuous, such as sounds, images,
and other measurements of continuous systems.

Properties of Digital vs Analog signals

Digital information has certain properties that distinguish it from analog

communication methods. These include

Synchronization – digital communication uses specific synchronization

sequences for determining synchronization.

Language – digital communications requires a language which should be

possessed by both sender and receiver and should specify meaning of symbol
sequences.

Errors – disturbances in analog communication causes errors in actual intended

communication but disturbances in digital communication does not cause errors
enabling error free communication. Errors should be able to substitute, insert or
delete symbols to be expressed.

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Copying – analog communication copies are quality wise not as good as their
originals while due to error free digital communication, copies can be made
indefinitely.

Granularity – for a continuously variable analog value to be represented in

digital form there occur quantization error which is difference in actual analog
value and digital representation and this property of digital communication is
known as granularity.

Differences in Usage in Equipment

Many devices come with built in translation facilities from analog to digital.
Microphones and speaker are perfect examples of analog devices. Analog
technology is cheaper but there is a limitation of size of data that can be
transmitted at a given time.

Digital technology has revolutionized the way most of the equipments work.
Data is converted into binary code and then reassembled back into original form
at reception point. Since these can be easily manipulated, it offers a wider range
of options. Digital equipment is more expensive than analog equipment.
Comparison of Analog vs Digital Quality

Digital devices translate and reassemble data and in the process are more prone
to loss of quality as compared to analog devices. Computer advancement has
enabled use of error detection and error correction techniques to remove
disturbances artificially from digital signals and improve quality.

Differences in Applications

Digital technology has been most efficient in cellular phone industry. Analog
phones have become redundant even though sound clarity and quality was good.

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Analog technology comprises of natural signals like human speech. With digital
technology this human speech can be saved and stored in a computer. Thus digital
technology opens up the horizon for endless possible uses.

Comparison chart

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Principles of Amplitude modulation

mplitude Modulation (AM) plus frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is one

way of solving above problem. Each conversation is shifted to a different part of
the frequency spectrum by using a high-frequency waveform to "carry" each
individual speech signal. These high frequencies are called carrier frequencies .
Amplitude modulation is the process of varying the amplitude of the sinusoidal
carrier wave by the amplitude of the modulating signal, and is illustrated in Fig.

The unmodulated carrier wave has a constant peakvalueand a higher frequency

than the modulating signal , but, when the modulating signal is applied, the peak

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value of the carrier varies in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal, and the outline wave shape or "envelope" of the modulated
wave's peak values is the same as the original modulating signal wave shape. The
modulating signal waveform has been superimposed on the carrier wave.
When a sinusoidal carrier wave of frequency fc Hz is amplitude - modulated by
a sinusoidal modulating signal of frequency fm Hz , then the modulated carrier
wave contains three frequencies .
1) fc Hz : Original carrier frequency
2) ( fc + fm ) Hz : The sum of carrier and modulating signal frequencies
3) ( fc - fm ) Hz : The difference between carrier and modulating signal

This is illustrated in Fig

It should be noted that two of these frequencies are new, being produced by the
amplitude-modulation process, and are called side-frequencies. The sum of
carrier and modulating signal frequencies is called the upper side-frequency. The
difference between carrier and modulating signal frequency is called the lower
side-frequency. This is illustrated in the frequency spectrum diagram of Fig.

The bandwidth of the modulated carrier wave is

( fc + fm ) - ( fc - fm ) = 2 fm
i.e. double the modulating signal frequency

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The complete amplitude-modulated wave band of lower sideband plus carrier

plus upper sideband shown in Fig. 8 takes up more frequency bandwidth than is
really necessary to transmit the information signal since all the information is
carried by either one of the sidebands alone . The carrier component is of constant
amplitude and frequency so does not carry any of the information signal at all . It
is possible by using special equipment to suppress both the carrier and one
sideband and to transmit just the other sideband with no loss of information. This
method of working is called single sideband working ( SSB ) . This method is not
used for domestic radio broadcasting , but it is used for some long-distance radio
telephony systems and for multi-channel carrier systems used in national
telephone networks.

