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Introduction to
Modern Cryptography
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Origins

► A clear replacement for DES was needed

► have theoretical attacks that can break it
► have demonstrated exhaustive key search attacks
► can use Triple-DES – but slow, has small blocks
► US NIST issued call for ciphers in 1997
► 15 candidates accepted in Jun 98
► 5 were shortlisted in Aug-99
► Rijndael was selected as the AES in Oct-2000
► issued as FIPS PUB 197 standard in Nov-2001
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The AES Cipher - Rijndael

► designed by Rijmen-Daemen in Belgium

► has 128/192/256 bit keys, 128 bit data
► an iterative rather than feistel cipher
► processes data as block of 4 columns of 4 bytes
► operates on entire data block in every round
► designed to be:
► resistant against known attacks
► speed and code compactness on many CPUs
► design simplicity
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AES Encryption
Process
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⮚ data block of 4 columns of 4 bytes is state

⮚ key is expanded to array of words
AES ⮚ has 10/12/14 rounds in which state undergoes:
Structure ● byte substitution (1 S-box used on every byte)
● shift rows (permute bytes between groups/columns)
● mix columns (subs using matrix multiply of groups)
● add round key (XOR state with key material)
● view as alternating XOR key & scramble data bytes
⮚ initial XOR key material & incomplete last round
⮚ with fast XOR & table lookup implementation
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AES
Structure
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1. an iterative rather than feistel cipher

2. key expanded into array of 32-bit words
Some 1. four words form round key in each round
3. 4 different stages are used as shown
Comments 4. has a simple structure
on AES 5. only AddRoundKey uses key
6. AddRoundKey a form of Vernam cipher
7. each stage is easily reversible
8. decryption uses keys in reverse order
9. decryption does recover plaintext
10. final round has only 3 stages
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Substitute Bytes

► a simple substitution of each byte

► uses one table of 16x16 bytes containing a
permutation of all 256 8-bit values
► each byte of state is replaced by byte indexed
by row (left 4-bits) & column (right 4-bits)
► eg. byte {86} is replaced by byte in row 8
column 6
► which has value {2A}
► S-box constructed using defined transformation
of values in GF(28)
► designed to be resistant to all known attacks
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Substitute Bytes
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Substitute Bytes Example
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Shift Rows

►a circular byte shift in each row

► 1strow is unchanged
► 2nd row does 1 byte circular shift to left
► 3rd row does 2 byte circular shift to left
► 4th row does 3 byte circular shift to left
► decrypt inverts using shifts to right
► since state is processed by columns, this step
permutes bytes between the columns
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Shift Rows
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Mix Columns
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Mix Columns Example
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Mix Columns

► can express each col as 4 equations

► to derive each new byte in col
► decryption requires use of inverse matrix
► with larger coefficients, hence a little harder
► have an alternate characterisation
► each column a 4-term polynomial
► with coefficients in GF(28)
► and polynomials multiplied modulo (x4+1)
► coefficients based on linear code with maximal distance between
codewords
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Add Round Key

⮚ XOR state with 128-bits of the round key

⮚ again processed by column (though effectively a
series of byte operations)
⮚ inverse for decryption identical
● since XOR own inverse, with reversed keys
⮚ designed to be as simple as possible
● a form of Vernam cipher on expanded key
● requires other stages for complexity / security
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Add Round Key
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AES Round
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AES Key Expansion

⮚ takes 128-bit (16-byte) key and expands into array of

44/52/60 32-bit words
⮚ start by copying key into first 4 words
⮚ then loop creating words that depend on values in
previous & 4 places back
● in 3 of 4 cases just XOR these together
● 1st word in 4 has rotate + S-box + XOR round constant
on previous, before XOR 4th back
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AES Key
Expansion

Rcon[j] = (RC[j], 0, 0, 0),

Where
RC[1] = 1,
RC[j] = 2 RC[j -1]
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Key Expansion Rationale

► designed to resist known attacks

► design criteria included
► knowing part key insufficient to find many more
► invertible transformation
► fast on wide range of CPU’s
► use round constants to break symmetry
► diffuse key bits into round keys
► enough non-linearity to hinder analysis
► simplicity of description
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AES Example
Encryption
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AES Example
Avalanche
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Public Key Cryptography and RSA

