aes

RAUEy N
Education today
Education isn’t working.
At one end of the socio-economic scale are the ‘really good’ schools. These
schools have small, orderly classrooms, properly trained teachers and the latest
digital technology. Few parents are wealthy enough to send their children to these
schools, and, as a result, these schools are very much in the minority. Having said
that, we should not forget that these places are by no means paradises — neither
for learners nor for teachers. A first-world, competitive curriculum means that
these schools have little choice but to encourage conformity in their pupils (and
teachers). There is little opportunity for the children and young people who go
to these schools to engage in critical, independent thinking. When they become
adults, these ‘fortunate’ people often live out their lives in a state of depression,
debt and corporate mindlessness— in a world that is running out of all the essential
resources needed to sustain human life, including water itself.
Further ‘down’ from these schools are the abundance of religious schools and
various homeschooling experiments. For the most part, this form of education is
driven by caring parents who, naturally, want to pass on their values and beliefs
to their children. These parents are also keen to ensure that their children attend
well-regulated, resourced schools in which they have access to a decent education
charaterised by acceptable examination results, a good matric pass rate and a
university entrance qualification. Unfortunately, when these children leave such
schools, they find themselves ill-prepared for a secular world and, in some cases,
these schools do not measure up when it comes to the teaching of mathematics,
science and computer technology.
Finally, at the bottom of the socio-economic scale, the situation is impossible. In
South Africa, poor, state-run schools are very often the order of the day for many
children, particularly in the remote rural areas. These ‘schools’ are little more
than a collection of derelict buildings, staffed by ‘teachers’ who are simply adults
that have been unable to find any sort of employment elsewhere. Many of these
teachers are not equipped — either academically or psychologically — to teach
the huge numbers of badly nourished children that make up their ‘classrooms’
every day. Tragically, some of these teachers turn to violence, including sexual
violence. Some are dismissed, whereas others continue working as teachers,
wreaking havoc in the lives of the children and young people entrusted to them.
Not surprisingly, many of the children who attend these schools simply drop out.
 Also, of course, in South Africa, some of these children have no living pi a
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

and are forced to subsist, as best they can, on the mercy of older relatives.
In addition, it is worth remembering that, in the developed world, thac
ss
an abundance of inner-city schools, schools that are ridden
bullied children and bullied teachers. Many of these school: C
grounds for the prisons where these children, once they are
least some of their lives. e
Needless to say, none of these ‘educational’ scenarios are «
Can we use philosophy to change these scenarios, to g
people and, indeed, ourselves, a better education, a better
what philosophies are available to us, and how can we appl:
to education?

What is philosophy?
Perhaps we should start by ridding ourselves of the notior
some irrelevant, abstract past time that is pursued — if it is
certain privileged academics in the world’s ‘great unive
Harvard, Oxford).
It is a dearth of philosophy, and philosophical reasoning, tk
the situation described in the various depressing scenarios al
Philosophy is, quite simply, the theory on which we
lives, including our educational lives. All of us, whether \ ‘
are guided by a certain philosophy, or ‘life theory’. There dd
theories available to us, and it is these philosophies — life Tr oO
will be exploring and discussing in this book. And, throug
shall be looking at how these philosophies can influence ed
see, some of these philosophies have had a very definite im
practice, others not. $03
Today, we are privileged in that, by living in a global work
of philosophies available to us, all of which can be applied
philosophies are:
¢ African Philosophy and indigenous African knowledge systems;
¢ Empiricism (and its ‘little brother’, Pragmatism);
Scientific Rationalism;
Hermencutics;
:
:
F

Feminism;
Systems Theory (which also has a ‘little brother’ - Complexity Theory);
Postmodernism; and
Critical Realism.
All these philosophies (and, remember, a philosophy is simply a life theory) have

[ ueg 03 uoRanpoxuy
advantages and disadvantages, certainly as far as education is concerned. If we
are to improve our various educational endeavours, we need to know what these
disadvantages are and what the advantages are. Perhaps we need our curricula
and classrooms to be based on a mixture of these various philosophies.
Let's find out, and let's start by briefly defining what each of these philosophies
teach. (Note the word ‘teach’.)
We will look at each of them in more detail in the chapters that follow.
Our first philosophy — life theory — is African Philosophy, and the many
indigenous African knowledge systems on the African continent,
¢ African Philosophy challenges the domination of Western and Eurocentric forms
of knowledge and emphasises the values embraced in the notions of ubuntu
and communality. Education based on this kind of philosophy is directed at
fostering humane persons with virtues such as kindness, generosity, compassion,
benevolence,
courtesy and a respect and concern for the welfare
of others.
Indigenous African knowledge systems also challenge the domination of
Western and Eurocentric knowledge systems, which are widely considered
to be the only knowledge systems that are important in public institutions
of education. Indigenous African knowledge systems are derived from old
knowledge that has existed for generations in a specific community, such as
historical events, ancestral wisdom and genealogies of the clan.
Empiricism simply means ‘experience-ism’. Empiricism teaches that
everything we know is based on what we have experienced personally, through
our five senses (seeing, hearing, tasting, touching, smelling). Empiricism isn't
concerned with things we can’t know or prove. As far as education is concerned,
Empiricism teaches that we learn through our experiences.
Pragmatism is similar to Empiricism, and simply means ‘practical-ism’. In very
simple terms, Pragmatism teaches that the truth of a statement is found in
its consequences. This means that Pragmatism encourages us to experiment.
Pragmatism, then, promotes education as a form of experimentation.
Scientific Rationalism is a questioning philosophy. A scientific rationalist
questions and challenges what he or she is told and insists that any claim be
backed by empirical evidence. According to Scientific Rationalism, learners
should be taught to question.
Phenomenology examines things and people in reality, as they really are,
without imposing theories or opinions on this reality. It focuses on our felt
experience rather than on a scientific analysis of experience. Phenomenology
claims that modern education tends to ignore the world of the child.
Hermeneutics is the philosophy of interpretation. People who promote
ee ee ee oe ee ee
. Hermencutics takes imagery and symbolism seriously and believes
Eaton Gucdisite included
in the curriculum of any form of education,
Constructivism claims that any form of knowledge is the product of our
community's practices and interaction with the world around that community.
 Contructivism takes seriously Hermeneutics’ claim that we are dependent on
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

interpretation, except that Constructivism goes one step further and claims
that the world we experience is no more than a product of that interpretation.
¢ Systems Theory is one of the more recent philosophies covered in this book. It
began and started in the mid-20th century with the study of living, biological
systems. Systems Theory stresses the fact that education, like all living things,
has to work within a certain environment.
* Complexity Theory claims that all systems become increasingly complex until
they reach the point at which they turn into another system. In the process,
these evolving or emerging systems come to possess new characterisitics and
have new functions, Complexity Theory claims that modern education systems
are in a constant stage of change as old systems die out and new ones emerge.
¢ Critical Theory claims that our understanding of truth depends on the society
in which we live. According to Critical Theory, all societies are ruled by elite
groups who fool us all into believing certain false claims. Critical Theory
believes that any real form of education should seek to free learners and
teachers of a belief in these false claims.
¢ Feminism is made up of three strands of thinking: liberal feminism, feminism
and meaning, and radical feminism. All forms of Feminism focus on the
following issues: sexual stereotyping, creating a bigger place for women in
the world, and a rejection of the notion that women are accountable to and
inferior to men. Most feminists claim that education remains a tool in the
hands of male-dominated society.
* Queer Theory focuses on the way in which we can construct and reconstruct
our identities, an issue that is becoming increasingly topical in a world
dominated by electronic methods of communication, methods that ‘mask’ the
human being behind the computer.
¢ Postmodernism is unique in that it rejects the idea that there is one overall
philosophy (or life theory) that explains and guides how we live. According to
Postmodernism, any human endeavour, including education, is made up of a
series of single penta fiat canned Gececeglained fey wemegrraitel Chere;
* Critical Realism is a philosophy that is not new. It was practised, specifically, in
education, in medieval Europe (in the form of scholasticism). Contemporary
Critical Realism, like its medieval counterpart, focuses on objective reality
(including metaphysical reality) and human subjectivity (which includes our
fallible powers of reasoning).

To reiterate: all these philosophies have certain advantages and disadvantages,

both in terms of life in general and education in particular.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
14. Read through the paragraphs above again and then write down which of
these philosophies
appeals to you most. Explain why.
 2. We know that it's early days as far as this module is concerned, but think

[ ueg 03 uoRanpoxuy
how each of these philosophies could influence education. Never mind that,
at this early stage, you will be ‘guessing’. Just write down your thoughts.
Later on, you can see how your thoughts compare with what we say about
the influence of these philosophies
on education.

The origins of humankind and learning

Now let us begin at the beginning, where philosophy, education and, indeed,
humankind itself first started: in Africa, specifically that part of Africa known
today as the Cradle of Humankind, just 30 kilometres from where this is being
written. Given that this book is about education, it is important to remember
that, if these early human beings had been incapable of teaching and learning,
humankind as a species would have died out.

The Taung child

Our best scientific evidence tells us that the human journey began in Africa,
between7 and 4 million years ago. The evidence for this claim consists of a
collection of fossilised bones and skulls found in South Africa and East Africa.
These fossilised bones and skulls are the remains of our ancestors — everybody's
ancestors. One such skull belonged to a child: the child known as the Taung child.
The skull of the Taung child was blasted out of the earth by mining engineers
working in a limestone quarry near the Northern
Cape village of Taung. This happened nearly 100 |
years ago, in November 1924. The details of the
find need not concern us. Suffice it to say that
examination of this skull showed that, in life, the
Taung child had been a very early human being who
had certainly walked upright.
Some 30 years later, in the 1950s, enough evi-
dence had been amassed to convince
the scientific
community — who have remained convinced ever
since — that human beings originated in Africa, and
that the species to which the Taung child belonged,
Australopithecus afarensis (which means ‘southern
ape man from Africa’), were precursors to the The fossilised skull of the
human species — humans in the making, Taung child

. Could the Taunng child enrol at:school? Yes. He could enrol in Grade 0. (He
was about 3 to 6 years old.) He could probably walk to school by himself.
 * Lama Grade 0 teacher. What could I teach the Taung child? You could teach
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

him to find food (fruit and roots) and, as he got older, to kill small animals
for their meat.
* Could I teach him to make things? Yes. You could teach him to make very
simple stone implements and to use them to dig for roots.
* Could I teach him to count up to 10? No. His brain was too small (400-500 cc).
The Taung child would never have been able to count.
Could I teach the Taung child to recognise letters (A, B, C, etc)? No. His brain
was too small.
Could I teach the Taung child to speak? No. Neither the Taung child nor his
parents or relatives could speak and communicate as we do. They may have
been able to make the sort of noises that chimpanzees do, but that’s all.
* Could I teach the Taung child to play? Yes. You could probably teach him
simple physical games.
or hmmm: ce: mmm ao
no. Their brains were too small. However, his teachers unconsciously
used
Hininettiorhine tnecrtmaskditdbielorwatie:
- Empiricism; and
— Pragmatism,

The Nariokotome
boy
We shall now look at another young early human who lived in Africa: the
Nariokotome boy (also called the Turkana boy). This young human lived in
East Africa (Kenya), and his fossilised remains were found at a place called
Nariokotome
(see map below).

Nariokotome

Kenya

Map
of Africa
The Nariokotome
boy died about 1,7 million years ago as a result of infection

[ ueq 3 uononponuy
(possibly because of a wound sustained during a hunting expedition). He was
about nine years old when he died. The first piece of his skull was discovered
in
August 1984 on the western shores of a lake near the village of Nariokotome, by
a member of Dr Richard Leakey’s team, Kamoya Kimeu.
The skull and skeleton assembled by Dr Leakey’s team showed that the
Nariokotome boy was definitely a very early human being. He was a member
of an early group of humans known as Homo ergaster (which means ‘working
man’). This group emerged in Africa about 2 million years ago.
Homo ergaster was what, today, we would call an achiever. The Nariokotome
boy and his parents had much bigger brains (about 700 to 900 cc) than the Taung
child and his parents. The Nariokotome boy and his parents walked upright.
They were tall and slender, and they could walk and run great distances. They
had round, human-shaped heads and delicate facial features. They could make
and use hand axes and they could control fire.

