Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

DOI 10.1007/s10639-015-9446-9

Learning and teaching with social network

sites: A decade of research in K-12 related education

Christine Greenhow 1 & Emilia Askari 1

Published online: 18 November 2015

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

Abstract The increasingly widespread use of social network sites to expand and
deepen one’s social connections is a relatively new but potentially important phenom-
enon that has implications for teaching and learning and teacher education in the 21st
century. This paper surveys the educational research literature to examine: How such
technologies are perceived and used by K-12 learners and teachers with what impacts
on pedagogy or students' learning. Selected studies were summarized and categorized
according to the four types introduced by Roblyer (2005) as studies most needed to
move the educational technology field forward. These include studies that establish the
technology’s effectiveness at improving student learning; investigate implementation
strategies; monitor social impact; and report on common uses to shape the direction of
the field. We found the most prevalent type of study conducted related to our focal topic
was research on common uses. The least common type of study conducted was
research that established the technology’s effectiveness at improving student learning.
Implications for the design of future research and teacher education initiatives are
discussed.

Keywords Social media . Social network sites . Teaching . Learning . Teacher education

By 2014 use of the internet will increase the size of people’s social networks far
beyond what has traditionally been the case. This will enhance trust in society, as
people have a wider range of sources from which to discover and verify infor-
mation about job opportunities, personal services, common interests, and prod-
ucts (Fox et al. 2005, p.11).

* Christine Greenhow
[email protected]
Emilia Askari
[email protected]
1
Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Special Education, College of Education,
Michigan State University, 620 Farm Lane, Room 513F, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
624 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

1 Introduction

The increasingly widespread use of social media to expand and deepen one’s social
networks is a relatively new but potentially important phenomenon that has implica-
tions for K-12 teaching and learning and teacher preparation for the 21st century. For
instance, social network sites are information and communication technologies that
would seem to facilitate increased interaction and networking between teachers, stu-
dents and parents and the co-creation of content both within and outside the classroom.
The apparent community-centered affordances of these technologies would seem to
align with constructivist approaches to teaching and learning advocated by the U.S.
National Research Council (Bransford et al. 1999) and implied in the 21st Century
Skills Framework (Partnership for 21st Century Skills 2003). Using this form of social
media, teachers' and students' social networks could extend beyond a direct one-to-one
interaction and encompass occasional interactions with important others that may occur
at the periphery of their daily social experience. With a wider range of authentic
resources from which to draw and get feedback on their performance, teachers and
students could gain from learning to implement these technologies successfully. How-
ever, currently this vision remains under-theorized and under-examined as the field of
education and information technology lacks a comprehensive, up-to-date review of
research focused on K-12 teaching and learning with social network sites. This paper
surveys the educational research literature (2004–2014) to examine: How such tech-
nologies are perceived and used by students and teachers in K-12 education with what
impacts on students' learning or teachers' pedagogy.
This paper begins with a short history of social network sites (SNS) and a synthesis
of the knowledge base regarding education and SNSs. Next, methods in conducting this
literature review are discussed before turning to a presentation of our results and
discussion. Selected studies are summarized and categorized around their common
themes (e.g., students' informal learning outside of school; students' formal learning in
schools and classrooms; connections between in- and out-of-school learning; preservice
teachers' perceptions and practices and inservice teachers' perceptions and practices).
Studies are also categorized according to the four types of studies introduced by
Roblyer (2005) as those most likely to advance the educational technology field. As
explained in more detail later in the paper, these include studies that: 1) establish the
technology’s effectiveness at improving student learning; 2) investigate implementation
strategies; 3) monitor social impact; and 4) report on common uses to shape the
direction of the field. The concluding sections discuss the implications of these findings
for the design of future research, highlighting the greatest areas of need.

2 Rise of social network sites

Social network sites are a form of social media defined by the following socio-technical
features: 1) uniquely identifiable profiles that consist of user-supplied content and/or
system-provided data; 2) (semi-) public display of connections that can be traversed by
others; and 3) features that allow users to consume, produce, and/or interact with user-
generated content provided by their connections on the site (Ellison and Boyd 2013, p.
7). Examples include Facebook, Ning, and Academia.edu. Some argue that social
Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645 625

network sites are used predominantly to connect with those one already knows and less
for traditional Bnetworking^ purposes (Boyd and Ellison 2007). Others prefer the term
social networking sites and point to sites such as LinkedIn, which are used primarily for
networking or building one’s list of personal contacts (Greenhow 2011b). These terms
are used interchangeably in this study, which defines social network sites as Web-based
services through which individuals can maintain existing ties and develop new social
ties with people outside their network.
The popularity of social network sites is a relatively recent phenomenon beginning
in 2002 with the advent of sites such as Friendster, MySpace and Google’s Orkut and
with sites like Facebook rising to mainstream prominence around 2007 (Boyd and
Ellison 2007). Today there are thousands of social network sites. However, Facebook
— the world’s largest social network site with 1.23 billion active users—is an integral
part of high school and college students' online routines. Recent usage statistics in the
United States, for example, indicate that Facebook dominates teenager’s media prac-
tices; in 2014, 78 % of young people aged 12–17 reported using Facebook (Elliott
2014). Learning applications and pedagogy that build on these routines may help
bridge formal and informal learning by situating social learning opportunities within
students' everyday online contexts and appropriating peer interactions on both curric-
ular and extra-curricular topics. On the other hand, some scholars assert that these
environments should be used mainly for social reasons not for formal teaching or
informal learning purposes. Selwyn (2010), for example, urges researchers towards
more critical examination of how technology is actually used in education as opposed
to how it might theoretically be used in the best of circumstances. He notes that the use
of social network sites and other digital technologies in education might actually
increase societal disparities that stem from income or family background. Oliver
(2011) also asserts that research on social network sites in education has over-
emphasized the benefits of such tools. Amidst such controversies, social network sites
like Facebook are attracting interest from educators and learning scientists alike as
potential platforms to explore for online learning (Greenhow and Li 2013).