Principle of frequency modulation

Frequency modulation uses the information signal, V m(t) to vary the carrier
frequency within some small range about its original value. Here are the three
signals in mathematical form:

Information: Vm(t)
Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin ( 2 p fc t + f )
FM: VFM (t) = Vco sin (2 p [fc + (Df/Vmo) Vm (t) ] t + f)

We have replaced the carrier frequency term, with a time-varying frequency. We

have also introduced a new term: Df, the peak frequency deviation. In this form,
you should be able to see that the carrier frequency term: fc + (Df/Vmo) Vm (t) now
varies between the extremes of fc - Df and fc + Df. The interpretation of Df
becomes clear: it is the farthest away from the original frequency that the FM
signal can be. Sometimes it is referred to as the "swing" in the frequency.

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We can also define a modulation index for FM, analogous to AM: b = Df/fm ,
where fm is the maximum modulating frequency used.

The simplest interpretation of the modulation index, b, is as a measure of the peak

frequency deviation, Df. In other words, b represents a way to express the peak
deviation frequency as a multiple of the maximum modulating frequency, fm, i.e.
Df = b fm.

Example: suppose in FM radio that the audio signal to be transmitted ranges from
20 to 15,000 Hz (it does). If the FM system used a maximum modulating index,
b, of 5.0, then the frequency would "swing" by a maximum of 5 x 15 kHz = 75
kHz above and below the carrier frequency.

Here is a simple FM signal:

Here, the carrier is at 30 Hz, and the modulating frequency is 5 Hz. The
modulation index is about 3, making the peak frequency deviation about 15 Hz.
That means the frequency will vary somewhere between 15 and 45 Hz. How fast
the cycle is completed is a function of the modulating frequency.

FM Spectrum

A spectrum represents the relative amounts of different frequency components in

any signal. Its like the display on the graphic-equalizer in your stereo which has

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leds showing the relative amounts of bass, midrange and treble. These correspond
directly to increasing frequencies (treble being the high frequency components).
It is a well-know fact of mathematics, that any function (signal) can be
decomposed into purely sinusoidal components (with a few pathological
exceptions) . In technical terms, the sines and cosines form a complete set of
functions, also known as a basis in the infinite-dimensional vector space of real-
valued functions (gag reflex). Given that any signal can be thought to be made up
of sinusoidal signals, the spectrum then represents the "recipe card" of how to
make the signal from sinusoids. Like: 1 part of 50 Hz and 2 parts of 200 Hz. Pure
sinusoids have the simplest spectrum of all, just one component:

In this example, the carrier has 8 Hz and so the spectrum has a single component
with value 1.0 at 8 Hz
The FM spectrum is considerably more complicated. The spectrum of a simple
FM signal looks like:

The carrier is now 65 Hz, the modulating signal is a pure 5 Hz tone, and the
modulation index is 2. What we see are multiple side-bands (spikes at other than
the carrier frequency) separated by the modulating frequency, 5 Hz. There are
roughly 3 side-bands on either side of the carrier. The shape of the spectrum may
be explained using a simple heterodyne argument: when you mix the three
frequencies (fc, fm and Df) together you get the sum and difference frequencies.
The largest combination is fc + fm + Df, and the smallest is fc - fm - Df. Since Df
= b fm, the frequency varies (b + 1) fm above and below the carrier.

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A more realistic example is to use an audio spectrum to provide the modulation:

In this example, the information signal varies between 1 and 11 Hz. The carrier
is at 65 Hz and the modulation index is 2. The individual side-band spikes are
replaced by a more-or-less continuous spectrum. However, the extent of the side-
bands is limited (approximately) to (b + 1) fm above and below. Here, that would
be 33 Hz above and below, making the bandwidth about 66 Hz. We see the side-
bands extend from 35 to 90 Hz, so out observed bandwidth is 65 Hz.

You may have wondered why we ignored the smooth humps at the extreme ends
of the spectrum. The truth is that they are in fact a by-product of frequency
modulation (there is no random noise in this example). However, they may be
safely ignored because they are have only a minute fraction of the total power. In
practice, the random noise would obscure them anyway.