The Nariokotome
boy

* Could the Nariokotome boy enrol at school? Yes. He could enrol in Grade 3 or
4. (He was about nine years old.)
© Lama Grade 3/4 teacher. What could I teach the Nariokotome boy? You could
teach him to make and manipulate simple, but effective, tools (eg axes and
knives). In fact, he would be good at doing this already
— you could probably
teach him to improve his tool-making skills.
* Could I teach him to count up to 10? His brain is about 800 cc. The
Nariokotome boy would not be able to learn to count. You could probably
teach him to store things using a very simple method of organisation (eg
putting one item on top of another, or next to each other).
* Could I teach the Nariokotome boy to recognise letters (A, B, C, etc)? No. His
brainis too small.
* Could I teach the Nariokotome boy to speak? Possibly. Scientists think that the
Nariokotome boy may have been able to mimic the noises animals make
(which helped him and his group to hunt) and he may have been able to
point to objects and ‘name’ them.
 * Could I teach the Nariokotome boy to care about his community? Again,
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

scientists aren't certain. The Nariokotome boy and his parents almost
certainly belonged to a group that practised bonding; we could say this was
a very carly form of ubuntu.
* Could I teach the Nariokotome boy to play? Yes. You could probably teach
him games that focused on hiding and hunting.
Was the Nariokotome boy human? A difficult question to answer! Yes and no.
If you and I watched him from a distance, he would move and behave like
one of us, Indeed, from a distance, he would look like us. But we would find
his facial expression unnerving, because his gaze would be, by our standards,
blank and uncomprchending.
¢ What philosophies did the Nariokotome boy's teachers use as a basis for living
and teaching? Again, their brains were too small to consciously follow any
theory of life, However, like the teachers of the Taung child, they also used
Empiricism and Pragmatism
simply in order to survive.

Human beings: the next million years

So far, we have looked in some detail at the life and times of two very early
human beings: the Taung child and the Nariokotome boy. The Taung child lived
about 2,7 million years ago, and the Nariokotome boy lived about 1,7 million
years ago. We shall now move forward in time in our investigation of humankind
and human philosophy.
As we have said, the brain capacity of the Nariokotome boy was about 700
or 800 cc. In the course of the next million years (ie about 500 000 years ago),
the human brain reached a capacity of 1 000 cc — about 90% of the brain
capacity of modern human adults. This extra brain capacity was crucial in the
development of humankind, as was the development of the human hand (with
opposable thumbs and the ability to properly grasp objects). The development
of the brain and the hand made it possible for human beings to refine tool-
making, to use colour and, in short, to relate to the world through the use of

It is this ability to engage in symbolism on which rests all human culture

and thinking: art, education, religion, science and philosophy. Without this
development in the brain, you would not be reading this and we would not be
writing. We would all be as the Nariokotome boy was: clever animals, without
human consciousness.
Once the brain had reached this size (1 000 cc), human beings developed
rapidly. In addition, from about 150 000 to 50 000 years ago, climatic conditions
in Africa continued to change, making it harder for human beings to survive.
Archaeological finds at Klasies River in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa
indicate that, by 120 000 years ago, some human beings survived by engaging in
a beachcombing lifestyle. They were able to fish and cook seafood, and the tools
they used for doing this were finely made. The oldest human artefacts ever found
date from about 100 000 years ago. These artefacts are pieces of ochre engraved

[ Meg 03 uoRPNponuy
with criss-cross patterns, found at Blombos Cave on the southern Cape coast of
South Africa. Archacologists found other artefacts at the same site: small, pierced
shells, finely worked and polished tools, needles and awls. Also at the same site,
archacologists discovered containers made from large seashells, red ochre, bone
and charcoal paste: this site was the world’s first ‘art studio’.

Pieces of ochre engraved with criss-cross patterns

found by archaeologists at Blombos Cave

ato
Small, pierced shells found by archaeologists at Blombos Cave
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Could these children enrol at school? Yes, but scientists don’t know how old
these children were, so we can’t suggest grades.
What could I teach these children?A great deal! You could teach them to
make tools, to colour, to draw patterns and to do beadwork.
Could I teach them to count up to 10? We're not sure. The fact that their
parents strung together small seashells certainly suggests that you could
teach these children a simple form of bead counting.
Could 1 teach these children to recognise letters (A, B, C, etc)? No. We're not
sure when human beings first learnt to write, but it was much later, and not
until the development of city cultures.
Could I teach these children to speak? Yes.
Could I teach these children to care about their community? Yes.
CouldI teach them to play? You probably wouldn't have to ~ these children
learntto play when they were still very young.
Could I teach these children to do simple colouring-in exercises? Yes. In fact,
these children would probably excel at all forms of artwork and colour
work.
Were these children human? Yes.
Did their teachers have any philosophy on which they based their lives and
their attempts to educate their children? A difficult question to answer! By
now, human beings had full consciousness, and the fact that they engaged
in a form of art suggests that they understood symbolism and imagery.
Tentatively, we would suggest that the parents and teachers who lived in
Blombos Cave practised Empiricism, Pragmatism and Hermencutics, and
that they handed on the values endorsed by these philosophies when they
taught their children.

The exodus
out of Africa
Some 60 000 years ago, climatic conditions in Africa became so harsh that at
least one group of human beings left Africa (from the Horn of Africa, in what is
now Somalia) by raft, and crossed over the Bab el Mandeh strait to what is now
the Arabian peninsula. This was possible because, at the time, the water in this
part of the sea was some 200 metres lower than it is today. It is also not unlikely
that there were a series of islands dotted between the Horn of Africa and the
 [ ueq 3 uononponuy
The Horn of Africa, showing the Bab el Mandeb strait

This group of human beings then went on to populate the entire world — scientists
know this because of genetic evidence and the different physical and linguistic
traits of groups of human beings.
By the time these humans left Africa, they had a fully developed language
(possibly an ancient version of one of Africa’s click languages). They used
symbolic art, they were adept hunters and fishers, they were capable of long-
term planning, they could cook and they almost certainly adorned themselves
with personal ornamentation.
As we have seen, these human beings unconsciously practised the very
beginnings of certain philosophies that enabled them to learn how to survive —
learning that they then passed on to their children.

Optional activity .
1. Archaeologists working in Blombos Cave discovered the earliest human
artworks.
a. Those of you who teach young children can give each child in the class
some crayons and ask him or her to draw the criss-cross patterns found
on the pieces of ochre discovered in Blombos Cave.
b. Once the children have done this, divide them into groups and ask each
group leader to explain what these symbols mean to the group.
2. Archaeologists also found small, pierced shells in Blombos Cave. These
shells were clearly strung into necklaces.
a. If you teach older children, get them to bring some beads to class and
string these beads into necklaces.
 b. Once they have done this, ask them to write down whether they enjoyed
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

this activity or not. What colour beads did they choose? Can they tell
you why? /
3. If you decided to do either of these activities yourself (which we hope you
did), what are your personal feelings about the activity?

Concluding remarks
Why are we asking you to get children to draw symbols and string together
beads? After all, these pastimes seem to be a far cry from the abstract claims
of any philosophy of education. In fact, we believe this is not the case. We are
convinced that any philosophy of education that ignores what teachers do with
children, and what children and teachers enjoy or do not enjoy doing, is irrelevant
and, quite possibly, harmful.
We are aware that we have begun this book by painting a picture of
contemporary human society and contemporary education systems that is by no
means pretty. Is there any way of remaking this picture, of repainting it?
This book is an invitation for you to join us in our discussion of these various
philosophies and the impact each has on education as it is practised. The first
philosophy we shall discuss in some detail is African Philosophy, and how this
philosophy influences education and educational practices.
African Philosophy has struggled to establish an identity that is peculiarly African.
This is largely due to the fact that Western, or Eurocentric, ways of thinking
enslaved the African mind during the colonial as well as the post-colonial eras.
However, African Philosophy in the 21st century is increasingly making its
presence felt in all spheres of life on the African continent, including education.
The significance of this for education is summarised in the following observation
made by Thabo Mbeki, former President of the Republic of South Africa:
If the next century is going to be characterized as a truly African Century, for
social and economic progress of the African people, the century of durable peace
and sustained development in Africa, then the success ... is dependent on the
success of our education systems. (Mbeki, 1999: 1}
Bearing Mbeki’s observation in mind, in this chapter we will discuss what African
Philosophy has to say to those involved in education systems on the African
continent.
Also to be discussed in this chapter is the recognition that needs to be afforded
indigenous African knowledge systems in constructing curricula in education
systems on the African continent. As is the case with African Philosophy,
indigenous African knowledge systems have also experienced various forms of
domination in their histories, such as colonialism and globalisation. Central to this
domination stand the negation and devaluation of indigenous African knowledge
systems and the hegemonic power of Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems.

Structure of the chapter

* We will begin by asking the question: What is African Philosophy all about?
* In responding to this question, we will start out by identifying the different
expressions of African Philosophy.
* We will then go on to look at what is referred to as the African Renaissance
and the problem of an African identity.
* We will go on to enquire what African Philosophy has to say to education on
the African continent.
 Having established some idea of what African Philosophy is all about, we will
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction
°

then proceed to consider the contribution that African Philosophy can make
to education in terms of its notions of ubuntu and communalism, and then
we will go on to reflect on the nature of an African philosophy of education.
Next, we will ask the question: What are indigenous African knowledge systems
all about? In responding to this question, we will identify the characteristics of
indigenous African knowledge systems.
Following on from this, we will discuss the consequences of the various forms
of domination experienced by indigenous African knowledge systems and the
impact this has had on education in Africa.
* We will then go on to consider why indigenous African knowledge systems
need to be recognised in the construction of curricula in education systems on
the African continent.
Finally, we will conclude with a note on indigenous African knowledge systems
and the education system in South Africa.

What is African Philosophy?

African Philosophy finds expression in four distinctive discourses:
¢ Ethnic philosophy can be defined as the philosophy of Africa. It is distinctive,
and consists of the religious and moral belicfs of the continent of Africa. Given
the vastness of this continent and the diversity of the peoples of Africa, this:
philosophy should not be viewed simplistically. It encompasses the African
people's view oflife and Africa's ability to criticise its own traditions. Essentially,
the philosophy of Africa looks at the whole experience of human beings (in
other words, the philosophy of Africa is holistic).
* Sage, or wisdom, philosophy focuses on those individuals in society who are
known to be wise and far-sighted and who can think critically. These are the
people whose views challenge the authority of the community's decision. In
the Western tradition of wisdom, historically, these people have been social
critics and innovators.
Africa's political philosophy is unique. Kwame Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere,
Amilcar Cabral, Léopold Sédar Senghor and Frantz Fanon are regarded as the
main representatives of African political philosophy.
The assumption underlying
this philosophy is that it must be a peculiarly African political philosophy,
different from capitalist, socialist or communist political philosophies.
* Pure philosophy is the work of African philosophers in the areas of Empiricism,
Critical Rationalism and Existentialism. Kwasi Wiredu, Peter Bodunrin, Henry
Odera Oruka, Kwame Anthony Appiah and Paulin Hountondji represent this
type of philosophy.
 PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
1. Which African philosophers are involved in the discourses of ethnic

uoneonpa pue Aydosopyg uesupy sy] iste

philosophy and sage (wisdom) philosophy? Refer to reference sources
found in, for example, the UNISA library or the internet to locate the names
of these African philosophers.
2. What is ‘discourse'?

African Philosophy and the history of Africa

Much of the history of Africa has been dominated by colonial occupation.
Colonialism in Africa provided the framework for the organised subjugation of
the cultural, scientific and economic life of many on the African continent. This
subjugation ignored indigenous African knowledge systems and impacted on
African peoples’ way of seeing life and their way of being, In fact, to all intents
and purposes the African identity became an inverted mirror of Western identity.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 2
1. How much do you know about the history of Africa, and of South Africa?
2. If your answer to Question
1 is ‘Not much’, where is the best place to find out
more? Does your library stock any books on African history written by Africans?
What history books did you study at school? Who wrote these books?