3 Education and social network sites

Many teachers and teacher educators remain uncertain about how to meaningfully
integrate this technology or assess its impacts (Crook 2012). Assessing the processes
and products of students' thinking in projects involving the Internet or identifying how
online applications could aid them in developing their capacity for such assessment,
can be especially difficult even for experienced content- and technology-using teachers
(Greenhow 2006). To promote instruction that provides constructive and progressive
feedback in the presence of emerging technologies, teachers must often Bre-imagine^
traditional images and norms of learning and assessment and help students understand
how successful learning includes participating in and supporting the exchange of
feedback within classrooms and beyond them (Windschitl 2002, p. 151).
Web-based social networks introduce tools, people, and materials to school culture
that could help to break up established routines and assist teachers and students in
getting feedback on their performances (Bransford, et al. 1999). Leveraging social
networking capabilities may give teachers and students access to a different culture that
626 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

helps them clarify their beliefs about teaching with technology and revise their behav-
iors (Greenhow 2006). However, online social networks may also frustrate instructional
practice when teachers and students do not see their instructional value or are unable to
use such networks to advance learning and teaching goals.
To date, reviews of the educational research on learning and teaching with social
network sites provide little guidance to K-12 teachers or teacher educators on best
practices for integrating these technologies in education. Published literature reviews
have focused mainly on the perceptions and experiences of college students (Aydin
2012; Manca and Ranieri 2013) and higher education faculty (Forkosh-Baruch and
Hershovitz 2012). Moreover, the benefits of appropriating these technologies into
learning contexts are contested in the research literature. Some studies on learning
and social network sites in higher education suggest their affordances for interaction,
collaboration, information and resource sharing (Mazman and Usluel, 2010); encour-
aging participation and critical thinking (Mason and Rennie 2006; Ajjan and
Hartshorne 2008); and increased peer support and communication about course content
and assessment (DiVall and Kirwin, 2012).
Other researchers have warned against exploiting social network sites for learning.
Kirschner and Karpinski (2010), for instance, found that time spent on Facebook
negatively affected college students' grades. Similarly, Junco and Cotton (2013) exam-
ined how college students multitask with Facebook and found that using Facebook
while doing schoolwork was negatively associated with their overall grade point
average. To advance the knowledge base related to K-12 teaching with social media,
a decade of educational research were surveyed to inquire: How are social
network sites perceived and used by K-12 learners and teachers with what
impacts on pedagogy or students' learning? The next section introduces the
main issues expressed in current reflective papers on the educational value of
social network sites. Then methods and procedures are explained, followed by
the results of the literature review and discussion. The paper concludes with
implications of this review for research and practice.

4 Theoretical background

Several scholars have theorized the pedagogical potential of using social media, such as
social network sites, for learning (Dede 2008; Greenhow 2011a; Halverson 2011;
Manca and Ranieri 2013; Siemens 2005; Siemens and Weller 2011). They have
emphasized the technology’s potential for supporting collaborative knowledge con-
struction; accessing specialized just-in-time information, contributing to the hybridiza-
tion of expertise; relational development and peer/alumni support especially in times of
transition; academic help-seeking; social and civic benefits; and for blurring the
boundaries between learning spaces, social spaces and leisure spaces (Manca and
Ranieri 2013), which can also pose challenges to learning (Halverson 2011).
For instance, Dede (2008) argued that social media practices seem well aligned with
social constructivist learning theories of knowledge as decentralized, accessible, and
co-constructed among a broad base of users; Bknowledge^ may appear as Bcollective
agreement^ that Bcombines facts with other dimensions of human experience^ (ie.,
opinions, values) (Dede, 2008, p. 80).
Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645 627

Conceptually, online social networking practices also seem well aligned with
connectivist views of learning as the process of creating connections and articulating
a network (Siemens, 2005). Being knowledgeable can be demonstrated as the capacity
to foster and traverse these connections and to access and use specialized information
just-in-time (Siemens, 2005, p. 4). Connectivism also allows for non-linearity and
unanticipated network effects in the learning process within Bnebulous environments
of shifting core elements – not entirely under the control of the individual^ learner (p.
4). That is, learners' experiences in social network sites are shaped by the content they
create, upload, and share; by their interaction with other people’s content; and by others'
unanticipated interactions with their digital creations.
Moreover, researchers have argued that SNSs might be re-imagined as supports for
student learning outcomes from two vantage points: first, they can facilitate peer/
alumni support to help learners manage the ups and downs of high school or college
life and support academic help-seeking where learners use their social network site to
get help with school-related tasks (Greenhow, 2011) or the high school-to-college
transition process (Jeon et al. 2015); second, SNSs can catalyze civic benefits. For
instance, Mihailidia (2014), writing about the importance of the crowd and collabora-
tive civic practices in a democratic and digital society argues, BThe emerging citizen
has integrated digital media culture fully into her life and understands public involve-
ment not primarily by duties (taxes, voting, military service) but equally by engagement
(expression, activism, sharing, dialog). These new voices are facilitated largely through
digital media, where interactive platforms and social tools are largely replacing tradi-
tional avenues for information and communication needs^ (p. 5–6).
Similarly, the relational benefits of SNSs have been emphasized by Siemens and
Weller (2011). They argue that SNSs make possible the blending of personal and
professional lives, which help stimulate peer-to-peer conversations, distribution and
diversity of expertise, information- and resource-sharing, and the development of
communication competencies, where people are writing for multiple, authentic audi-
ences as opposed to merely their class or teacher.
On the other hand, as Halverson (2011) points out, blurring the boundaries between
formal learning spaces, socializing spaces and leisure spaces can also challenge
learning and teaching (Halverson, 2011). For instance, she argues that teachers have
a responsibility to protect students' privacy and this obligation may pose a significant
barrier to teachers' use of SNSs as learning tools. Moreover, blending learning,
socializing, and leisure-time spaces may also set up conflicts between learners' and
teachers' goals. For example, the relaxed and unconventional literacy practices valued
on Facebook when students are hanging out online may contradict traditional ‘aca-
demic’ literacies that educators want students to develop.
The empirical work on social network sites and higher education suggests that where
university instructors are incorporating SNSs as learning tools they are doing so
primarily to replicate conventional classroom practices and environments, adopting
‘closed’ Facebook groups and other features that wall-off the class from the mix of
people and resources that the technology affords (Manca & Ranieri, 2013). Other
researchers have found that integrating these technologies into higher educational
environments may have positive or negative cognitive, social, and emotional impacts
(Pimmer et al. 2012; Ranieri et al. 2012). Manca & Ranieri (2013) suggest that to
leverage the potential of SNSs like Facebook for widening the context for learning,
628 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

mixing information and learning resources, and hybridization of expertise, learners and
instructors may have to collaboratively re-construct their views of pedagogy and arrive
at a shared sense of responsibility for facilitating the learning experience.
This brief introduction to the main issues expressed in current reflective papers and
empirical work about the pedagogical value of social network sites in higher education
motivated the exploration in this paper of how such technologies are perceived and
used by students and teachers in K-12 education with what impacts on students'
learning or pedagogy. The next section presents our methods and procedures.