Example: FM Radio

FM radio uses frequency modulation, of course. The frequency band for FM radio
is about 88 to 108 MHz. The information signal is music and voice which falls in
the audio spectrum. The full audio spectrum ranges form 20 to 20,000 Hz, but
FM radio limits the upper modulating requency to 15 kHz (cf. AM radio which
limits the upper frequency to 5 kHz). Although, some of the signal may be lost
above 15 kHz, most people can't hear it anyway, so there is little loss of fidelity.
FM radio maybe appropriately referred to as "high-fidelity."

If FM transmitters use a maximum modulation index of about 5.0, so the resulting

bandwidth is 180 kHz (roughly 0.2 MHz). The FCC assigns stations ) 0.2 MHz
apart to prevent overlapping signals (coincidence? I think not!). If you were to
fill up the FM band with stations, you could get 108 - 88 / .2 = 100 stations, about

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the same number as AM radio (107). This sounds convincing, but is actually more
complicated (agh!).

FM radio is broadcast in stereo, meaning two channels of information. In practice,

they generate three signals prior to applying the modulation:

the L + R (left + right) signal in the range of 50 to 15,000 Hz. a 19 kHz pilot
carrier.

the L-R signal centered on a 38 kHz pilot carrier (which is suppressed) that ranges
from 23 to 53 kHz .

So, the information signal actually has a maximum modulating frequency of 53

kHz, requiring a reduction in the modulation index to about 1.0 to keep the total
signal bandwidth about 200 kHz.

FM Performance

Bandwidth
As we have already shown, the bandwidth of a FM signal may be predicted using:
BW = 2 (b + 1 ) fm
where b is the modulation index and
fm is the maximum modulating frequency used.

FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio
band is also larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels
about the same.

The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in the

AM case (recall, the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the maximum
modulation frequency). In FM, both the modulation index and the modulating
frequency affect the bandwidth. As the information is made stronger, the
bandwidth also grows.

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Efficiency

The efficiency of a signal is the power in the side-bands as a fraction of the total.
In FM signals, because of the considerable side-bands produced, the efficiency is
generally high. Recall that conventional AM is limited to about 33 % efficiency
to prevent distortion in the receiver when the modulation index was greater than
1. FM has no analogous problem.

The side-band structure is fairly complicated, but it is safe to say that the
efficiency is generally improved by making the modulation index larger (as it
should be). But if you make the modulation index larger, so make the bandwidth
larger (unlike AM) which has its disadvantages. As is typical in engineering, a
compromise between efficiency and performance is struck. The modulation index
is normally limited to a value between 1 and 5, depending on the application.

Noise

FM systems are far better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise generally is
spread uniformly across the spectrum (the so-called white noise, meaning wide
spectrum). The amplitude of the noise varies randomly at these frequencies. The
change in amplitude can actually modulate the signal and be picked up in the AM
system. As a result, AM systems are very sensitive to random noise. An example
might be ignition system noise in your car. Special filters need to be installed to
keep the interference out of your car radio.

FM systems are inherently immune to random noise. In order for the noise to
interfere, it would have to modulate the frequency somehow. But the noise is
distributed uniformly in frequency and varies mostly in amplitude. As a result,
there is virtually no interference picked up in the FM receiver. FM is sometimes
called "static free, " referring to its superior immunity to random noise.
Block diagram of radio

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AM Transmitter

In order to better understand the way the radio transmitter works, block - diagram
of a simple AM (amplitude modulated) signal transmitter is shown on Pic. The
amplitude modulation is being performed in a stage called the modulator. Two
signals are entering it: high frequency signal called the carrier (or the signal
carrier), being created into the HF oscillator and amplified in the HF amplifier to
the required signal level, and the low frequency (modulating) signal coming from
the microphone or some other LF signal source (cassette player, record player,
CD player etc.), being amplified in the LF amplifier. On modulator's output the
amplitude modulated signal UAM is acquired. This signal is then amplified in the
power amplifier, and then led to the emission antenna.