The state of affairs described above led to numerous attempts to reassert

distinctively African ways of thinking and of relating to the world. Such attempts
find expression in the spoken tradition and body of literature referred to as
African Philosophy.
African written philosophy goes back to the time of the pharaohs. Greek and
Roman expansion into North Africa produced many African intellectuals, the best
known of whom is St Augustine. St Augustine is probably one of the most important
figures in the history of the Western Christian faith. His books Confessions and The
City of God contained some of the key ideas of later Christianity: the belief in
original sin, the possibility of salvation through Christ and the Church and the
need to work towards establishing God’s kingdom on carth. In Eastern Christianity,
one of the best known of the desert fathers is the man known as Moses the Black.
Despite (or perhaps because of) his own violent youth, he specifically espoused
non-violence, the taming of one’s anger (no matter how justified) and harmony.
In the era of post-colonialism (from the mid-20th century onwards) increasing
numbers of African scholars felt the need to develop social and economic
philosophies that would enable Africa to develop. Given the importance
of community, and the West's destruction of Africa, these scholars rejected
capitalism. Instead, they created various forms of socialism which were based
on traditional African social and political communalism, Examples are Julius
 Nyerere of Tanzania, with his idea of ujamaa; Kenneth Kaunda's ideas of
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Zambian humanism; Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana; Sékou Touré of Guinea, who

put forwardthe idea of scientific socialism; Léopold Sédar Senghor of Senegal and
the concept of Negritude; and Steve Biko with his ideas on Black Consciousness.
The main thing to remember about African Philosophy is that it is a response
to the problems and troubles of Africa and to the domination of Western thought.
African thinkers are keen to disprove the Western belief that Africans are unable
to develop a scientific and rational culture. And, at the same time, African thinkers
want to confront the question:
What does it mean to say, ‘I am an African’?

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 3
What do you think it means when someone says, ‘I am an African’? Does
this claim merely refer to the fact that the person lives in Africa, or does it say
something more?

In reaction to the colonisation and subjugation of Africa, numerous attempts

were made to reassert distinctively African ways of thinking and of relating to the
world, More recently, this was expressed in the call for an African Renaissance.
The call for an African Renaissance has been present in the period, spanning
nearly four decades, of African post-independence. The process of decolonisation
that unfolded during this period saw Africa assert its right to define itself within
its own African context. The Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiong’o claimed this
process was about people's struggle to claim their own space, and their right to
name the world for themselves rather than it being named through the colour-
tinted glasses of Europeans (Wa Thiong’o, 1993).
What then does it mean to say: ‘I am an African?’
What does it mean to live on
the continent of Africa, at the beginning of the 21st century? Western economic
writers sometimes refer to Africa as ‘the world’s basket case’. They point to
Africa's wars, starvation, financial collapse and corruption as evidence that Africa
seems to suffer from some sort of death wish. In the Western media, the people
of Africa are still portrayed as being backwards, as needing the help of the West.
However, according to Noel King, in African Cosmos, Africa stands at the centre
and crossroads of the world, like some great question mark. King also reminds us
that the best available scientific evidence shows that the human race originated
there (King, 1985). The human race probably lingered in Africa for thousands
of years before moving off to other parts of the earth, and during that time we
developed much that is now common to human thought and life wherever it is
found. Africa is thus, in a sense, the mother of us all — indeed, of all civilisation.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 4
1. How do you feel about Africa if you compare it to the rest of the world
today?
2. Does Africa stand out as a significant member among the continents of the
world? If so, what is its contribution to progress in the world?
 We could all reflect on the words of Kgalushi Koka of the Afrikan Study Programme:

uoneonpa pue Aydosopyg uesuzy :] saadeyd

Why is there a need to find out and know who the Afrikan is? The Afrikan
identity is probably wide and varied. Like every living being, the survival instinct
of the people of Afrikan descent is emerging quite strongly in an attempt to
defeat the onslaught on their personality and the obliteration of the Afrikan’s
true identity in the circle of the human race. (Koka, 1998; 2)

African Philosophy and education

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 5
By now, you should be aware of what African Philosophy is concerned with. In
the light of this, we should now begin to reflect on what this concern means for
education
on the African continent.
1. What do you think the call for an African Renaissance and the problem of
establishing an African identity mean for education on the African continent?
2. African Philosophy is concerned with attempting to reassert distinctively
African ways of thinking and of relating to the world. In light of this, what
issues need to be addressed in education?
3. What significance does the struggle for an African identity have for education
in, for example, South Africa specifically?

Education has to do with values. As such, the marginalisation of African values in

education on the African continent, as witnessed in the colonial and post-colonial
periods, has resultedin the general westernisation of education in Africa. Due to
this, education systems in Africa have failed to acknowledge the cultural preferences
and practices in education of African people. Instead, these education systems have
given prominence
to the cultural preferences and practices
of the Western world.
Such practices have perpetuated an ideology of the cultural superiority of the West.
The struggle to reassert African values in education is, therefore, a natural
consequence of the call for an African Renaissance on the African continent, and
ongoing attempts to establish an African identity.
In the context of education, Catherine Odora Hoppers, an African philosopher
of education, describes this continuing struggle in the following way:
The African voice in education at the end of the twentieth century is the voice
of the radical witness of the pain and inhumanity of history, the arrogance of
modernisation and the conspiracy of silence in academic disciplines towards
what is organic and alive in Africa. It is the voice of ‘wounded healers’ struggling
against many odds to remember the past, engage with the present, and determine
a future built on new foundations. It invokes the democratic ideal of the right
of all to ‘be’, to ‘exist’, to grow and live without coercion, and from that to find
a point of convergence with the numerous others. It exposes the established
 hegemony of Western thought, and beseeches it to feel a measure of shame and
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

vulgarity at espousing modes of development that build on the silencing of all

other views and perceptions of reality. It also seeks to make a contribution to the
momentum for a return of humanism to the centre of the educational agenda,
and dares educators to see the African child-learner not as a bundle of Pavlovian
reflexes, but as a human being culturally and cosmologically located in authentic
value systems. (Hoppers, 2000: 1)

African Philosophy is a complex response to Africa’s unique position in the

world and human history. African Philosophy challenges the arrogance of the
West and asks the West to rethink its claim of cultural superiority.
If we ignore African Philosophy, this means that, in a sense, we are ignoring Africa.
We cannot do this without doing some form of inner violence to ourselves, simply
because, as far as we can tell, the human race itself originated in Africa. There are
other reasons why African Philosophy cannot be ignored. Africa is a huge continent
that contains enormous
natural wealth and a growing
human population. Africa is
part of the world’s socio-economic order and its philosophy has an impact on that
order. Also, African Philosophy provides the necessary context for the resurrection
of African values in education systems on the African continent.

Having established some idea of what African Philosophy is all about, and what
African Philosophy has to say about education on the African continent, we will
now proceed to consider the contribution that African Philosophy can make to
education in terms of its notions of ubuntu and communalism.

Ubuntu
and education
The central ethical idea in traditional African thought is ubuntu. The idea of
ubuntu is related to human happiness and well-being. Ubuntu is usually translated
into English as ‘humanity’. A fuller meaning of the word ubuntu can be found in
the Nguni expression Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu. This means: A human being
is a human being through other human beings. In other words: ‘I am because you
are.’ Ubuntu rejects the materialism of the Western world. Ubuntu recognises
that a person exists and develops only in relationships with other persons.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 6
1. Do you think that ubuntu, in recognising that we only exist and develop in
relation to other people, has anything significant to say to educators? If so,
what?
2. How could the notion of ubuntu be incorporated
in:
a. classroom practice
b. the life of the school in general?
 3. Did you ever experience ubuntu in your own schooling? If so, provide some

uoneonpe pue Aydosopyg uesupy 3] sadeyo

examples.

There are many African examples of ubuntu — of caring, sharing, compassion,

generosity, kindness, benevolence, courtesy, respect, forgiveness and reconciliation.
The relatively non-violent transition of South Africa from a totalitarian state to
a multi-party democracy was based on the values of ubuntu. In this case ubuntu
translates to a commitment to peaceful co-existence among ordinary South
Africans in spite of their differences. South African philosopher Joe Teffo argues
that ubuntu serves as a cohesive moral value in the face of adversity. Although
the policyof apartheid greatly harmed the overwhelming majority of black South
Africans, Teffo observes that:
... there is no lust for revenge, no apocalyptic retribution. A yearning for justice,
yes, and for release from poverty and oppression, but no dream of themselves
becoming the persecutors, of turning the tables of apartheid on white South
Africans. The ethos of ‘ubuntu’ is one single gift that African philosophy can
bequeath on other philosophies of the world. (Teffo, 2000: 45)
Moeketsi Letseka, a South African philosopher of education, claims that
individuals who strive for and fully embrace the notion of ubuntu as their goal
are driven by a humanist concern for treating others with fairness. Fairness
and humanness are regarded as crucial to personal well-being, A fulfilled and
flourishing life ought to be one in which persons are reasonably well fed, well
clothed and housed, in good health, loved, secure and able to make a conscious
effort to treat others with fairness and humanness because they in turn are
treated that way.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 7
Fairness, love, security, caring, sharing, compassion, generosity, kindness,
benevolence, courtesy, respect — how can these human values embraced by
ubuntu be enacted in the classroom by a teacher? Provide examples.

Communality
and education
Another seminal notion to be found in traditional African thought is that of
communality. Community and the notion of belonging to a community of people
constitute the very fabric of traditional African life. This stands
in contrast to the
Western liberal notion of the individual as some sort of entity that is capable of
existing and flourishing on its own — unconnected to any community of other
individuals, not bound by any biological relationships or the socio-economic,
political and cultural relationships, obligations, duties, responsibilities and
conventions that frame and define a community of individuals. The communal
notion of the individual in most traditional African settings is described by the
African philosopher John Mbiti in the following way:
 Whatever happens to the individual happens to the whole group, and whatever
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

happens to the whole group happens to the individual. The individual can only
say: I am, because we are; and since we are, therefore I am. (Mbiti, 1970: 109)

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 8
1. Is asense of communality important for education? If so, why?
2. Does a sense of communality exist in your educational context, be it at
school, college or university? Provide examples.

The following two quotes emphasise the importance of community rather than
individuality, past and present:
Our two-million year heritage of hunting-and-gathering life, simple at first but
ultimately very complex, left its mark on our minds just as much as it did on our
bodies. On top of the technical skills of planning, coordination, and technology,
there was, equally important, the social skill of cooperation. A sense of common
goals and values, a desire to further the common good, cooperation was more
than simply individuals working together. It became a set of rules of conduct, of
morals, an understanding of right and wrong in a complex social system. Without
cooperation — within bands, among bands, through tribal groups — our technical
skills would have been severely blunted. Social rules and standards of behaviour
emerged. (Leakey & Lewin, 1992: 34)
Persons are what they are in virtue of what they are destined to be, their
character and the communal influence on them ... A person whose existence
and personality is dependent
on the community is expected in turn to contribute
to the continued existence of the community ... The meaning of one’s life
is therefore measured by one's commitment to social ideals and communal
existence. (Gbadegesin, 1991: 62)

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 9
1. How can education contribute to the common good in society? Provide
examples,
2. What constitutes the common good in South African society?
3. Does the education system in South Africa contribute to the common good
in South African society?
4. How can education contribute to the continued existence of a community?
Provide examples.