5 Methods

To illuminate the potential benefits and dilemmas of making educational use of social
network sites and to provide a comprehensive understanding of the state of published
educational research, a select review of research articles published in refereed journals
between 2004 and 2014 was undertaken. The purpose was to survey research which
examined uses of these technologies in teaching and learning settings related to K-12
education. Since most social network sites require users to be teenagers or older,
reviewers focused on empirical articles that addressed teaching and learning with social
network sites among adolescents 12–18 years old in secondary school settings or
outside of school or among teachers (i.e., preservice, inservice, and graduate teacher
education). We chose to include articles that reported research on social network sites in
teacher education because it is important to understand teachers' perceptions and social
networking practices in professional learning contexts if we are to design better
supports for their technology integration or help them overcome related barriers.
Boote and Beile’s (2005) framework for conducting and writing literature reviews
guided our work. Boote and Beile (2005) outline several categories to which the
reviewer must attend in conducting a quality literature review, such as: coverage
(having criteria for inclusion and exclusion); synthesis (summary, analysis, and syn-
thesis of selected literature); and significance (discussion of the implications of the
existing research).
When considering criteria for inclusion and exclusion of literature, the emphasis was
placed on research that examined social media as online tools (e.g., social network
sites) rather than as hardware and hand-held devices (Ferdig 2007). A second criterion
was that the article was current and had been published in the last 10 years (2004–
2014). A third criterion for inclusion was that the article had been published in peer-
reviewed journals dedicated mostly or entirely to the topic (i.e., technology integration/
Internet in education) or in high quality journals dedicated to reviewing the research
literature. These journals included:

Education and Information Technologies

Journal of Technology in Teacher Education
Review of Educational Research
Journal of Research on Technology in Teacher Education
Educational Technology Research and Development
Computers and Education
Teaching and Teacher Education
Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645 629

Computers in Human Behavior

Learning, Media and Technology

Because a scan of these journals yielded few results, the scan of the literature was
expanded, using Scopus, ERIC, Education Full Text and Web of Science databases to
identify peer-reviewed articles published from 2004 through 2014. For instance, in
Scopus, search terms used were Bteaching and learning AND social network OR
Facebook AND high schools OR gymnasia OR lyceums OR sixth-form OR sixth-
form colleges AND informal learning.^ The search was limited to years 2004 - present,
seeking only articles in the social sciences and changing the drop-down search boxes to
look for our search terms in all fields. This search initially return 472 results, which
were culled down to 10 for this review by eliminating non-empirical studies and studies
focused on post-secondary students (unless they were student teachers).
ERIC, Education Full Text and Web of Science were similarly searched. ERIC was
searched using the terms B(Teaching OR learning OR informal learning) AND (social
network sites OR Facebook)^ as well as selecting applicable education levels from the
drop down BEducation Level^ menu available on ProQuest’s advanced search (brack-
eted by 1 year or grade level when appropriate). The results were restricted to those
published 2004-present (search conducted in November 2014), resulting in 303 results.
Of these 303 results, 10 were deemed relevant to this review (also excluding any that
had been found in other databases).
Education Full Text was searched using the terms B(Teaching OR learning OR
informal learning) AND (social network sites OR Facebook).^ Results were limited
using the databases available selections to peer reviewed academic journal articles
published from 2004 to November 2014 when the search was conducted. This search
resulted in 438 results, of which 6 were deemed relevant to this review (also excluding
any that had been found in other databases).
Web of science was searched using the terms B(Teaching OR learning OR informal
learning) AND (social network sites OR Facebook).^ Using Web of Sciences search
tools, results were limited to articles published after 2003, up until November 2014
when the search was conducted. After scanning articles for relevancy, 6 were deemed
relevant to this review (also excluding any that had been found in other databases).
For each database, from the range of potential articles, an initial content analysis was
conducted to separate these articles into the following categories: description, literature
review, empirical research, and editorial/commentary, while excluding specific article
types like book reviews and research abstracts (Klein 1997). Because this review was
primarily concerned with the state of empirical research in this area, studies that were
more conceptual in nature, such as editorial/commentary or those with little evidentiary
support, were also excluded. In addition, articles that focused on social media generally,
but did not address the specific social media: social network sites, which was the
subject of this review, were excluded.
To establish the quality of selected articles, the empirical articles needed to demon-
strate the following: (1) clear statement of research questions; (2) claims and interpre-
tations grounded in evidence and theory; and (3) systematic documentation of proce-
dures (Freeman et al. 2007). Finally, an attempt was made to categorize selected studies
according to the four types of studies introduced by Roblyer (2005) as those most likely
to move the educational technology field forward. Our scan of selected journals and
630 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

database queries yielded a total of 24 peer-reviewed journal articles. Next, a brief

summary of Roblyer’s (2005) typology is offered before turning to the presentation of
findings.