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The shape and characteristics of the AM carrier, being taken from the HF
amplifier into the modulator, are shown on Pic. As you can see, it is a HF voltage
of constant amplitude US and frequency fS. On Pic. the LF signal that appears at
the input of the modulator at the moment t0 is shown. With this signal the
modulation of the carrier's amplitude is being performed, therefore it is being
called the modulating signal. The shape of the AM signal exiting the modulator
is shown on Pic. From the point t0 this voltage has the same shape as that on Pic.
From the moment t0 the amplitude of AM signal is being changed in accordance
with the current value of the modulating signal, in such a way that the signal
envelope (fictive line connecting the voltage peaks) has the same shape as the
modulating signal.

Let's take a look at a practical example. Let the LF signal on Pic. be, say, an
electrical image of the tone being created by some musical instrument, and that
the time gap between the points t0 and t2 is 1 ms. Suppose that carrier frequency
is fS=1 MHz (approximately the frequency of radio Kladovo, exact value is 999
kHz). In that case, in period from t0 till t2 signals us on Pic. and AM on should
make a thousand oscillations and not just eighteen, as shown in the picture. Then
It is clear that it isn't possible to draw a realistic picture, since all the lines would
connect into a dark spot. The true picture of AM signal from this example is given
on Pic. That is the picture that appears on screen of the oscilloscope, connected
on the output of the modulator: light coloured lines representing the AM signal
have interconnected, since they are thicker than the gap between them.

Block - diagram on Pic is a simplified schematic of an AM transmitter. In reality

there are some additional stages in professional transmitters that provide the
necessary work stability, transmitter power supply, cooling for certain stages etc.
For simple use, however, even simpler block diagrams exist, making the
completion of an ordinary AM transmitter possible with just a few electronic
components.

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FM Transmitter

Block diagram of an FM (frequency modulated) transmitter is given on Pic.2.4.

Information being transferred, i.e. the modulating signal, is a signal from some
LF source. it is being amplified in LF amplifier and then led into the HF oscillator,
where the carrier signal is being created. The carrier is a HF voltage of constant
amplitude, whose frequency is, in the absence of modulating signal, equal to the
transmitter's carrier frequency fS. In the oscillatory circuit of the HF oscillator a
varicap (capacitive) diode is located. It is a diode whose capacitance depends
upon the voltage between its ends, so when being exposed to LF voltage, its

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capacitance is changing in accordance with this voltage. Due to that frequency of

the oscillator is also changing, i.e. the frequency modulation is being obtained.
The FM signal from the HF oscillator is being proceeded to the power amplifier
that provides the necessary output power of the transmission signal. Voltage
shapes in FM transmitter are given on Pic.2.5. Pic.2.5-a shows the LF modulating
signal. The frequency modulation begins at moment t0 and the transmission
frequency begins to change, as shown on Pic.2.5-b: Whilst current value of the
LF signal is raising so is the trasmitter frequency, and when it is falling the
frequency is also falling. As seen on Pic.2.5-c, the information (LF signal) is
being implied in frequency change of the carrier.
The carrier frequencies of the radio difusion FM transmitters (that emmit the
program for "broad audience") are placed in the waveband from 88 MHz til 108
MHz, the maximum frequency shift of the transmitter (during the modulation)
being ±75 kHz. Because of that the FM signal should be drawn much "thicker",
but it would result in a black-square-shaped picture.

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AM radio broad cast transmitter

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AM broadcasting is the process of radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation

(AM). AM was the first method of impressing sound on a radio signal and is still
widely used today. Commercial and public AM broadcasting is authorized in the
medium wave band worldwide, and also in parts of the long wave and short wave
bands. Radio broadcasting was made possible by the invention of the amplifying
vacuum tube, the Audion(triode), by Lee de Forest in 1906, which led to the
development of inexpensive vacuum tube AM radio receivers and transmitters
during World War I. Commercial AM broadcasting developed from amateur
broadcasts around 1920, and was the only commercially important form of radio
broadcasting until FM broadcasting began after World War II. This period is
known as the "Golden Age of Radio". Today, AM competes with FM, as well as
with various digital radio broadcasting services distributed from terrestrial and
satellite transmitters. In many countries the higher levels of interference
experienced with AM transmission have caused AM broadcasters to specialize in
news, sports and talk radio, leaving transmission of music mainly to FM and
digital broadcasters.
AM radio technology is simpler than frequency modulated (FM) radio, Digital
Audio Broadcasting (DAB), satellite radio or HD (digital) radio. An AM receiver
detects amplitude variations in the radio waves at a particular frequency.
It then amplifies changes in the signal voltage to drive aloudspeaker or earphones.
The earliest crystal radio receivers used a crystal diode detector with no
amplification, and required no power source other than the radio signal itself.
In North American broadcasting practice, transmitter power input to the antenna
for commercial AM stations ranges from about 250 to 50,000watts. Experimental
licenses were issued for up to 500,000 watts radiated power, for stations intended
for wide-area communication during disasters. One such superstation was