The African philosopher of education Queeneth Mkabela notes that educating

children for life in the African community is rooted in a welfare concern, where the
basis of communality is giving priority to the community and showing respect for
the person. It also involves sharing with and helping others in a spirit of cooperation
 (Mkabela, 1997). Education in the African context, therefore, helps people function
in relation to one another in their communal tradition. This functioning promotes a
collective effort directed ultimately at the good of the community.

uoneonpa pue Aydosopyg uesupy 3] 4

African traditional thought emphasises the values embraced in the notions
of ubuntu and communality. This means that if the notions of ubuntu and
communality are taken up by educators on the African continent, then
education will be directed at fostering humane people endowed with virtues
such as kindness, generosity, compassion, benevolence, courtesy and a respect
and concern for the welfare of others.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 10
1. How can educators realise the values of ubuntu and communality in their
classroom teaching?
2. Do you think that education systems on the African continent have embraced
and realised the values of ubuntu and communality in what they expect
education to achieve for society? Provide reasons for your answer to this
question.

A retrospective glance
We began this chapter by asking the question: What is African Philosophy all
about? This involved examining what is referred to as the African Renaissance
and the problem of an African identity. In doing so, we went on to enquire what
African Philosophy has to say to education on the African continent. Having
established some idea of what African Philosophy is all about, we then proceeded
to consider the contribution that African Philosophy can make to education in
terms of its notions
of ubuntu and communalism.

¢ Has African Philosophy influenced education? Unfortunately, no, not

really. Modern education systems are largely based on Western education
systems that value science and fact-finding (as these are defined by
Western philosophies) rather than African values of compassion and
communality. Having said that, in the contemporary world, science and
the Western traditions of, for example, mathematics, cannot be ignored in
education. As we explain in our chapter on Empiricism (see Chapter 2),
scientific and mathematical truths remain just as valid in Africa as they do
in the USA or Europe.
 * Has African Philosophy influenced teaching? Yes and no. African Philosophy's
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

emphasis on the need of handing on the values of the community to the

young means that African Philosophy, by its very nature, includes teaching.
However, in modern schools, this form of teaching has tended to be ignored
or even scorned,
¢ What does African Philosophy have to offer schools? In many ways,
African Philosophy has the same contribution to make to schooling
as the philosophy of Phenomenology: it offers teachers, children and
young people the values of care, compassion and creativity. And, like
Phenomenology, it is deeply unhappy at the notion of schooling as
consisting of little more than the rote learning of certain technical
competencies (cg computer science).
* But you can't ignore science! This is true, and we have referred
to this above.
It’s worth remembering that the field of science covers far more than the
dreary memorising of mathematical formulae, for example. Indeed, the life
sciences are, by their very nature, holistic and this is in keeping with African,
rather than Western, values,

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 11
Having considered the contribution that African Philosophy can make to.
education, now answer the following questions:
1. What do you think African Philosophy can help us achieve in education?
2. What can African Philosophy not help us to do in education?

An African philosophy of education

Finally, we now reflect on the nature of an African philosophy of education — that
is, what an African philosophy of education will have to say about education as’
practised in Africa.
In Africa, there are certainly many voices concerned about the form and
direction that education should take in the future. There are also many calls for
new approaches and a relevant African philosophy of education.
From our discussion thus far, it would seem that a relevant African philosophy
of education would be directed at:
¢ acknowledging and establishing an African identity in education;
* providing the necessary context for the resurrection of African values in
education systems on the African continent by challenging the domination
(hegemony) of Western and Eurocentric ways of thinking in education; and
* emphasising the values of ubuntu and communality in the aims, theory and
practice of education.
 PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 12

uoneonpe pue Aydosopyg uesupy 3] sadeyo

Was the education you have been exposed to derived from an African philosophy
of education?
1. If your answer is ‘No’, provide reasons for your answer.
2. Indicate what should be done to ensure that an education system is
constructed on the basis of an African philosophy of education.

Quick summary
The subjugation of Africa
to colonial exploitation had serious ramifications that
continue to influence African societies today, many years after the demise of
colonial rule. This damage was caused by a whole range of elements, including
educational philosophies, curricula and practices the context of which corre-
sponded with that of the respective colonial powers.
In order to address this state of affairs, African Philosophy has as one of its
objectives the goal of recovering the humanistic principles embedded in traditional
African thought, and more particularly in the concepts of ubuntu and communality.
African Philosophy, therefore, as Catherine Odora Hoppers points out, constitutes
an attempt to develop both a vision and a practice of education that lays the basis
for African people to participate in mastering and directing the course of change and
fulfilling the vision of learning to know, learning to do, learning to be, and learning
to live together as equals with others. A philosophy of this kind in education views
knowledge and minds not as commodities, not just human resources to be developed
and exploited and then cast aside, but as treasures to be cultivated to improve the
quality of life of both persons and communities in society.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 13
‘A philosophy of this kind in education views knowledge and minds not as
commodities, not just human resources to be developed and exploited and then
cast aside, but as treasures to be cultivated to improve the quality of life of both
persons and communities in society.”
Do you think that the South African education system is built on a philosophy
of this kind in education? Provide reasons for your answer in your portfolio.

The concern of African Philosophy to develop both a vision and a practice of

education that empowers African people is also evident in indigenous African
knowledge systems that are found on the African continent.
 What are indigenous African knowledge systems?
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Indigenous African knowledge systems are said to be unique to a particular

African culture and society. These knowledge systems form the basis for local
decision making in, for example, education, agriculture, health and natural
resource management and a host of other activities in rural communities.
Indigenous African knowledge systems are seen to have certain characteristics,
such as the following:
* They are situated in a particular context which embodies the life experience,
interactions and natural settings of the indigenous people.
* They represent holistic knowledge, because they address all dimensions of
being human - that is, physical, spiritual, emotional and intellectual.
¢ They are derived from multiple sources of indigenous knowledge, such as:
- old knowledge that has existed for generations in a specific community,
for example historical events, ancestral wisdoms and genealogies of the
clan;
— empirical knowledge that has been learnt through careful daily observations;
and
~ revealed knowledge acquired through dreams, visions and spiritual
institutions.

Domination experienced by indigenous African

knowledge systems and education in Africa
As is the case with African Philosophy, indigenous African knowledge systems
have also experienced various forms of domination in their histories, such as
colonialism and globalisation (Hoppers, 2001c). Central to this domination
stand the negation and devaluation of indigenous African knowledge systems
by the hegemonic power of Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems.
This hegemonic display of power on the part of Western/Eurocentric
knowledge systems have certain consequences for indigenous African knowledge
systems, namely:
¢ theerasure of the rich knowledge legacy of African people. Western/Eurocentric
knowledge systems regarded authentic knowledge as only existing within
their own political and cultural boundaries, at the same time concluding that
knowledge derived from African people was non-scientific;
* a hegemonic discourse that propagated an unequal relationship between
what was referred to as ‘developed’ and ‘underdeveloped’ countries, and the
concepts ‘First World’ and ‘Third World’. Ramose observes that the First World
serves
as a model of progress
— the desirable way of living — while the Third
World represents a‘... degenerate enclave of people who cannot manage their
own lives’ (2001); and
¢ the claim by Western/Eurocentric hegemonic discourses that progress is

uoneonpe pue Aydosopyg uesupy 3] sadeyo

only achieved through the advancement of Western/Eurocentric science,
the findings of which are regarded as universal, value-free and objective.
Consequently, this scientific method, which was regarded as universal,
value-free and objective, became the only way of knowing and pursuing
progress. This meant that indigenous African knowledge systems were
relegated to an inferior status.

As a result, indigenous African knowledge systems have not been included in any
significant way in the curricula of education systems on the African continent.
Only Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems have been considered to be
important in public institutions of education. In the light of this, Odora Hoppers
(2001a: 74) observes that Africans have lost all self-confidence to participate
in a conversation that has marginalised the heritage and legacy enshrined in
indigenous African knowledge systems.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 14
Are you aware of the education legacy that is enshrined in the indigenous
knowledge system of your particular community and culture?
¢ If your answer is ‘No’, provide reasons why this is so.
¢ If your answer is ‘Yes’, provide a brief description of the education legacy
that is enshrined in the indigenous knowledge system of your particular
community and culture. Refer to the following:
1. Where did the education of children take place?
2. Who was responsible for the education of children?
3. What form did this education take? For example, was it oral, written, or
both?
4, Was reference made to books in the education of the child?
5. On what did education focus? For example, did it focus on tradition or the
acquisition
of new knowledge?
6. When was a child consideredto be educated?

Colonialism thus influenced Africans negatively — it was a time of self-alienation

during which Africa’s indigenous values and modes of being were distorted and
attuned to Western/Eurocentric values. As a result, Africans lived and acted
inauthentically, untrue to their nature and their world. In short, the being of
Africans was negated.
 African knowledge systems and African education
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

systems
We shall now look at why indigenous African knowledge systems should be included
in the construction
of curricula for education systems on the African continent.
During the postcolonial period, Africans have become more and more interested
in asserting the truth about themselves and their world. For example, Nkrumah
wrote: ‘The desire of the African people themselves to unite and to assert their
personality in the context of the African community has made itself felteverywhere’
{in Okolo, 1985: 6). In this regard, it is being increasingly acknowledged and
recognised that Africa had achieved scientific and technological sophistication in a
myriad
of fields, including astronomy, metallurgy, agricultural science and medicine,
prior to the Western/European invasion of the African continent.
In Article 29 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
People, the above is emphasised:
Indigenous people are entitled to the recognition of the full ownership, control,
and protection of their cultural and intellectual rights ... They have the right to
special measures to control, develop and protect their sciences, technologies,
cultural manifestations, including human and other genetic resources, seeds,
medicines, knowledge of properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions which
include education traditions, literatures, designs, and visual and performing arts.
Article 29 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People
Such measures are necessary, because Western/European scientists often use
indigenous African knowledge in such a way that it is separated from its source.
Original indigenous African knowledge is often used and changed in such a way
that it is, in fact, shelved. The results of this are the plagiarism of knowledge
held by individuals, and the invisibility of the indigenous African people from
whom the knowledge originally came. All in all, it represents a veiled oppression
of indigenous African cultures, and could be called intellectual marginalisation.
Because of this, Odora Hoppers argues for the protection of the cultural and
intellectual property rights of indigenous knowledge systems and technologies.
She claims that this means:
... the creation, or reinforcements of mechanisms to protect indigenous
knowledges and technologies from untrammelled exploitation by external
forces. It is also to acknowledge that indigenous peoples are the guardians of
their customary knowledge and have a right to control the dissemination of that
knowledge. Such cultural and intellectual property rights incorporates collective
(as well as individual) ownership, retroactive coverage of historical as well as
contemporary works, protection against debasement of culturally significant
items, respect for co-operative rather than competitive framework, and the
establishment of multi-generational coverage plans. This also includes the rights
to preserve customary and administrative practices and the development of a
 code of ethics for external users when doing recordings of traditional knowledge.

uoneonpa pue Aydosopyg uesuzy :] saadeyd

Legislation should thus be put into place to protect the cultural heritage of
indigenous peoples. (2001a: 77)
What then does this mean for education systems on the African continent? In
short, it means that education authorities need to acknowledge and recognise
the cultural diversity of African societies, especially in matters pertaining to
curriculum issues in education on the African continent.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 15
Do you think that education authorities in South Africa have acknowledged and
recognised the cultural diversity of South African society in matters pertaining
to curriculum issues in education?
If your answer is ‘No’, explain why you think this is the case.
If your answer is ‘Yes’, provide examples of where education authorities
in South Africa have taken into account the cultural diversity of the South
African society in the curriculum.