6 Typology for evaluating research to shape the field

Roblyer (2005) and the National Technology Leadership Coalition (Bull and Bell
2006) in the United States argued that four types of studies are most likely to advance
the field of education and information technologies. These include studies that: 1)
establish the technology’s effectiveness at improving student learning and relative
advantage; 2) investigate implementation strategies; 3) monitor social impact; and 4)
report on common uses to shape the direction of the field. Each category is described
briefly below.
First, research that establishes technology’s effectiveness are those studies that con-
firm or help explain the benefits or impact of technology-based strategies in formal
learning environments that so far have been substantiated only anecdotally (e.g.,
increased reading comprehension with interactive/electronic storybooks). Second, re-
search that investigates implementation strategies are those studies that examine edu-
cational technology approaches already in common use and likely to increase (e.g.,
online learning or word processing in writing instruction) and try to explain their impact
on educational outcomes and how, why and for whom the approach works well in given
situations. Third, Roblyer (2005) argues we need educational and informational tech-
nology research to monitor impact on important societal goals, such as whether or not
students are able to access the benefits that technology makes possible and which
students are not benefiting. Fourth, studies that monitor and report on common uses
to shape practice are studies that provide evidence of the impact new technologies are
having on school life that can help predict or suggest negative (or positive) side effects.
We might then use their predictions to shape pedagogy or policy in ways that minimize
the negatives and make their impact more positive. Roblyer (2005) gives the example of
studies focused on mobile online technologies; they might address whether integration
of these technologies in school life promotes cheating, as well as sharing data quickly,
and if so, what should schools do to implement them differently?

7 Results

This review yielded 24 studies focused on teaching and learning with social network
sites. As shown in Table 1, the reviewed studies used a variety of methods with the
most dominant being a mixed methods approach (n = 12) followed by qualitative
studies (n = 7) and quantitative studies (n = 5). Surveys of teachers and/or students were
used in over half of the studies (n = 13). Actual observation of teachers' work or
students' work with social network sites was also present in over half of the reviewed
studies (n = 15), often as a complement to self-report data in surveys or interviews.
The reviewed studies focused on a variety of social network sites. The popular social
network site Facebook was the most studied (n = 15), followed by Ning (n = 4),
MySpace (n = 2), Edmodo (n = 2) and Space2cre8. Our review revealed that almost
Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645 631

Table 1 Categorization of reviewed studies by method

Mixed Methods Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods

1. Alias et al. (2013) X

2. Callaghan and Bower (2012) X
3. Casey and Evans (2011) X
4. Erjavec (2013) X
5. Fewkes and McCabe (2012) X
6. Glusac et al. (2014) X
7. Greenhow and Robelia (2009) X
8. Greenhow et al. (2011) X
9. Hershkowitz and Forkosh-Baruch (2013) X
10. Hutchison and Wang (2012) X
11. Khan et al. (2014) X
12. Krutka et al. (2014) X
13. Lantz-Andersson et al. (2013) X
14. Lei (2009) X
15. Mao (2014) X
16. O’bannon et al. (2013) X
17. Robelia et al. (2011) X
18. Rosen et al. (2013) X
19. Sadaf et al. (2013) X
20. Vasbo et al. (2014) X
21. Veira et al. (2014) X
22. Wang et al. (2014) X
23. Weeden et al. (2013) X
24. Yang et al. (2014) X

two-thirds of the articles focused on students' learning with social network sites
(n = 15). Many of these studies emphasized students' learning with social network
sites outside of school in informal learning settings (n = 7). Others emphasized students'
learning with social network sites in formal learning environments such as classrooms
(n = 8) or focused on the connections between students' in-school and out-of-school use
of social networks (n = 3). Articles that addressed teachers' use of social network sites
(n = 6) focused mainly on pre-service teachers (n = 5). Only one article focused on in-
service teachers' use of social network sites in their teaching (n = 1). Findings within
each of these four categories are summarized in the sections below and then overall
patterns are presented in the discussion and conclusions.

7.1 Students' learning in informal learning environments

Seven studies that focused on learners' practices with social network sites (as opposed
to teachers' practices) were situated in out-of-school contexts. These focused on the
632 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

technology’s affordances (or barriers) for validation of creative work, social support or
social capital, self-organization, language learning, the development of new literacies,
self-directed, incidental or free-choice learning, and civic engagement.
For instance, in a study of 60 Slovenian primary students, Erjavec (2013) found that
many use Facebook for informal learning — as a space to learn about technology, to
seek social support in handling school-related stress, to organize group activities and to
validate creative work. Through interviews, talk-alouds and content analysis, the author
concluded that Facebook also facilitated peer-alumni connections that helped with
school-life transitions. This kind of social capital development contributed to the value
of Facebook as a supplement to formal education.
Greenhow et al. (2011) also found social capital benefits in SNSs. They conducted a
regression analysis on survey responses from high school students from low-income
families (n = 607) to examine the relationship between intensity of online social
network site use (i.e., MySpace), social capital, and other measures of psychological
well-being. Results suggest positive associations between teens' use of online social
network sites and two forms of social capital: bonding capital (e.g., ties with close
family and friends) and bridging capital (e.g., ties with acquaintances and friends of
friends). Qualitative data were also utilized to illuminate low income students' oppor-
tunities or barriers for forging and sustaining relationships through online social
network sites.
Yang et al. (2014) examined how the social network site, Ning, was used to facilitate
an after school language program. They analyzed the content learners posted on the site
and their reflections about learning in the program. They argued that by promoting a
sense of freedom to explore in students, and consideration for student driven topics,
teachers can facilitate rich language learning opportunities in the social networking
environment.
Greenhow and Robelia (2009) explored the nature of low-income students' partic-
ipation in the popular social network site, MySpace (MS)—concentrating on what
functions MS played in their lives and what practices they employed in using the site.
This study examined the role of MySpace in the lives of 11 high school teenagers from
low-income families in the U.S. Interviews, talk-alouds and content analysis of
MySpace profiles were conducted. Qualitative analysis of these data revealed three
themes. First, SNSs facilitated emotional support, helped maintain relationships, and
provided a platform for self-expression. Second, students used their online social
network to fulfill essential social learning functions, including getting help with
school-related tasks. Third, within their SNS, students engaged in a complex array of
communicative and creative endeavors. In several instances, students' use of their social
network site demonstrated the convergence of traditional and new digital literacy
practices currently being debated within education reform efforts.
Robelia et al. (2011) investigated how participating in a Facebook (FB) application
called Hot Dish could improve students' environmental knowledge and responsible
environmental behaviors. They found that the Facebook application Hot Dish offered
free-choice learning about environmental issues and action strategies in a social context
for informal environmental education. Survey and focus groups results demonstrated
that participation in a community of like-minded users, spurred participants to learn
more about climate change and pursue mitigation through civic engagement activities.
Hot Dish results demonstrated that like-minded peers can provide support for both
Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645 633