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Cincinnati station WLW, which used such power on occasion before World War
II. WLW's superpower transmitter still exists at the station's suburban transmitter
site, but it was decommissioned in the early 1940s and no current commercial
broadcaster in the U.S. or Canada is authorized for such power levels. Some other
countries do authorize higher power operation (for example the Mexican station
XERF formerly operated at 250,000 watts). Antenna design must consider the
coverage desired and stations may be required, based on the terms of their license,
to directionalize their transmitted signal to avoid interfering with other stations
operating on the same frequency.

Radio receiver

In the early days of what is now known as early radio transmissions, say about
100 years ago, signals were generated by various means but only up to the L.F.
region.

Communication was by way of morse code much in the form that a short
transmission denoted a dot (dit) and a longer transmission was a dash (dah). This
was the only form of radio transmission until the 1920's and only of use to the
military, commercial telegraph companies and amateur experimenters.

Then it was discovered that if the amplitude (voltage levels - plus and minus about
zero) could be controlled or varied by a much lower frequency such as A.F. then
real intelligence could be conveyed e.g. speech and music. This process could be
easily reversed by simple means at the receiving end by using diode detectors.
This is called modulation and obviously in this case amplitude modulation or
A.M.

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This discovery spawned whole new industries and revolutionized the world of
communications. Industries grew up manufacturing radio parts, receiver
manufacturers, radio stations, news agencies, recording industries etc.

Disadvantages to A.M. radio

Firstly because of the modulation process we generate at least two copies of the
intelligence plus the carrier. For example consider a local radio station
transmitting on say 900 Khz. This frequency will be very stable and held to a tight
tolerance. To suit our discussion and keep it as simple as possible we will have
the transmission modulated by a 1000 Hz or 1Khz tone.

At the receiving end 3 frequencies will be available. 900 Khz, 901 Khz and 899
Khz i.e. the original 900 Khz (the carrier) plus and minus the modulating
frequency which are called side bands. For very simple receivers such as a
cheap transistor radio we only require the original plus either one of the side
bands. The other one is a total waste. For sophisticated receivers one side band
can be eliminated.

The net effect is A.M. radio stations are spaced 10 Khz apart (9 kHz in Australia)
e.g. 530 Khz...540 Khz...550 Khz. This spacing could be reduced and nearly twice
as many stations accommodated by deleting one side band. Unfortunately the
increased cost of receiver complexity forbids this but it certainly is feasible.
Block diagram of television transmitter

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The basic television Broadcast transmitter block diagram is shown in figure (a).

The block diagram can be broadly divided into two separate section, viz., one that
- Generates an electronic signal (called video signal) corresponding to the actual
picture and then uses this video signal to modulate an R-F carrier so as to be
applied to the transmitting antenna for transmission, other that generates an
electronic signal (called audio signal) containing sound information and then uses
this signal to modulate another RF carrier and then applied to the transmitting
antenna for transmission.

However only one antenna is used for transmission of the video as well as audio
signals. Thus these modulated signals have to be combined together in some
appropriate network. In addition there are other accessories also. For instance,
video as well as audio signals have to be amplified to the desired degree before
they modulate their respective RF carriers.