Indigenous African knowledge systems and the South African

education system

In 1998, the Portfolio Committee of Parliament in South Africa instructed

the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology to embark on the
formation of a policy and subsequent bill on the recognition, promotion and
protection of indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa. The policy and
legislation would seek to legitimatise indigenous knowledge systems on their
own terms by creating authoritative enabling environments for the development
and articulation of all domains of indigenous knowledge systems (Department of
Arts, Culture, Science and Technology, 2001).
On an intellectual level, this indigenous knowledge systems initiative primarily
aimedto foster an understanding of the interface between culture (of course this
would include education) and science, and between culture and technology. It was
also aimed at the comprehensive development of human, material and scientific
resources, in a manner that gives recognition to the wisdom and authenticity of
traditional practices, institutions and a range of knowledge systems.
An Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) programme was subsequently
initiated by the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology's
Parliamentary Portfolio Committee on Arts. The programme was intended as
a critical component in the restructuring and democratisation of South Africa's
science and technology system. The goal of this Indigenous Knowledge Systems
programme was to unearth, promote and protect the African heritage. According
to this programme, it was argued that, because of South Africa’s colonial past,
there is a need to develop an indigenous knowledge system that supports local
economic development and enhances its rich cultural, technological, artistic,
linguistic and traditional
healing heritage.
 What is to be noted in this parliamentary initiative is that the reclaiming
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

of an African identity is central to the endeavour aimed at the promotion of

an Indigenous Knowledge Systems programme. Consequently, it is important
to reflect on notions of an African identity (Afrocentricity) in a South African
context, in order to contextualise the need for an Indigenous African Knowledge
Systems programme and the significance that such a programme might have for
the school curriculum.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 16
Look back to Portfolio Activity 3. Recall how you responded to these questions:
What do you think it means when someone says, ‘I am an African’? Does such
a claim merely refer to the fact that the person lives in Africa, or does it say
something more?
Why do you think it is important to reflect on notions of an African identity in
a South African context when considering the school curriculum?

The chaotic legacy of colonisation, exacerbated by malpractices left behind by

postcolonial regimes, necessitates a search for ways to decolonise African minds.
This raises the whole question of the nature of Afrocentricity as opposed to
so-called Eurocentricity, which is often more problematic in the South African
context because of theinterdependence ofboth an African identity (Afrocentricity)
and a Western identity (Eurocentricity) due to South Africa's colonial past.
Advocacy for the Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme, specifically
in the South African context, can also be linked to Afrocentricity and the call
for
an African Renaissance, where the philosophies, technologies and activities that
are the unique creations of African hands and minds will he identified. However,
in all of this, Seepe notes that ‘... the intention is not to question Eurocentrism's
validity and usefulness within its own context, but to indicate that such a view
should not claim an ungrounded universal hegemony’ (2001: 23).
Utilising the Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme could, therefore,
indeed complementsome of the scientific and cultural claims ofWestern/Eurocentric
knowledge systems and generate forms of creativity that would empower and
benefit everyone in modernisedsocieties. In this regard, it is meaningful
to take
note of the views held by Odora Hoppers, who motivates the necessity for the
appropriation of an Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme as follows:
It is, in turn, the re-appropriation of this heritage that may provide new clues
and directions as to the visions of human society, human relations, sustainable
development, poverty reduction and scientific development in this new
millennium, all of which cannot be solved using the existing ethos of the Western
framework alone. (2001a; 77)
The intention of the Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme is,
therefore, not to replace Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems, but rather to
question their superiority and to give indigenous African knowledge systems their

uoneonpe pue Aydosopyg uesupy 3] sadeyo

rightful place as equally valid ways of knowing among the array of knowledge
systems in the world, so as to solve global and local problems more effectively.
This, in fact, is one of the most important motivations behind attempts to
promote and establish an Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme in
South Africa. South Africa can simply not afford to enter the postcolonial era with
a colonial mindset entrenched in the activities and endeavours of policy makers,
scholars, teachers and learners, a mindset whereby knowledge is defined through
a mono-cultural prism of Western/Eurocentric knowledge systems. Western/
Eurocentric knowledge systems as vehicles for making sense in the world are too
limited in scope to understand and adequately address local problems in a South
African context. It is, therefore, necessary that an Indigenous African Knowledge
Systems programme be incorporated in the school curriculum in South Africa in
order to make sense of a particular African context.
The significance of this for the school curriculum is the recognition of the fact
that the search for an integrated framework of knowledge implies the affirmation
of the diversity and integrity of all human beings, and the acknowledgment that
people are not victims nor pawns, but rather knowing subjects, irrespective of the
knowledge framework within which they are located.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 17
In which knowledge framework are you located — Afrocentricity or Eurocenticity?
Are you happy in your present location when it comes to education?
© If your answer is ‘Yes’, indicate why this is so.
¢ If your answeris ‘No’, indicate what should be done in order to improve
your education.

In adiverse, multicultural country such as South Africa, the interaction between a

Western/Eurocentric approach to what counts as valid knowledge and an African
approach to valid knowledge needs continual displacement in order to ensure
that ncither obtains a dominant position. The ideal argued for is, therefore, a
fusion of the horizons of both Afrocentricism and Eurocentrism. What this
means for an Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme is that the core
strategy of such a programme would seek the best of both Western/Eurocentric
and African knowledge systems, because, as Odora Hoppers states:
‘The local contextual expertise that indigenous knowledge frames can offer,
can complement some of the mechanical, technical and scientific precision
capabilities of Western knowledge systems to generate forms of creativity that
benefits and empowers everyone. (1999:51)
Such an integration of knowledge systems in an Indigenous African Knowledge
Systems programme will have the following impact on the school curriculumin
South Africa.
 Firstly, an Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme will ensure
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

that indigenous African systems of knowledge are acknowledged in the school

curriculum.
Secondly, an Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme will
encourage the asking of critical questions about the knowledge content included
in the school curriculum and how this knowledge is integrated in various subject
programs. This will be done by means of:
* critiquing conceptual systems that depend exclusively on Western/Eurocentric
knowledge systems;
* paying attention to the originality of African contributions and the
foregrounding of African indigenous knowledge systems; and
* monitoring and evaluating cultural and gender bias in curricula.

Thirdly, an Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme will address

issues of alienation and dominance. By means of critical inquiry, any oppressive
situation can be unveiled, analysed and changed. Teaching and learning within an
Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme will primarily be involved
with processes of inquiry that do not see the oppressive situation as a closed
world from which there is no exit, but rather as a process of constructing and
building possibilities through imagination and hope. Therefore, an Indigenous
African Knowledge Systems programme will be primarily concerned with
empowering learners to gain confidence in their own capabilities and to acquire a
sense of pride in their own ways of being in the world. This means that the school
curriculum will convey to a diverse learner population the idea of the legitimacy
of their own voices after they have grappled with the content offered to them.
Asa result, learners will be encouraged to seek out the significant connections
between the knowledge contents offered in the school curriculum and their own
life experiences.
Finally, an Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme will view
the development of knowledge as a holistic journey that encompasses process,
content and the sociocultural context in which learningis being modelled. The
trend to view knowledge simply as information mediated by schooling should
be debunked, because it removes participants from knowledge as wisdom and
hence detracts from those who hold the responsibility for its transmission. In
this instance, an Indigenous African Knowledge Systems programme perceives
learning as co-operation, and not primarily competition, in its endeavour to
encourage us to live in an ecologically responsible manner on this planet.

Concluding remarks
The subjugation of Africa to colonial exploitation had serious ramifications that
continue to influence African societies today, many years after the demise of
colonial rule. This damage was caused by a whole range of elements, including
 educational philosophies, curricula and practices the context of which

uoneonpe pue Aydosopyg uesupy 3] sadeyo

corresponded with that of the respective colonial powers.
In order to address this state of affairs, African Philosophy has as onc of
its objectives the goal of recovering the humanistic principles embedded in
traditional African thought, and more particularly in the concepts
of ubuntu and.
communality. African Philosophy, therefore, as Catherine Odora Hoppers points
out, constitutes an attempt to develop both a vision and a practice of education
that lays the basis for African people to participate in mastering and directing
the course of change and fulfilling the vision of learningto know, learning to do,
learning to be, and learning to live together as equals with others. She concludes
that a philosophy of this kind in education views knowledge and minds not as
commodities, not just as human resources to be developed and exploited and
then cast aside, but as treasures to be cultivated to improve the quality of life of
both individuals and communities in society.
As we said in the preface to this book, our overall objective is to explore and
discuss the impact that different philosophies have on the formulation of a
philosophy of education. As you will see as you work your way through this text,
these different philosophies have all had different, and significant, consequences
for the theory and practice of teaching and learning.
In this chapter, we shall be discussing the impact of the philosophy of
Empiricism on education. The philosophy of Empiricism encourages a fact-
seeking and analytical approach to all human endeavour, including education.
Unfortunately, though, this fact-seeking and analytical approach has largely
been pushed aside by government education schemes. Instead, certain concepts
in the philosophy of Empiricism were manipulated in the first part of the 2)st
century to formulate a so-called philosophy of education. We say ‘so-called’
because, in fact, this philosophy of education was a government-driven ideology.
This ideology was called Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in South Africa and
Australia, and Performance-based Education in the USA.

Structure of the chapter

* We shall start by telling you what the philosophy of Empiricism is, and what
this philosophy focuses on.
¢ Briefly, this philosophy focuses on two things, namely:
— facts that can be proven by experience; and
- facts that can be precisely defined and measured. (Note that the concept of
measurement was central to the ideology of Outcomes-based Education.)
* We shall then go on to look at how Empiricism has influenced education by
discussing the work of four educators, namely:
- John Locke (a British philosopher who lived from 1632 to 1704);
- Richard Peters (a British philosopher and educator who lived from 1919 to
2011);
- Yusef Waghid (a modern South African philosopher and educator who, when
this book was published, worked at the University of Stellenbosch); and
- Harvey Siegel (a modern American philosopher and educator who, when this
book was published, worked at the University of Miami).
 It is important to remember that none of these philosophers and educators

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were or are concerned with promoting an ideology. All these philosophers
believed - with good reason, as we shall see - that Empiricism could be used
to improve the educational endeavour.
Next, we shall briefly discuss some of the educational problems caused by

woReonpa pue wsioridwy

Empiricism.
* We then use a series of FAQs to examine how Empiricism has influenced
education,
* Finally, we shall end the chapter by discussing the philosophy of Pragmatism,
which is closely linked to Empiricism. We shall briefly look at the ways in
which Pragmatism influences education.

What is Empiricism?
Empiricism simply means ‘experience-ism’. According to the philosophy of
Empiricism, everything we know is based on what we have experienced personally
throughour five senses (seeing, hearing, tasting, touching and smelling). As you
can see, Empiricism is a very practical philosophy. It isn’t concernedwith things
we can't know or prove. As far as education is concerned, Empiricism is important
because it teaches that we are born ignorant. Our minds are blank slates — we
know nothing, and it is the task of our parents and teachers to make us informed
adults. A teacher who was influenced by the philosophy of Empiricism would
focus on telling the children in his or her class the facts about the worldwe live
in. This teacher would probably tend to focus on science and scientific subjects
rather than subjects such as art or literature.
Modern science is based on the empirical belief that the truth of something is
confirmed or disproved by experience (by what we can see, hear and measure)
— in other words, by what we can test. Empiricism is solely concerned with
what we can know. Therefore, empiricists ask: ‘How do I know if something
is true?’ Their answer is: ‘I only know something is true if I have experienced
it myself’ or ‘I only know something is true if it has been tested and proven
scientifically.’ Empiricism, therefore, relies on verification. To verify a statement
(eg John is the son of Susan and Peter) means to find out whether that statement
is true. According to the philosophy of Empiricism, the only statements that
can be verified are those that can be checked through concrete experience.
Empiricism is concerned with establishing the truth by means of scientific
testing. Empiricism tests, or checks, to see whether what is claimed to be true is
confirmed by experience, measurement and testing.
If we ignore Empiricism, we will fail to learn from our experiences and, in the
process, make ourselves vulnerable to believing things that are false.
Empiricism encourages critical thinking and is prepared to challenge
authority. In fact, it is important to note that Empiricism often works with the
next philosophy we shall look at — Scientific Rationalism (see Chapter 3) — in
 determining what is true and what is not true. This is because Empiricism, like
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Scientific Rationalism, focuses on facts, not tradition.

Empiricism is a context-free philosophy. It teaches that all human beings, no
matter what their cultural situation, are capable of pursuing truth that is based
on what can and cannot be proven. Indeed, according to Empiricism, this is the
only form of truth that exists.
To reiterate: Empiricism is concerned with facts, and facts alone.