personal and public action by utilizing persuasive communication and recognition for
appropriate mitigation efforts.
Although children under 13 are prohibited under US law from participating in social
network sites designed for adults, many younger children misrepresent their age so they
can join social media sites that dominate popular culture, such as Facebook. Weeden
et al. (2013) studied this phenomenon by surveying 199 students aged 7–11 in two
suburban Midwestern schools about their social media use, their understanding of
potential downsides of social media, and the role of parents in their social media
participation. The researchers found that at age nine, 18 % of those surveyed reported
being on Facebook. With each year, the percentage of students on Facebook increased
about 20 %. By age 12, almost all students had Facebook accounts. Adults were
complicit in helping these students get social media accounts. Almost one-quarter of
those surveyed were not aware of privacy and safety concerns associated with social
network site use, such as the fact that strangers can see photos posted on social
networks. The authors call for more formal education about social media in K-12
schools, especially in the lower grades.
Rosen et al. (2013) observed 263 middle school, high school and college students as
they studied for 15 min each in informal learning settings. The authors found that the
students were easily distracted by social media such as social network sites; in follow-
up surveys, some also reported a preference for task-switching. Average time on task
for students in the study was six minutes. Frequently accessing Facebook was associ-
ated with a lower grade point average. Further, students who reported using study
strategies more frequently were more likely to stay on-task than their peers. The authors
concluded that encouraging students to take short ‘technology breaks’ might prompt
them to study more efficiently.

7.2 Students' learning in formal learning environments (ages 12–18)

One third of the reviewed studies focused on students' learning in classrooms, with
Facebook serving as the most commonly used social network site; Ning was used in
two of the studies. Studies related to in-school practices focused on students' use of
social network sites for: enhanced creativity; new literacies or language learning;
engagement in subject matter materials; enhanced student-student and/or student-
teacher communication; academic collaboration; and demonstrated thinking skills.
For instance, Alias et al. (2013) compared a Facebook-centered Islamic studies
course to a traditional Islamic studies course in Malaysia. In the treatment group, the
teacher used Facebook Bto deliver the content of the topic that can cancel faith in
Islam^ (p. 62). Students could use SNS features, such as the wall, private message and
chat box to follow the lesson anywhere and any time, ask questions, give opinions and
interact with friends. Using a pre- and post- questionnaire and a test for creativity with
both groups, researchers found that students in the two secondary classes did not differ
on creativity levels before the course; however, the students in the Facebook-centered
course outperformed the traditional students in measures of creativity, such as creativity
in writing and in problem solving.
Veira et al. (2014) investigated online social networking among 283 Caribbean high
school students in a summer school course. Following an action research design, tenth
and eleventh grade Biology students were given access to subject content and learning
634 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

support through online discussion groups (Google and Facebook). Data on their
experiences was collected via questionnaire, interviews, and observation. Initially,
students were reluctant to use the discussion groups, though they eventually reported
that these facilities provided useful, supplemental support for learning. They rejected
the Google group in favor of the more familiar Facebook group. Veira et al. found that
high school students demonstrated greater engagement, interaction, and preference for
the Facebook group. They also demonstrated new literacy competencies, as they posted
links to online information and communicated with peers and teachers online both in
and out-of-school. One year later, the initiative had expanded to the point where the
school had acquired additional equipment, had devised a policy for social media use,
additional resources were added to Facebook, and students were using their portable
devices for academic purposes in and out of school.
Fewkes and McCabe (2012) quantitatively and qualitatively explored how a self-
selected sample of Ontario high school students used Facebook since it became
available to them in school. They also examined whether and how students' use of
Facebook resembled the Blearning agenda of classrooms as school boards have
envisioned^ (p. 92). Collecting both quantitative and qualitative data via a question-
naire administered to 63 high school students, the researchers found that the majority
(73 %) of students surveyed believed Facebook could be beneficial for education.
Moreover, three-quarters had used Facebook for educational purposes such as commu-
nicating with classmates, group collaboration, receiving reminders and important
updates from teachers, self-organization, and getting help with homework. However,
only 27 % of students reported that a teacher had integrated this SNS into teaching, and
most students did not believe teachers wanted Facebook to be unblocked in the school.
Thus, the researchers found inconsistencies between the school boards' vision for the
use of social media in classrooms and the reality that most teachers were not actually
integrating this technology in their lessons. The researchers suggest teachers need help
in recognizing how to utilize Facebook as a learning and teaching tool within school
settings.
Hershkovitz and Forkosh-Baruch (2013) conducted a qualitative exploratory study
of eleven secondary school Israeli students (ages 13–18) to understand the relationship
between Facebook-based student-teacher communication and student-teacher relation-
ships. They found that communication between Israeli students and teachers on
Facebook was limited. Students tended to view Facebook as a ‘closed’ territory and
preferred not to use it to communicate with their teachers generally; however, it was
useful for some students especially to befriend teachers they connect with in ‘real-life.’
Face-booking with these teachers made them feel a greater sense of connection. The
researchers argue that such interactions may promote better learning where students
feel they can quickly communicate with their teacher through the familiar medium of
Facebook and get ‘on-need assistance’ outside of school (Hershkovitz and Forkosh-
Baruch, 2013, p. 48).
Khan et al. (2014) surveyed 690 high school students in the U.S. on their home
Internet access, Internet skills, Facebook use and on demographic factors such as
academic grades, SES, and gender. They found several factors related to students'
using Facebook in order to academically collaborate. Of the factors found to be relevant
to using Facebook for academic collaboration —such as grades, SES, Internet skills,
and instrumental support—perceived ability to receive useful support from friends was
Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645 635