This function is performed by video and audio amplifiers. The block picture
signal transmitter and audio signal transmitter shown in figure (a) may consist of
modulators as the essential component; Video signal transmitter employs an AM
transmitter as amplitude-modulation is used for video signals whereas audio
signal transmitter employs FM modulator as frequency modulation is used for
sound information. Scanning circuits are used to mike the electron beam scan the
actual picture to produce the corresponding video signal. The scanning by
electron beam is in the receiver too. The beam scans the picture tube to reproduce
the original picture from the video signal and this scanning at the receiver must
be matched properly to the scanning at the transmitter. It is for this reason that
synchronizing Circuits are used at the transmitter as well as receiver.

Complete TV transmitter Block Diagram

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Figure (b) depicts the complete block diagram of a Television Broadcast

Transmitter. The important block have already been discussed individually in the
preceding sections. that makes understanding of the diagram shown here much
more simple. A brief explanation is given ahead. The block diagram can be
broadly divided into two -sections, viz., an amplitude modulated transmitter and
a frequency modulated transmitter. Former is used for video modulation whereas
latter is used for audio modulation.

Master oscillator in both generates an RF carrier frequency. Generally, a master

oscillator generates a sub multiple of carrier and then drives harmonic generators
(frequency multipliers) to achieve correct value carrier. Harmonic generators are
nothing but class C tuned amplifiers whose output tuned circuit is to tuned to
some harmonic of the input signal. In actual practice, master oscillator and
harmonic generator are s crated or isolated by a buffer stage to av214Joactrrig of
the harmonic generator on the oscillator output. The carrier is then fed to an
amplitude modulator in video transmitter and a frequency modulator in audio
transmitter. Into-the modulator, the modulation signal is also fed with proper
amplitude. Since low-level modulation is employed, the modulating signal is
amplified by linear amplifiers up-to the desired degree required for transmission.

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Video and audio signals on separate carriers are then combined together so as to
be fed to the transmitting antenna as on signal.

Block diagram of television receiver

Television Receiver

A radio receiver designed to amplify and convert the video and audio radio-
frequency signals of a television broadcast that have been picked up by a
television antenna; the receiver reproduces the visual image broadcast and the
accompanying sound. Television receivers are designed for color or black-and-
white operation; both non portable and portable models are produced. Those
manufactured in the USSR are capable of receiving signals from television
stations transmitting in specifically assigned portions of thevery-high-frequency
(VHF) band (48.5–100 megahertz and 174– 230 megahertz; 12 channels) and
ultra high-frequency (UHF) band (470– 638 megahertz; several tens of channels).
Television receivers must simultaneously amplify and convert video and audio
radio- frequency signals. They are usually designed with a super heterodyne
circuit, and versions differ in the methods used to extract and amplify the audio
signal. The principal components of a television receiver are shown in Figure1.
The tuner selects the signals of the desired channel and converts them to a lower
frequency within the inter mediate-frequency pass band. The signal-processing
circuits include an intermediate-frequency amplifier for the video signal, an
amplitude detector, a video amplifier for the brightness signal, and, incolor
receivers, a color- processing circuit for the chrominance signal. The processing
circuit produces a brightness signal and a color- difference signal, which are fed
to the control electrodes of a kinescope; an audio signal, which is fed to the audio

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channel; and horizontal and vertical synchronizing pulses (or a composite

television signal), which are fed to a scanning generator. In the color television
system used in the USSR , the color-processing circuit for the chrominance signal
consists of a band- pass amplifier, in which the chrominance signal is extracted,
channels for the direct and delayed signals, an electronic switching device, two
frequency detectors for the color- difference signals, a matrix circuit, and
amplifiers for the three color-difference signals. The color processing circuit has
provisions for the extraction and decoding of the chrominance signal and for line
selection, as well as chrominance disconnect circuits that operate when black-
and-white transmissions are received.
The scanning generators include horizontal and vertical scanning circuits that
produce sawtooth c urrentsin the horizontal and vertical scanning coils of the
deflection system.

The high voltage for feeding the second anode of the kinescope is derived from a
special high voltage winding of the line transformer or by rectifying pulses from
the transformer; the volt age for the focusing electrode is similarly derived.