What is a fact?
We live in a world of facts. This is the world of our everyday experience, the
world we see around us. In everyday life, we use our senses and our experience to
establish facts and to check facts. This is the most reliable form of knowledge and
information we have. We do this so naturally that we are not even aware of doing
it. We believe what our senses tell us and we believe that the people around us
hear, see and feel the same things we do.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
1. Imagine the following scenario. While you are out shopping, you see a friend
on the other side of the shopping mall. You wave and call out. The other
Person turns towards you and you see, suddenly, that it is someone else.
What made you think this person was your friend?
2. Suppose someone tells you that your friend, Lesibe, is a thief. You get angry
and tell the person that Lesibe is a decent person you've known for years.
You notice, some days after this, that some money is missing from your bag.
You remember that the previous day you had lunch with Lesibe and left your
bag with him to look after when you went to the bathroom. Would this make
you wonder whether Lesibe is a thief after all?
3. Why do scientists believe that the human race originated in Africa? (Here
you will need to refer back to Introduction to Part 1.)

Ent divides facts into two categories:

Facts that are true by definition. We do not need to check if these facts are
true. Examples of such facts are the following:
l+1l=2
A circle is not a square.
A physical object cannot be round and triangular at the same time.
Either it is raining or it is not raining.
No bachelor is married.
2. Facts that can be proven to be true. The best examples of such facts are
scientific facts (eg the earth orbits
the sun) and everyday facts (eg
I catch the
Gautrain every day at 7:00 am). Other examples of facts are:
¢ The earth is a planet.
* Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.
 ¢ Itis sunny today and rather hot.

:7 aideyp
* Mary came to work early today.
* Sipho passed the examination.

Empiricism originated in Britain, and it was first proposed in the work of John

woReonpa pue wsioridwy

Locke (1632-1704). In his work An Fssay Concerning Human Understanding
(published in 1689), Locke taught the then radical notion that all our
knowledge was based on experience, and that all children are born into the
world with minds that are ‘blank slates’. Our young minds get their ideas from
the experiences we have. To give a simple example: a child can only understand
1 + 1 = 2 if that child first experiences
the concepts
of 1, +, = and2 (egby
lining up two apples).
If we adopt the philosophy of Empiricism, this will definitely have an impact
on the way we think about and practise education.

Analysis and Empiricism

We said earlier on that some facts are truc by definition, Precise definition plays
an extremely important role in the philosophy of Empiricism. Again, to take a
simple example: we must all agree on the definition of an apple and the definition
of 1,2 and the symbols + and = before we can be sure that ] apple+ 1 apple=
2 apples. This may sound silly, but it is an extremely important point as far as
analysing the truth of a statement is concerned.
For example, let us return to the problem of our friend Lesibe. Let us suppose
Lesibe has been accused of theft by the principal. An empirical philosopher
would insist that we begin by analysing and precisely defining what we mean
by the words ‘thicf’, ‘steal’ and ‘possession’.
We may think we all agree on the
meanings of these terms, but careful analysis may show that this is not the case.
For example, have we carefully defined the term ‘personal possession’?
In the 20th century, analysis and Empiricism came together before and after
World War II in a movement in philosophy known as Logical Empiricism.
Empiricism remained a force in philosophy, but for a variety of reasons analysis
by itself declined in influence during the last part of the 20th century, Today,
however, increasing numbers of philosophers — including African philosophers
~ are paying attention to the role of analysis, particularly when confronted with
fields of study that are vague and open to interpretation. One such field
of study
is education.

Education and Empiricism

In education, Empiricism insists that teaching and learning can only occur in
those subjects that provide humankind with ‘real knowledge’. These subjects are
mathematics, the sciences (biology, physics, chemistry) and engineering (which
is applied science). Other subjects, such as those dealing with art, literature and
 music, are not seen as worthless, but teachers and educators need to recognise
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

that these subjects are no more — and no less — than expressions of the learners’
values. Indeed, Empiricism points to the fact that art and music, unlike scientific
facts, differ radically depending on the communities that practise them. In other
words, these pursuits are subjective and do not render ‘real knowledge’, which is
why they are given a less important place in education.
Note that, if we adopt Empiricism as our basis for education, then our
education will be applicable to all learners in all places, simply because facts and
scientific truths are universally applicable, whether we live in Johannesburg or
New York, for instance.
Furthermore, Empiricism draws attention to the fact that the word ‘education’
in itself needs careful and precise definition. Once we have done this, we should
then go on to state the aims and goals of education. And, again, these definitions
and goals will be applicable to all educators everywhere.

Educators, Empiricism and analysis

John Locke (1632-1704)
Historically, the first philosopher to use Empiricism as a basis for education
was the British philosopher
John Locke. In 1689, Locke published An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding which, as we said previously, claimed that all
human knowledge is based on the experiences of the five senses.
Locke is particularly interesting as far as education is concerned, because he
rejected the formal education of his day which, he said, was boring and pointless.
In Locke's time and context, education consisted of teaching young men to
become priests in the Christian Church. To that end, education focused solely on
Latin, Greek and theological speculation.
Instead, Locke put forward the view that the child should be exposed to a
curriculum that was based on science — geography, maths, physics and biology.
The aim of education was to teach the child to reason clearly and logically,
and Locke believed that the best way of doing this was to put young children
in contact with adults who are rational and sensible. Locke had a horror of
stupid adults who frightened children with tales of evil monsters lurking in the
darkness.
Locke's work on education appeared in 1693, and was entitled simply Some
Thoughts Concerning Education, This work was to have an enormous influence
on education in Britain, the USA and Europe. Indeed, Locke's basic view — that
the aim of education is to teach young children to think critically and to train
them in the pursuit of a practical profession (eg becoming a doctor) ~ is still a
dominant view in education today, over three centuries later.
 Richard Peters (1919-2011)
Richard Peters was a British philosopher who had a very definite impact on
education, and who sought to define what actually happens when a learner is

uoneonpa pue wspriduy :7 4

educated. Because of his emphasis on definition, Richard Peters can be regarded
as an educator who worked primarily with analysis in order to further education.
Peters’ best-known work is Ethics and Education, which was published in 1966.
Peters believed that education happens when a teacher shows a learner how
to do something or how to carry out a specific activity, particularly
the activity
of thinking. According to Peters, this will only happen when both the teacher
and the learner care about what they are doing,
and believe that thinking
is a
worthwhile activity.
One of the issues that Richard Peters was concerned with was the issue of
indoctrination. Do all forms of teaching necessarily include some form of
indoctrination? One way of preventing this from happening, said Peters, was
to define education as a means of improving people, by enabling them to think
clearly and logically, in a way that the non-educated person cannot. According
to Peters, an educated person, by his or her very nature, is a clear-thinking
who is able to resist others’ attempts to indoctrinate
him or her (Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2013).
Yusef Waghid
Today, the analytical approach of Peters has been taken up by Yusef Waghid, who,
when this book was published, worked at the University of Stellenbosch. Like
Peters, Yusef Waghid focuses on our need to define what we mean by ‘education’,
and Waghid points out that education suffers when too many people bring to it
too many interpretations. The questions Yusef Waghid asks include the following
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2013):
* How do we define education?
* How do we define schooling?
¢ Are education and schooling the same thing?
* What are the aims of education?
* What are the aims of schooling?

Harvey Siegel
Another educator working with the philosophy of Empiricism today is Harvey
Siegel, who, when this book was published, taught at the University of Miami in
the USA. Siegel believes that the teacher's main task is to empower the learner
to be rational — that is, to teach the learner to base his or her ideas on firm,
empirical evidence that can be tested.
Siegel also places particular importance on the need to teach learners to
think critically and to make sound judgements about the ideas and views they
encounter. Again, sound judgement is judgement based on evidence and facts
~ to take the example of Lesibe we used earlier: a properly taught learner will
 only come to the view that his or her friend Lesibe is a thief once that learner
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

has irrefutable evidence that Lesibe regularly steals items from other people.
This learner docs not take into account popularity, ramours or, indeed, what the
principal of the school says about Lesibe. This learner is only interested in the
truth about Lesibe, and truth, in Empiricism, is only ever based on facts that can
be proven or disproven.
Itis important to note that, according to Harvey Siegel, this form of education
(teaching people to make fair-minded, unbiased judgements) enables each and
every learner to actively participate in his or her life, rather than passively accepting
what others tell him or her, In short, by basing education on Empiricism, we are
empowcring learners and helping them to resist authoritarian structures that
seek to manipulate them. Learners who are taught by teachers who consciously
adopt Empiricism as their chosen philosophy of education will grow up knowing
when something is true or false, and when an opinion is just that — an opinion.

+ All our knowledge is based on experience.

* Truth can be verified (tested) through experience.
* All forms of experience come to us via our five senses.
* Our ideas depend on experience.
« Any ideas and terms we refer to must be precisely defined.

Empiricism and education: beware

The danger of Empiricism when applied to education is that it encourages
educators to focus on what can be measured and tested objectively. This means
that teachers and learners can place far too much emphasis on, for example, 1Q
tests, examination pass marks and defined, measurable outcomes. This is how
Empiricism came to be used in South Africa, Australia and the USA to form the
basis of the now discredited system of Outcomes-based Education.
Furthermore, Empiricism also contains certain hidden, dangerous assumptions
as far as human beings are concerned. Its emphasis on rationality as a virtue
suggests that human emotions are somehow not very important. Worse still,
historically, Empiricism has actually encouraged us to ignore valucs and culture
simply because neither values nor culture are precisely defined and measurable,
and because they clearly do not come to us purely by our senses, nor can they be
tested in some sort of laboratory.
As a result of these significant shortcomings, an education based on Empiricism
will be seriously lopsided. Indeed, the unethical behaviour of leading financiers
and lawyers in the run-up to the global financial crisis of 2008/2009 can be
regarded, ironically, as an outcome of an education system that focused on a
measureable, objective ‘bottom linc’ and nothing clse.
PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 2

:7 aideyp
We said that Empiricism came to be used to form the basis of the now discredited
system of Outcomes-based Education.
In your portfolio exercise book, write down your own personal view of
Outcomes-based Education. Don’t forget that there were certain advantages

woReonpa pue wsioridwy

to Outcomes-based Education (eg its emphasis on science). See also our
comments later on in this chapter on what Empiricism helps us to achieve in
education.
It may well be a good idea to write out your thoughts and ideas first in your
own personal exercise book,

¢ Has Empiricism influenced education? Yes, very much so. In fact, the modern
schooling system began in Britain some 500 years ago as a result of the belief
that society needed educated, informed citizens. The modern curriculum,
with its emphasis on maths, science and technology, is a product of
Empiricism.
Has Empiricism influenced education in any other ways? Yes:
— Empiricism’s emphasis on facts is at least partially responsible for
Qutcomes-based Education. As you know, Outcomes-hased Education
insists on evidence that the child and young person has mastered a subject
or discipline.
- The examination system is also based on the need for evidence. In any
examination, the child or young person has to prove that he or she knows
certain facts.
— The precise terms of school and university attendance are based on
Empiricism. For example: a child's schooling begins at a certain age (in
South Africa, this is age 5) and ends at a certain
age.
Has Empiricism influenced teaching? Yes. Teachers are judged on the basis
of how well children and young people visibly perform in schools and
universities. A school with a high percentage of good matric passes — that
is, solid evidence — will be judged to have good teachers. Another way in
which Empiricism has a direct influence on teaching is the fact that teachers
of maths and science are regarded as more valuable than teachers of other
subjects.
What about schools that perform badly? In this case, Empiricism encourages
us to look at the facts of the matter. For example:
- How much money is the school receiving?
- Istheschool ina state of physical disrepair (eg are there smashed windows,
and do the toilets work)?
- Are the children who attend the school receiving adequate nourishment?
 - How many of these children come from single-parent or child-headed
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

households?
~ Do the teachers possess certain qualifications?
If we adopt Empiricism as our philosophy of education, what happens to
ethics? In recent years, Empiricism has started to seriously engage with
morality, partially as a result of modern society's moral chaos. However,
unlike traditional notions of morality, which are based on authority (usually
religion), modern empiricists claim that moral statements need to be
based on the findings of neuroscience (the study of the brain) and social
functioning.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 3
1. What do you think is the biggest problem in South African classrooms
today? Explain this problem in writing as clearly as you can and make a
point of being precise about what you mean. Stick to the facts!
2. How can this problem be solved? Again, be as clear and precise as you can.