the best predictor. The authors concluded that this result was not surprising given that
this measure assesses the extent to which students felt they could tap into informational
resources and other help from their Friends on Facebook (e.g., BMy Facebook Friends
help explain things that I do not understand^). They argued, BThe sense that help is
available from one’s network is a natural foundation for collaborating on schoolwork
and requesting help …this finding highlights the role that Facebook can play in helping
young users mobilize the resources of their network^ (Khan et al. 2014, p. 146).
Callaghan and Bower (2012) examined the type of thinking demonstrated by
students in two 10th year commerce classes in Sydney, Australia by conducting a
comparative case study over five 60-min class periods. Both courses used the same
lesson plans, were ungraded, and conducted using Ning, but had separate teachers. Data
sources included observations, records of all online activity, students' work, and a
student feedback survey. Students' contributions to the SNS were analyzed using the
cognitive process dimension of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. The researchers
observed that students in the class with the teacher who was engaging and participating
with the students online produced more and higher quality work than did the students
with the teacher who did not utilize Ning academically, but whose use was more social
in nature. The findings suggest that while SNSs may be able to enhance motivation and
digital literacy development, this is mediated by how the teacher establishes an online
presence and utilizes the SNS with students. The researchers noted the trade-offs in
SNSs between social and learning contributions. They emphasized that effective
teacher implementation of SNSs should establish expectations for learning attitudes
(defined as demonstration of higher order thinking skills of such as creating, evaluating,
analyzing, or applying) rather than merely for socializing.
Casey and Evans (2011) qualitatively explored the use of Ning as an educational
tool to organize seven high school classes (information technologies, math, and
multimedia classes) in Melbourne, Australia. The classes, taught by Casey, utilized
Ning in order to link together various electronic sources; serve as a central place to
publish work; and to facilitate communication and socializing. The researchers sought
to understand the demands that integrating SNSs place upon teachers, what scaffolding
is needed to help students use the technology, and the potential SNSs offer for learning.
They discovered that students used Ning in several ways, such as reading and observ-
ing online and to promote their ideas. Students also varied in how quickly they became
comfortable with the SNS. The researchers argue that to integrate social network sites
successfully teachers and students need to enact a culture of collaboration and co-
production, where students have freedom to self-organize and generate their own ideas
in the space.
Vasbø et al. (2014) conducted an ethnographic study of a class of middle school
students in Oslo, Norway in order to better understand how they were using the social
network site: Space2cre8 as part of their school activities. Focusing on the analyses of
two students in particular they found that one student exhibited more school
knowledge-focused behaviors with regard to his personal profiling, chat activities,
and group movie making activities in the social network site than did the other student,
who drew on school knowledge as well as everyday knowledge derived from spaces
outside of school (e.g., family life, transnational connections, global youth culture, peer
culture, and the local community). The findings suggest that teachers ought to consider
the variability among students in how they approach learning using SNS.
636 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

7.3 Connecting students' in- and out-of-school learning with social network sites

Three studies seemed clearly oriented to explaining the connections between students
in-school and out-of-school learning with social networking. Glušac et al. (2014), for
instance, conducted a survey of 318 Serbian youth ages 14–18 to probe the connection
between students' use of social networks and other information and communication
technologies at home and their vision for how these tools might be used in school
settings. The authors found that the more time students spent informally with social
network sites and similar technology, the more they craved the use of those tools in
their learning environment – especially for visualizing difficult material. Students who
were active social network site users were among the strongest supporters of this
technology in education.
Mao (2014) found that adolescents aged 14–17 reported using Facebook frequently
for some formal learning tasks, such as getting homework help; however, the majority
(51–84 %) of the 166 surveyed noted that although social media generally facilitates
interactive, engaging, and fun learning most of this learning occurrs informally out of
school. In schools, participants felt that Bcurrent use of SM tools and tech is limited,
dated, and wrong because they are mostly used for assignment submission and grade
management^ (Mao, 2014, p. 219).
Lantz-Andersson et al. (2013) found that among English-language learners aged 13–
16, Facebook has potential as a platform for extending learning. Based on ethnographic
data collected from a Facebook group with 60 students from Colombia, Finland,
Sweden and Taiwan, the authors observed the generation of collaborative language-
learning activities. Students in these Facebook groups combined their formal language
learning in schools and their communicative use of language in daily life on social
media. The authors argued, however, that it was difficult to maintain those activities
due to the boundary crossing between formal schooling and informal learning that the
student had to navigate. They recommend that educators and students deliberately
negotiate social media as a new language-learning space with its own potentials and
constraints.

7.4 Preservice teachers' perceptions and practices

Studies that focused on preservice teachers' perceptions and practices with social
network sites focused on such topics as preservice teachers' implementation of SNS
as a teaching tool in preservice teacher education and the influence of preservice
teachers' attitudes and prior knowledge on their future plans to use social media with
students.
Krutka et al. (2014), for instance, studied 77 preservice teachers and found that
collaborative reflection on teaching practice using the closed (not public or semi-
public) social network, Edmodo, successfully decreased student teachers' perceived
isolation and enhanced their social connections with one another. Assessing types of
interactions that pre-service teachers make in such a forum, the scholars found that
67 % of those interactions included a recap of classroom experiences; nearly 40 %
included interpretation; a little less than 14 % drew on the educational research or
theory studied by the pre-service teachers. Responses to initial posts often offered new
approaches to a problem or simply expressed understanding and support. Few
Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645 637