The kinescope’s interface includes static and dynamic white balance controls,
switches for exting uishingthe electron guns, and regulators for focusing the
beams. The demagnetizing circuit for a color kinescopecreates a damped
alternating current in a demagnetizing loop that circles the kine scope screen. The
current demagnetizes the shadow mask and tube rim, which are made of steel.
The audio section consists of an amplifier for the difference frequency, which in
the USSR is 6.5 megahertz, a frequency detector for the audio signal, and a low-
frequency amplifier from which the audio signal is fed to a high- quality
acoustical system, usually composed of several loudspeakers. The power- supply
section converts mains voltage into the supply voltages for all components of the
television set, including the kinescope and vacuum tube heaters.
Microwave communication

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Microwave transmission refers to the technology of transmitting information or

energy by the use ofelectromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are conveniently
measured in small numbers of centimetre; these are called microwaves. This part
of the radio spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz (GHz)
to 30 GHz. These correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimeters down to 1.0
cm.

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Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their

small wavelength allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow
beams, which can be pointed directly at the receiving antenna. This allows nearby
microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each
other, as lower frequency radio waves do. Another advantage is that the high
frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large information-
carrying capacity; the microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the
rest of the radio spectrum below it. A disadvantage is that microwaves are limited
to line of sight propagation; they cannot pass around hills or mountains as lower
frequency radio waves can.
Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-point
communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications,
and in deep space radio communications. Other parts of the microwave radio band
are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio
astronomy.
The next higher part of the radio electromagnetic spectrum, where the frequencies
are above 30 GHz and below 100 GHz, are called "millimeter waves" because
their wavelengths are conveniently measured in millimeters, and their
wavelengths range from 10 mm down to 3.0 mm. Radio waves in this band are
usually strongly attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and particles contained in
it, especially during wet weather. Also, in wide band of frequencies around 60
GHz, the radio waves are strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the
atmosphere. The electronic technologies needed in the millimeter wave band are
also much more difficult to utilize than those of the microwave band.
Satellite communication

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A communications satellite or comsat is an artificial satellite sent to space for the

purpose oftelecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety
of orbits including geostationary orbits, Molniya orbits, elliptical orbits and low
(polar and non- polar) Earth orbits.

For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a

microwave radio relay technology complementary to that of communication
cables. They are also used for mobile applications such as communications to
ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio
broadcasting.

Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems:

Communication Payload, normally composed of transponders, antenna, and
switching systems Engines used to bring the satellite to its desired orbit

Station Keeping Tracking and stabilization subsystem used to keep the satellite
in the right orbit, with its antennas pointed in the right direction, and its power
system pointed towards the sun Power subsystem, used to power the Satellite
systems, normally composed of solar cells, and batteries that maintain power
during solar eclipse

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Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground

control stations. The ground control earth stations monitor the satellite
performance and control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle.

The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of

transponders provided by the satellite. Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio)
requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission. This is typically
known as link budgeting and a network simulator can be used to arrive at the
exact value.
Optical fiber communication

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one

place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light
forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that ismodulated to carry information.
First developed in the 1970s, fiber- optic communication systems have
revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have played a major role in
the advent of theInformation Age. Because of its advantages over electrical
transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in
core networks in the developed world. Optical fiber is used by many
telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, Internet
communication, and cable television signals. Researchers at Bell Labs have
reached internet speeds of over 100 petabits per second using fiber-optic
communication.

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The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic

steps: Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the
signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or
weak, receiving the optical signal, and converting it into an electrical
signal.Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit
telephone signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals.

Due to much lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has large
advantages over existing copper wire in long-distance and high-demand
applications. However, infrastructure development within cities was relatively
difficult and time-consuming, and fiber-optic systems were complex and
expensive to install and operate. Due to these difficulties, fiber-optic
communication systems have primarily been installed in long-distance
applications, where they can be used to their full transmission capacity, offsetting
the increased cost. Since 2000, the prices for fiber-optic communications have
dropped considerably. The price for rolling out fiber to the home has currently
become more cost-effective than that of rolling out a copper based network.
Prices have dropped to $850 per subscriber in the US and lower in countries like
The Netherlands, where digging costs are low and housing density is high.

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