Every Egyptian received two names, which

were known respectively as the true name
and the good name, or the great name
and the little name; and while the good or
little name was made public, the true or
great name appears to have been carefully
concealed.
—The Golden Bough, Sir James George Frazer
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Private-Key Cryptography

⮚ traditional private/secret/single key cryptography uses

one key
⮚ shared by both sender and receiver
⮚ if this key is disclosed communications are
compromised
⮚ also is symmetric, parties are equal
⮚ hence does not protect sender from receiver forging a
message & claiming is sent by sender
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Public-Key Cryptography

► probably most significant advance in the 3000 year

history of cryptography
► uses two keys – a public & a private key
► asymmetric since parties are not equal
► uses clever application of number theoretic concepts
to function
► complements rather than replaces private key crypto
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Why Public-Key Cryptography?

► developed to address two key issues:

► key distribution – how to have secure
communications in general without having to
trust a KDC with your key
► digital signatures – how to verify a message
comes intact from the claimed sender
► public invention due to Whitfield Diffie & Martin
Hellman at Stanford Uni in 1976
► known earlier in classified community
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Public-Key Cryptography

► public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography
involves the use of two keys:
►a public-key, which may be known by anybody,
and can be used to encrypt messages, and verify
signatures
► a related private-key, known only to the recipient,
used to decrypt messages, and sign (create)
signatures
► infeasible
to determine private key from public
► is asymmetric because
► thosewho encrypt messages or verify signatures
cannot decrypt messages or create signatures
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Public-Key Cryptography
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Symmetric vs
Public-Key
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Public-Key Cryptosystems
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Public-Key Applications

► can classify uses into 3 categories:

► encryption/decryption (provide secrecy)
► digital signatures (provide authentication)
► key exchange (of session keys)
► some algorithms are suitable for all uses, others are
specific to one
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Public-Key Requirements

► Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys where:

► it is computationally infeasible to find decryption key
knowing only algorithm & encryption key
► it is computationally easy to en/decrypt messages
when the relevant (en/decrypt) key is known
► either of the two related keys can be used for
encryption, with the other used for decryption (for
some algorithms)
► these are formidable requirements which only a few
algorithms have satisfied
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Public-Key Requirements

► need a trapdoor one-way function

► one-way function has
►Y = f(X) easy
►X = f–1(Y) infeasible
► a trap-door one-way function has
►Y = fk(X) easy, if k and X are known
►X = fk–1(Y) easy, if k and Y are known
►X = fk–1(Y) infeasible, if Y known but k not known
► a practical public-key scheme depends on a
suitable trap-door one-way function
 Security of Public Key Schemes 35

⮚ like private key schemes brute force exhaustive

search attack is always theoretically possible
⮚ but keys used are too large (>512bits)
⮚ security relies on a large enough difference in
difficulty between easy (en/decrypt) and hard
(cryptanalyse) problems
⮚ more generally the hard problem is known, but is
made hard enough to be impractical to break
⮚ requires the use of very large numbers
⮚ hence is slow compared to private key schemes
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RSA

⮚ by Rivest, Shamir & Adleman of MIT in 1977

⮚ best known & widely used public-key scheme
⮚ based on exponentiation in a finite (Galois) field
over integers modulo a prime
● nb. exponentiation takes O((log n)3) operations (easy)
⮚ uses large integers (eg. 1024 bits)
⮚ security due to cost of factoring large numbers
● nb. factorization takes O(e log n log log n) operations (hard)
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RSA En/decryption

► to encrypt a message M the sender:

► obtains public key of recipient PU={e,n}
► computes: C = Me mod n, where 0≤M<n
► to decrypt the ciphertext C the owner:
► uses their private key PR={d,n}
► computes: M = Cd mod n
► note that the message M must be smaller than the
modulus n (block if needed)
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RSA Key Setup

► each user generates a public/private key pair by:

► selecting two large primes at random: p, q
► computing their system modulus n=p.q
► note ø(n)=(p-1)(q-1)
► selecting at random the encryption key e
► where 1<e<ø(n), gcd(e,ø(n))=1

► solve following equation to find decryption key d

► e.d=1 mod ø(n) and 0≤d≤n

► publishtheir public encryption key: PU={e,n}

► keep secret private decryption key: PR={d,n}
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Why RSA Works

► because of Euler's Theorem:

► aø(n)mod n = 1 where gcd(a,n)=1
► in RSA have:
► n=p.q
► ø(n)=(p-1)(q-1)
► carefully chose e & d to be inverses mod ø(n)
► hence e.d=1+k.ø(n) for some k
► hence :
C = Me.d = M1+k.ø(n) = M1.(Mø(n))k
d

= M1.(1)k = M1 = M mod n
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RSA Example - Key Setup

1. Select primes: p=17 & q=11

2. Calculate n = pq =17 x 11=187
3. Calculate ø(n)=(p–1)(q-1)=16x10=160
4. Select e: gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7
5. Determine d: de=1 mod 160 and d < 160
Value is d=23 since 23x7=161= 10x160+1
6. Publish public key PU={7,187}
7. Keep secret private key PR={23,187}
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RSA Example - En/Decryption

⮚ sample RSA encryption/decryption is:

⮚ given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)
⮚ encryption: C = Me mod n
C = 887 mod 187 = 11
⮚ decryption: M = Cd mod n
M = 1123 mod 187 = 88
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Exponentiation

► can use the Square and Multiply Algorithm

► a fast, efficient algorithm for exponentiation
► concept is based on repeatedly squaring base
► and multiplying in the ones that are needed to compute the
result
► look at binary representation of exponent
► only takes O(log2 n) multiples for number n
► eg. 75 = 74.71 = 3.7 = 10 mod 11
► eg. 3129 = 3128.31 = 5.3 = 4 mod 11
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Exponentiation

c = 0; f = 1
for i = k downto 0
do c = 2 x c
f = (f x f) mod n
if bi == 1 then
c = c + 1
f = (f x a) mod n
return f
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Efficient Encryption

► encryption uses exponentiation to power e

► hence if e small, this will be faster
► often choose e=65537 (216-1)
► also see choices of e=3 or e=17
► but if e too small (eg e=3) can attack
► using Chinese remainder theorem & 3 messages with
different modulii
► if e fixed must ensure gcd(e,ø(n))=1
► ie reject any p or q not relatively prime to e
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Efficient Decryption

► decryption uses exponentiation to power d

► this is likely large, insecure if not
► can use the Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT)
to compute mod p & q separately. then
combine to get desired answer
► approx 4 times faster than doing directly
► only owner of private key who knows values of p
& q can use this technique
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RSA Key Generation

► users of RSA must:

► determine two primes at random - p, q
► select either e or d and compute the other
► primes p,q must not be easily derived from modulus n=p.q
► means must be sufficiently large
► typically guess and use probabilistic test
► exponents e, d are inverses, so use Inverse algorithm to
compute the other
► See step by step details on 🡺
https://www.cryptool.org/en/cto/rsa-step-by-step
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RSA Security

► possible approaches to attacking RSA are:

► brute
force key search - infeasible given size of
numbers
► mathematical attacks - based on difficulty of
computing ø(n), by factoring modulus n
► timing attacks - on running of decryption
► chosen ciphertext attacks - given properties of RSA
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Factoring Problem

► mathematical approach takes 3 forms:

► factor n=p.q, hence compute ø(n) and then d
► determine ø(n) directly and compute d
► find d directly
► currently believe all equivalent to factoring
► have seen slow improvements over the years
► as of May-05 best is 200 decimal digits (663) bit with LS
► biggest improvement comes from improved algorithm
► cf QS to GHFS to LS
► currently assume 1024-2048 bit RSA is secure
► ensure p, q of similar size and matching other constraints
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Progress in Factoring
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Progress in
Factoring
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Timing Attacks

► developed by Paul Kocher in mid-1990’s

► exploit timing variations in operations
► eg. multiplying by small vs large number
► or IF's varying which instructions executed
► infer
operand size based on time taken
► RSA exploits time taken in exponentiation
► countermeasures
► use constant exponentiation time
► add random delays
► blind values used in calculations
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Chosen Ciphertext Attacks

● RSA is vulnerable to a Chosen Ciphertext Attack

(CCA)
● attackers chooses ciphertexts & gets decrypted
plaintext back
● choose ciphertext to exploit properties of RSA to
provide info to help cryptanalysis
● can counter with random pad of plaintext
● or use Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding
(OASP)
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Optimal
Asymmetric
Encryption
Padding
(OASP)