Empiricism’s ‘little brother’: Pragmatism

A philosophy that is similar to Empiricism is Pragmatism. Pragmatism simply
means ‘practical-ism'. Pragmatism teaches that philosophy must include
a common-sense approach to life, and that truth is sought and found in the
muddle and complexity of everyday experience. Pragmatism says that ‘truth’ is
 not primarily discovered by scientists working alone in the clinical environment

:7 aideyp
of the laboratory. Instead, Pragmatism claims that truth is found
by a community
of human beings working together in the real world. According to Pragmatism,
all inquiry is down-to-earth and practical, because human beings are constantly
facing concrete problems which need concrete solutions, from a broken-down

woReonpa pue wsioridwy

car to the global food shortage.
A teacher who was influenced by Pragmatism would encourage the children
in his or her class to carry out various experiments to find out what worked
and what didn't. According to the philosophy of Pragmatism, education is about
finding out what works and what doesn’t.

Concluding remarks
Empiricism developed primarily in the USA and Britain in the early part of the
20th century.
Empiricism claims that a statement is true if its truth can be determined
through experience and facts. According to Empiricism, the only meaningful and
true ideas are those that can be defined and tested by experience. The philosophy
of Empiricism is the philosophy that supports all scientific and technological
endeavour.
For the purposes of this book, it is important to realise that educators and
academics who were influenced by Empiricism (the majority of educators.
and academics in the USA and Britain) claimed that anything said about a
particular topic was only true or worth discussing if it could be checked in the
real world and if it could be recorded scientifically.
These same educators told governments that if schools and curricula were
designed properly, pupils and students would learn quickly and would be
achievers, People in charge of education believed that once they knew ‘what made
learning happen’, they would have a successful education and training system.
The belief that education, training and learning can be treated like science still
exists in Britain and the USA today, and it is this belief that fuelled Outcomes-
based Education.
Notwithstanding the problems created hy Outcomes-based Education, we
shouldn't forget that Empiricism has helped explain many things, including many
things in society. This is because
it emphasises the importance of being precise
and exact in what we say about something, including something about socicty.
The emphasis on precise definition has helped people define social problems,
including educational and training problems, more precisely.
In this chapter, we shall be discussing the philosophy of Scientific Rationalism
and the fact that this philosophy has had little impact on government-designed
education. This is because, as you will see, Scientific Rationalism is essentially
opposed to organisational structures that discourage questioning.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
Please take a moment to reread the preface paragraph above. In this paragraph,
we make
two points:
1. The philosophy of Scientific Rationalism has had little impact on government-

2. This is because Scientific Rationalism is opposed to any organisational

structure that discourages questioning.

What we are implying here is that formal educational institutions discourage

questioning. This is a disquieting thought.
1. In your portfolio exercise book, write down whether or not you agree with
us, Give your reasons and relate these reasons to your own experiences in
schools. If you disagree with us, say why and, again, relate your reasons to
your own experiences
in schools.
2. After you have done this, write down in your portfolio exercise book ways
in which learners and teachers in schools and educational institutions could
be encouraged to become
more questioning.

The above portfolio activity is an example of the way in which the philosophy of
Scientific Rationalism does two things:
1. It works with Empiricism (because we asked you to relate your responses to
your experiences).
2. It encourages a participatory approach to problem solving (because we asked
your opinion).

Structure of the chapter

* We shall start by telling you what the philosophy of Scientific Rationalism is,
and what this philosophy focuses on.
+ Briefly, this philosophy focuses on two things, namely:

voneonpa pur wsyeuoney IynUaNg :¢ sardeyD

- disproving falsity; and
- acritical, questioning approach to the truth,
Note that it is this critical, questioning approach that makes it difficult for
formal educational institutions to endorse — much less be influenced by -
Scientific Rationalism.
* We shall then go on to look at how a lack of questioning led to disaster — in our
own day — in the worlds of religion, finance and formal schooling.
* We shall then discuss the work of three philosophers who were influenced by
Scientific Rationalism, namely:
~ John Locke (1632-1704), whom we have already met in our chapter on
Empiricism. As we say below, Empiricism and Scientific Rationalism are
often partners in the quest for scientific truth, and this was certainly true of
John Locke's approach to philosophy and education;
- Karl Popper (1902-1994), an Austrian philosopher who fled Nazism in
Europe and who went to work as a university lecturer in New Zealand and
England; and
- Carl Sagan (1934-1996), an American educator who taught astronomy at
Cornell University in New York.
* We then use a series of FAQs to examine how and why the philosophy of
Scientific Rationalism can and should be used in education.

What is Scientific Rationalism?

Scientific Rationalism (sometimes called Critical Rationalism) teaches that
we should question what we are told. As we have already said, it usually
works as a partner with Empiricism in the quest for truth and the avoidance
of falsity.
The whole aim of Scientific Rationalism is to identify falschood. If somebody
tells us something is true, then Scientific Rationalism says that we are duty-
bound, as responsible human beings, to question what we are being told. That
doesn’t mean we can or should reject knowledge — not at all. But we should be
prepared to constantly revise our knowledge, and this means that we need to be
prepared to be mistaken.
In the section Introduction to Part I, we briefly referred
to the Taung child.
In fact, when the fossilised skull of the Taung child was first discovered, in
1924, scientific and educational thought at the time (the early 20th century)
was dominated by thinkers who were convinced that the human race originated
not in Africa, but Asia. This is because, during the same era (the 1920s) a large
number of fossilised skulls were discovered in China. These discoveries led to a
flurry of activity on the part of the academic establishment and to a number of
Asian expeditions, led by scientists who were convinced that they would find
older skulls that would prove, once and for all, that human beings originated in
 the Far East.
In fact, these scientists were to be proved wrong by the findings
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

and discoveries, in the next few decades, of fossilised human remains in southern
Africa and East Africa. This is just one example of our need to be open to the
possibility of crror in our teaching.
Scientific Rationalism is actually an unusual and rare thing. Few of us think
scientifically and rationally, and this isn't because we are stupid — it’s because we
want to be certain about things. Most of us read news websites and newspapers
and watch the news on TV. We often don’t have time to question what we're
told.
Scientific Rationalism focuses on fallibilism — that is, on whether a statement
or sct of statements is false, Also, it would be accurate to say that Scientific
Rationalism, unlike Empiricism and the other philosophies that we shall
encounter in this book, is not a systematic philosophy, but an attitude. In some
ways, it is similar to Postmodernism in that it tends to reject the view that life
and any human pursuit (including education) can he explained in terms of one,
all-encompassing theory.
As far as education is concerned, Scientific Rationalism claims that the aim
of any real education is to develop, in children and young people, a questioning
attitude. Scientific Rationalism encourages open-mindedness, and is both anti-
dogmatic and anti-authoritarian. Scientific Rationalism is appalled by those
communities and societies where people are not free to reason and discuss things
openly. Only open societies are democratic, and only open societies can solve
problems by exchanging ideas and trying out new ones. It is fair to say that
Scientific Rationalism is essential for the future of democracy, both in South
Africa and elsewhere.
Scientific Rationalism emphasises the fact that science cannot be pursued in
societies that are ruled by authoritarian power structures. This point is crucial.
Both science and democracy allow and encourage questioning and participation
by all members of society.

Scientific Rationalism and falsity

One of the most useful tools of Scientific (or Critical) Rationalism is its
classification of various types of false argument. The most important of these
false arguments are name-calling, false cause-and-effect, falsely representing an
opinion, appealing to emotion, and false argument from popularity:
¢ Name-calling is attacking the person and not the opinion he or she has. For
example:
Lesibe says that we should all vote for the Economic Freedom Front because only
Julius Malema understands economic policies. But then Lesibe is a silly communist.
This argument is false: Lesibe may well be silly and a communist, but
that’s got nothing to do with whether or not Julius Malema understands
economics.
 + False cause-and-effect is falsely claiming that an action has, or will have, a

voneonpa pur wsyeuoney IynUaNg :¢ sardeyD

certain effect. For example:
If the government makes abortion illegal, then we'll have fewer teenage pregnancies
in South Africa.
This is a popular false argument. There is no established link, anywhere in the
world, between abortion and teenage pregnancy.
¢ Falsely representing an opinion in order
to discredit it. For example:
People who say there's no God think it's okay to ignore moral rules.
This is a false argument put forward to discredit non-believers and atheists.
First of all, lots of people who believe in God act immorally. Secondly, many
athcists place a high value on moral rules.
+ Appeals to emotion (usually fear) are probably the easiest type of false
argument
to spot. For cxample (political):
The people of South Africa have a choice: either vote for our political party or watch
the crime rate get worse.
This argument is false, as there is no established link between politcal policies
and violent crime anywhere in the world.
¢ Falsely claiming that because a point of view is popular, it must be true, For
example:
Our religion is the fastest growing religion in South Africa today: that’s because we
teach
the truth,
This is a false argument: the fact that a group has lots of members doesn’t mean
that its teachings are true. Throughout history, many people have believed
things that have turned out to be completely false.

Scientific Rationalism and morality

Morals are clearly not the same as science. As we saw, Scientific Rationalism
places a great deal of emphasis on democracy and democratic decision making.
However, it makes no sense at all to say something like: ‘Some people think
abortion is wrong. Other people agree with it. We should ask the government to
set up a team of scientists to find out who is right.’ Unlike scientific statements,
moral statements are not objective. We cannot set up tests to find out what is
morally right and what is morally wrong.
Scientific Rationalism says that the best we can do is to be totally democratic
and let everyone say what they think about, for example, the death penalty. In
other words, Scientific Rationalism is non-prescriptive about what is right and
wrong.
 PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 2
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Read the following statements:

John: ‘My learners didn’t perform very well in their examinations. I’ve got a
new idea that I'd like to try out to help them do better next time. It may not
work, though, in which case I’m going to have to think again.”
Matsie: ‘I used to believe in God, but I’m not so sure now. I've seen too many
good people suffer.’
Thabo: ‘I vote for the ANC. But I don't agree with all their ideas. | think they
need to be more aware of the problems in South Africa today.’
Nkeki: ‘I'm convinced that we need to teach children about God, and about
what God expects of human beings. The reason why South Africa has so
many problems is because people are turning away from religion.’

One of the people above is not a scientific rationalist. Which one? Why not?
Again, write your answer down in your portfolio exercise book. By all means use
our response to guide you here.

Our response
Nkeki is not a scientific rationalist. Her remarks about God and religion indicate
that she is dogmatic and someone who is determined to use her authority as a
teacher to impose her views on young learners. Her remarks tell us that she is
not open-minded, and that she is not likely to encourage a questioning attitude
in her classroom,

In our own day, there have been three prominent examples of what happens
when human beings don’t practise — or aren't allowed to practise — Scientific
Rationalism. These examples come from the world of religion, the world of
finance and the world of formal schooling.
Scenario 1: The world of religion - the paedophilia scandal in the Roman
Catholic Church
In this case, church authorities — men who claimed to represent and speak on
behalf of Christ himself— conspired to cover up the fact that hundreds, possibly
thousands, of priests in the Roman Catholic Church were psychologically
damaged men who routinely corrupted and terrorised children and young men
by forcing them to engage in sexual, and particularly homosexual, activities. So
keen were they to hide this dreadful truth that archbishops, cardinals, monsignors
and bishops did everything in their power to refuse to cooperate with the police,
the courts and child protection agencies.
Note that it was the schools and educational institutions run by the Roman
Catholic Church in which these atrocities occurred, with the connivance of the
educational authorities in charge of these schools. This form of abuse occurred,
in these institutions, throughout most of the 20th century; in other words, for
some 100 years.
 This emphasises one of the primary problems identified by Scientific

voneonpa pur wsyeuoney IynUaNg :¢ sardeyD

Rationalism: the problem of authority.