participants opposed their classmates opinions. Participants found Edmodo easy to use
as a collaborative reflection tool, but it wasn’t perfect. Krutka et al. (2014) concluded
that the utility of Edmodo for preservice teachers' learning would have increased with
more tagging of concepts and themes in the preservice teachers' posts and comments.
In analyzing pre and post exam scores and pre-post survey responses from 77 pre-
service teachers enrolled in a technology course, O’Bannon et al. (2013) examined the
effectiveness of using a Facebook group as a course tool to increase preservice teachers'
knowledge of core course topics. They also examined preservice teachers' use of
Facebook generally, their participation in the course-related Facebook group, and their
perceptions of using Facebook as an educational tool. They found that participants had
significantly higher post test scores, suggesting the utility of Facebook as an effective
teaching tool with this group of educators. They found that the preservice teachers used
Facebook most frequently to maintain existing relationships and share photographs;
they used the course-related Facebook group to read posts, post their own comments,
like others comments and share information. They reported that the Facebook group
was helpful in preparing for course-related assessments and enhanced their learning.
Hutchison and Wang (2012) conducted a qualitative study to explore how 15 pre-
service teachers used the social network site, Ning, in a children’s literature course.
Ning was used to post announcements, notes, grades, student-produced videos, blog
postings about the books students had read, and to showcase students' profile pages.
The researchers qualitatively coded students' communication on the SNS, blog post-
ings, and semi-structured interview data.
The researchers noticed several trends. First, students were socially influenced in
their choice of books to read by what other students read and blogged about. Second,
students were excited to read other students' blog posts and to learn about blogging as a
teaching tool, having had little prior experience with this social media in education.
Lastly, students were excited about the possibilities of blogging within social network
sites to help learners collaborate and examine literature in depth. These findings suggest
that written posts on social network sites may be beneficial as a complement to more in-
depth class discussions rather than replacing it altogether.
Conducting a survey of pre-service teachers enrolled in a teacher education program
(n = 70), Lei (2009) identified their attitudes, competencies, beliefs, and future plans
regarding the use of technology for teaching. Analyzing the data for frequencies,
descriptive statistics, correlations and qualitative analysis of the open-ended questions,
Lei found that their use of social media was limited to social network sites for mainly
social-communication purposes. They lacked experience and expertise in using such
technologies for teaching and learning. The authors conclude that systematic technol-
ogy preparation is required to assist preservice teachers in making connections between
their personal, everyday use of social network sites and their teaching.
Sadaf et al. (2013) explored the factors that predict pre-service teachers' plans to use
social media in their future classrooms. Using a mixed methods research design, the
researchers surveyed 286 preservice teachers attending an educational technology course
and collected qualitative interview data (n = 7). Preservice teachers' positive attitudes
toward and perceived usefulness of social media in the classroom were found to be
significant predictors of their intentions to use these technologies in their future classrooms.
Specifically, they intend to use social network sites, blogs and wikis to increase student-
teacher and student-student interactions; to foster collaborative writing and students' writing
638 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

ability; and as tools to share content knowledge. The authors also highlight how teacher
education programs might simulate this experience of using technology in a classroom
setting in order to better prepare the student to do so later on as a teacher.

7.5 Inservice teachers' perceptions and practices

One study addressed inservice teachers' perceptions and practices. Wang et al. (2014)
conducted a design based research (DBR) project to facilitate science teachers' use of ICTs
as cognitive tools and change their practices from traditional teacher-centered methods to
constructivist, student-centered ones. The DBR study involved 25 middle-school science
teachers whose implementation of cognitive tools with their students was observed in
science classrooms and virtually through the social network site, Edmodo, over four years.
The results revealed teachers' positive shifts in their teaching practices by gradually ceding
control over the use of technology to students, and the positive impact of this on students'
ICT skills and science learning. The authors conclude with design principles for profes-
sional development aimed at similar teacher preparation goals.

7.6 Themes in the research on K-12 teaching and learning with social network
sites

Roblyer’s (2005) framework was used for categorizing studies that shape the field of
education and information technology. Two independent raters (also the co-authors)
applied the aforementioned four categories to the reviewed research on teaching and
learning with social network sites related to K-12 contexts. Reviewers discussed any
differences in initial codes and came to agreement on the resulting categories displayed in
Table 2. These discussions occurred regularly throughout the review process, resulting in a
shared understanding of the rating criteria. Reviewers used a double asterisk (**) to denote
studies that do not fall into any of the 4 categories of this framework.
As shown in Table 2, two studies fell into more than one category (Khan et al. 2014;
Vasbø et al. 2014). Almost half of the reviewed studies (n = 10) did not fall neatly into
any of the four categories. The most prevalent type of studies found in our sample were
those that investigated implementation strategies, or those studies that examined an
educational technology approach in-use. Such studies try to describe or explain the
impact of technology on educational outcomes and how, why and for whom the
approach works well in certain situations. For instance, Callaghan and Bower (2012)
investigated the type of thinking demonstrated by students' contributions to Ning in two
10th year commerce classes in Sydney, Australia. They found that while SNSs may
enhance motivation, higher-order thinking and digital literacy development in these
classes, this is mediated by how the teacher establishes an online presence and projects
an attitude toward learning over socializing in the SNS.
The second most prevalent type of studies in our sample were studies that reported
on common uses of social network sites among learners or teachers and the impact
these technologies may be having on school life. For instance, Fewkes and McCabe
(2012) examined students' common practices with Facebook since it became available
in their school. They found that the majority used Facebook for educational purposes
but reported their teachers had not integrated this technology into their teaching. They
suggest steps to scaffold pedagogy at the school level.
Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645 639

Table 2 Categorization of reviewed studies according to Roblyer (2005)

Establish technology’s Investigate Monitor Report on

effectiveness at implementation social common
improving student strategies impact uses to shape
learning the field

1. Alias et al. (2013) X

2. Callaghan and Bower (2012) X
3. Casey and Evans (2011) X
4. Erjavec (2013) X
5. Fewkes and McCabe (2012) X
6. Glusac et al. (2014) ** ** ** **
7. Greenhow and Robelia (2009) X
8. Greenhow et al. (2011) X
9. Hershkowitz and X
Forkosh-Baruch (2013)
10. Hutchison and Wang (2012) ** ** ** **
11. Khan et al. (2014) X X
12. Krutka et al. (2014) ** ** ** **
13. Lantz-Andersson et al. (2013) ** ** ** **
14. Lei (2009) ** ** ** **
15. Mao (2014) ** ** ** **
16. O’bannon et al. (2013) ** ** ** **
17. Robelia et al. (2011) ** ** ** **
18. Rosen et al. (2013) X
19. Sadaf et al. (2013) ** ** ** **
20. Vasbro, et al. (2014) X X
21. Veira et al. (2014) X
22. Wang et al. (2014) X
23. Weeden et al. (2013) ** ** ** **
24. Yang et al. (2014) X
Totals 0 7 3 6

**Denotes studies that do not fall into the 4 categories of this framework

Only four studies monitored social impact, looking at differences among learners or
differential access to technology, and perhaps surprisingly, no studies sought to estab-
lish the technology’s effectiveness at improving student learning.

8 Discussion and conclusions

Overall, this review found few studies that examined learners' perceptions and practices
in formal learning environments. This review also found few studies that examined the
640 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

perceptions and practices of actual classroom teachers (versus preservice teachers) in

middle or secondary school settings. Approximately one third of the reviewed studies
concerned learners' or teachers' practices with social network sites (e.g., Facebook) in
their leisure time, outside of school.
Given that the widespread adoption of social media in our everyday lives is a
relatively recent phenomena, and the disconnect between internet use in and out of
school has been well documented (Warschauer and Matuchiank 2010), it is not
surprising that educational researchers have focused their investigations mainly on
learning with new media where it most occurs, beyond the school day. Moreover, the
rapid pace of socio-technical advancements generally, in contrast to the slow pace of
technology adoption and change in schools, requires research efforts that span the
learning ecology today’s young people and their teachers inhabit (Barron 2006).
Studies of learners' and teachers' everyday socio-technical practices and their informal
learning with social network sites are important to advancing the field of educational
technology because they can and do suggest topics for inquiry in formal learning
settings (Appel 2012; Greenhow and Robelia 2009; Greenhowet al. 2015; Glušac
et al. 2014; Lantz-Andersson et al. 2013) and can help enhance our understanding of
the interrelationships between technology-mediated formal and informal education. For
instance, Greenhow et al. (2015) examined students' scientific literacy, as evidenced in
their argumentation about climate change issues, within a niche Facebook application
not tied to any formal class or curriculum. The researchers found that some argumen-
tative practices demonstrated in this social media space for informal learning aligned
with argumentative practices demonstrated in formal computer-supported collaborative
learning (CSCL) spaces. On the other hand, sophisticated argumentative moves not
reported in the research on argumentation in formal CSCL environments, were present
in the Facebook environment. The researchers argue that online social networking
environments may offer affordances for facilitating CSCL practices that are more
difficult to foster in schools and suggest that closer examination of their interrelation-
ships may reveal productive synergies.

8.1 Implications for the development and preparation of teachers

Although the results reported here are mixed - the studies reported both advantages and
disadvantages to teaching and learning with social network sites – several themes were
apparent that are relevant to the professional preparation and development of teachers.
First, teachers (and students) who were more active social network site users in their
personal lives were among the strongest supporters of this new media in education and
reported plans to use it in future teaching practices. Thus, teacher education efforts
might assess whether, how and why teachers are using widely available and popular
technologies in their personal lives and then, tailor opportunities to practice and reflect
on using the technology in the profession. Although general technology use and
adoption surveys have found that teachers are fairly proficient in their computer and
internet skills generally and have fairly high computer self-efficacy, their workload and
a structured and standardized curriculum have been found to be inhibitors to social
media adoption Kale and Goh (2014). Age, self-efficacy, workload, and views about
social media in teaching were found to be significant factors predicting teachers'
likelihood to espouse this technology for teaching. Thus, infrastructural improvements
Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645 641

(e.g., students' not having computers or internet access at home), workload adjustments,
and increased professional development opportunities are needed to promote the
integration of SNSs in teaching practices Kale and Goh (2014).
Second, although students generally believed in the potential of using social network
sites as supports for learning, their actual academic help-seeking, collaborative learn-
ing, and other self-directed educational activities within SNSs occurred outside of
school. Students' saw little evidence of teaching with SNSs in their classes; where this
was reported, they perceived these efforts as primarily reinforcing traditional peda-
gogies and assessments. Given young people’s use of these everyday technologies for
various informal learning purposes, teachers need to better understand their students'
out-of-school practices if they are to improve their teaching with SNSs (Luckin et al.
2009). This includes understanding variability in their students' attitudes, prior knowl-
edge and experience. Sustained professional development opportunities that expose
teachers to research about students' experiences with social media and to techniques for
assessing their students knowledge, attitudes, and expectations would help fulfill this
need.
Third, teacher education initiatives should set up opportunities to critically evaluate
recent research literature on conditions for potentially beneficial or harmful social
media integration (e.g., the importance of fostering a learning attitude and students'
views of social media as potential spaces for learning, language and literacy
development, collaboration, self-direction and co-production rather than merely
spaces for socializing, teacher-driven content learning, or distraction (Andersson
et al. 2014).

8.2 Expanding the framework: Implications for future studies to shape the field

Reflecting upon our categorization of studies in Table 2, the authors see that most of the
reviewed research is descriptive of common uses and implementation approaches
(perceived or observed). No accumulation of studies was found suggesting ‘best
practices’ for integrating this social media into pedagogy, tied to student learning
outcomes.
Furthermore, reading Robyler’s (2005) framework for studies most needed to
advance the field of educational technology, it was noted that Robyler emphasizes
research conducted in classrooms and schools where learning objectives, curricula, and
targeted student outcomes are present rather than the kinds of self-directed or incidental
learning that studies in this review have reported. Moreover, the framework seems
appropriate for categorizing studies of technologies that have been around long enough
to become diffused in schools (e.g., categorization of studies that target the demonstra-
tion of the technology’s effectiveness at improving student learning).
However, missing from the framework is a categorization of studies that target
‘learning’ or people’s experiences with new or cutting edge technologies in situ. Such
research is fundamental to our field because it helps describe, explain or predict
opportunities for learning or teaching that might otherwise go unrecognized. Such
studies may also help shape future research and technology integration efforts in formal
education, resulting potentially in solutions to persistent educational problems or the
disruption of prevailing educational norms and practices toward beneficial
transformations.
642 Educ Inf Technol (2017) 22:623–645

Also absent from the framework is a categorization for studies that seek to bridge
formal and informal learning contexts and practices with newer technologies, especially
those that dominate popular culture or professional practices in industries outside
education (e.g., journalism, business, entertainment). Schools do not operate in a
vacuum. They are situated in society and culture. The field of educational technology
needs studies that help connect school life to larger societal and technological trends.

8.3 Limitations

This literature review was necessarily narrow in scope. It focused only on teachers
(inservice and preservice) and students in middle or secondary school settings and on a
particular social media: social network sites. Reviewers canvassed four educational
research databases and performed a table of contents review on a small number of
relevant journals, largely in the field of educational technology. Future reviews might
cast a wider net, such as reviewing the table of contents of journals in teacher education
and new media/communications in order to improve the depth and breadth of insights
to inform the field.

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