Scenario2: The world of finance - the financial crisis of 2007-2009

The following is a very simple description of what happened in the run-up to and
during the financial crisis.
In 2001, the USA’s Federal Reserve Bank used its financial power and
authority to reduce its interest rate to a mere 1% (well below normal lending
rates) to encourage people to buy houses (ie take out bonds) and to give the
US economy a permanent boost. In the five years following this decision,
increasing numbers of Americans, including people earning very low incomes,
could afford to buy houses. As a result, house prices soared, as did credit card
spending.
In 2006, however, the banks were forced to increase interest rates to 4%
because of the inflation fuelled by US debt levels. As a result of this, increasing
numbers of people were unable to pay back even the interest on their mortgages.
House prices dropped dramatically. This meant that the bond companies could
not get their money back. Worse still, the bond companies had borrowed from
the USA's big banks in order to lend people the money to buy houses. Because
the bond companies could not get their money back, they could not pay back the
banks they had borrowed from.
The banks therefore had to write these losses off. The bad debts and losses
were on a massive scale, which meant that bank shareholders lost confidence in
the banks. Share prices plummeted. Banks themselves were suddenly short of
money.
Much the same thing happened in Britain and elsewhere in the developed
world during the same period. Consumer spending dropped significantly
which, in turn, led to relatively high levels of unemployment in developed
countries.

Scenario 3: The world of formal schooling

The following educational theories and practices have been used as a basis for
formal schooling. All of them have been found to be deeply flawed:
* Fundamental Pedagogics (South Africa) was the educational philosophy that
pervaded South African schools during the apartheid cra. It insisted on rote
learning, unquestioning obedience to hierarchy and, of course, unquestioning
acceptance of racial boundaries in schooling and society. It also encouraged an
unquestioning acceptance of religion.
¢ Behaviourism (USA, UK) is based on the conviction that teaching should be
done on a demonstrable rewards-and-punishment basis. This teaching theory
makes little allowance for the natural abilities of children (and teachers) and
it encourages conformity.
* Outcomes-based Education (OBE) (in South Africa, Australia, USA). We have
referred to Outcomes-based Education in the previous chapter. Outcomes-
 based Education is based on the philosophy of Empiricism — learners and
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

teachers are judged on the basis of measurable results (exams) and are
pressured to participate in performance-oricnted activities (eg team games).
Immediately after 1994, a number of educationists warned the new South
African government about the perils of adopting Outcomes-based Education,
pointing out that it was too expensive, too sophisticated, that it assumed
schools were properly equipped with qualified teachers, and that it was a
system better suited to strictly technical training than, say, teaching young
children to learn mathematics. However, the Department of Education was so
convinced of the social merits of this system that it turned a deaf ear to these
critics, To make matters worse, Outcomes-based Education was endorsed by a
man who was deeply respected as an enlightened humanist and anti-apartheid
activist: the late Kader Asmal, who was then the Minister of Education. It took
over ten years for the South African government to face up to the fact that
Outcomes-based Education simply wasn’t working. It was finally abandoned
in mid-2010.

All these scenarios are examples of what can go wrong when we fail to question
authority.
* The first scenario shows us what happens
when people in positions
of power
do all they can to prevent any form of questioning. In this case, vulnerable
children and gullible parents suffered. At the time of writing (2014) the
Roman Catholic Church is doing what it can to re-establish its credibility — it
has a new Pope, one who is prepared to challenge and question the decisions
of the powerful Curia.
* The second scenario, the financial catastrophe of 2007-2009, is an example
of what happens when people in positions of power are allowed to make
decisions and take action that remains unchallenged or unquestioned until it
is too late. In this case, the people in charge of the Federal Reserve Bank must
take the blame for deciding to take the unprecedented and untried action
of reducing the lending rate — it was this decision that led to everything that
followed
* The third scenario shows us, all too painfully, what can happen when
educational authorities dogmatically follow a certain philosophy in schooling.
In all cases discussed, the philosophies followed were based on the dogmatism
of the ruling party. In the case of Fundamental Pedagogics, the National Party
wanted to ensure white minority rule. The dominant ruling political parties of
the USA and Britain in the mid- and late 20th century regarded schooling as
a means of turning out young people who would perform well in the global
economy. And the same was true of Outcomes-based Education in South
Africa; the dominant political party was determined that African children
would be taught to succeed in the economics of the late 20th century and
carly 21st century. In our discussion of Outcomes-based Education above,
words such as ‘convinced’, ‘assumed’ and ‘deeply respected’ provideus with
 clues about what went wrong with Outcomes-based Education and why - all

voneonpa pur wsyeuoney IynUaNg :¢ sardeyD

these words refer to various types of dogmatism and authoritarianism.

Scientific Rationalism and education

Although parts of the modern curriculum are obviously the products of science
(eg biology, chemistry, physics), Scientific Rationalism has had only a very limited
influence on formal education systems. Its focus on independent, sceptical
thought makes it difficult for Scientific Rationalism to become accepted in
formal schooling systems.
Scientific Rationalism has been little used in the design of curricula and as an
overall educational method. This is because of its questioning approach. As we
said in the section Introduction to Part 1, modern schooling systems tend to be
prescriptive and conformist, and they tend to discourage critical discussion and
debate. Also, of course, any form of schooling necessarily involves authority, and_
few people in authority like to be questioned.
Having said that, Scientific Rationalism has encouraged the emergence of
secularism in education. In the developed and developing world (which includes
South Africa), there is less and less emphasis on the teaching of religion, and
increasing emphasis on the teaching of science.

Educators and Scientific Rationalism

John Locke (1632-1704)
Historically, John Locke can be regarded as a promoter of Scientific Rationalism
in education. This is not surprising: as we have said, Empiricism often works with
Scientific Rationalism in its pursuit of truth. Also, if you remember, John Locke
had little use for religious teaching and promoted the study of science in the
formal curriculum.

Karl Popper (1902-1994)

In modern times, Scientific Rationalism was revived by the work of the Austrian-
born philosopher and teacher Karl Popper (1902-1994).As a young man, Popper
saw the rise and influence of Nazism in Europe and managed to leave Europe
and obtain a teaching post in New Zealand. After the war was over, he left New
Zealand and taught logic and Scientific Rationalism in London, at the London
School of Economics.
According to Popper, knowledge is based on human beings’ ability to detect
false ideas and climinate error. His most famous book is about democracy, and
is entitled The Open Society and its Enemies. Popper realised that our search for
truth must be unencumbered by fear— as such, he was deeply opposed to any
form of authoritarianism.
 Carl Sagan (1934-1996)
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

After Popper’s time, the tradition of Scientific Rationalism was continued in the
work of the late Carl Sagan, who was also a teacher. (Sagan taught astronomy
at Cornell University in New York.) Sagan's work was very much based on the
methodology of Scientific Rationalism, which focuses on the detection of false
ideas and ‘weeding out’ deception. His published works include Cosmos (1980)
and The Demon-haunted World (1995), which includes his best-known essay,
‘The fine art of baloney detection’.
Like Popper, Sagan hated any form of authoritarianism. In Sagan's
day, authoritarianism in the USA was found in certain types of religious
fundamentalism.
Sagan was particularly entranced by the grandeur of the universe. It is worth
pointing out, in the context of Scientific Rationalism, that modern physics and
modern philosophy have demonstrated that the universe cannot be reduced
to certain ‘scientific laws’ and that the universe is, in fact, an open universe.
Einstein's theory of relativity and modern research into the working of atomic
and subatomic particles both suggest that the nature of matter itself is highly
elusive and may in fact be beyond the realms of human understanding and
classification. This obviously has implications for the teaching of science — in
both schools and universities.

* Scientific Rationalism rejects any form of unquestioning obedience to

authority. /
* Itclaims that all convictionsshould be tested.
¢ Itclaims that conformity is based on social norms that should be questioned
and critiqued.
¢ It claims that all assumptions are just that: assumptions.
* It encourages critics and minority groups to speak. It is essentially a
democratic philosophy.
* It claims that people who are worthy of respect are still fallible human
beings who make mistakes.

© Has Scientific Rationalism influenced education? On the whole, no. Its

emphasis on questioning makes it ill-suited to form the basis of any
educational institution.
* Why do you say this? Because any educational institution depends for its
functioning on learners obeying those in authority and not questioning what
they are taught.
© But you can't have anarchy! This is true, and Scientific Rationalism accepts

:¢ Jaadey>
that any society, including a democratic society, has to have rules and
regulations. However, it is worth remembering that all we do when we teach
a young child from a position of authority is to simply hand on accepted
beliefs. This may be necessary when a child is young.

uoneNpa pure wsyeuoney 2ynuaNs

¢ Can education become more accepting of Scientific Rationalism? Any form
of education that occurs in a democratic society will, hopefully, include
some element of questioning and participation. An encouraging sign is those
schools that seek learners’ input into school rules and regulations.
* Can Scientific Rationalism be used by teachers? Yes. It encourages a
problem-solving approach to learning and teaching. Any teacher who
sets a learner or group of learners a problem to solve (not necessarily
only in maths or science) is adopting a scientific rationalist approach to
teaching.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 3
Design a problem-solving
project for the learners you teach.
 Concluding remarks
An Introduction

The philosophy of Scientific Rationalism focuses on falsity — that is, on whether

an idea or belief is false. The scientific rationalist, when he or she engages in any
form of research, is primarily concerned with checking the facts of something.
In other words, the scientific rationalist claims that the only way any of us
establish truth is by trial and error. According to the philosophy of Scientific
ES

Rationalism, no idea
is sacred, and no person should be so revered that his or her
ieladas ea derek checked io esticnied
Scientific Rationalism is also a very open-minded philosophy. In other words,
it is anti-dogmatic and anti-authoritarian.
Philosophy of Rate

The whole aim of Scientific Rationalism is to make sure we don’t come to

believe in an idea that is false. Like empiricists, scientific rationalists
emphasise
that scientists must be objective and must be concerned with the facts. This is
why Scientific Rationalism often works with Empiricism.
Scientific Rationalism is completely opposed to societies where people can't.
speak their minds freely and discuss things openly. These sorts of societies are
oppressive and unjust. These societies never solve any of the problems that beset
them
— in fact, authoritarian
regimes often claim that there are no problems.
Preface
The philosophy of Phenomenology is concerned with a description of what is
essentially human, that is, with the human condition.
In this chapter, we shall be discussing the impact of the philosophy of
Phenomenology on education, and the way in which certain concepts in the
philosophy of Phenomenology were manipulated by the South African apartheid
government to endorse and prescribe a government-driven philosophy of
education. In this case, the philosophy of education was known as Fundamental
Pedagogics.

Structure of the chapter

We shall start by telling you what the philosophy of Phenomenology is, and
.

what this philosophy focuses on.

This philosophy focuses on:
.

— the inner reality of the emotions and the psyche; and

— reality that can only be interpreted in community. Note that it was the
central concept of interpretation in community that formed the ideology of
Fundamental Pedagogics.
We shall then go on to look at how Phenomenology has influenced education
by discussing the work of three educators, namely:
- Maurice Merleau-Ponty (a French philosopher who lived from 1908 to
1961);
- Max van Manen (a modern Dutch-Canadian philosopher and educator
who, when this book was published, worked at the University of Alberta in
Canada); and
- Shaun Gallagher (a modern American philosopher and educator who,
when this book was published, worked at the University of Memphis).
It is important to remember that none of these philosophers and educators
believed in or promoted the ideology of apartheid. Instead, all three have
claimed that Phenomenology can be used to promote trust and true
understanding between the teacher and the child.
We shall then briefly discuss some of the educational problems caused by
Phenomenology.
 + We then use a series of FAQs to examine how Phenomenology has influenced
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

education,

What is Phenomenology?
Phenomenology looks at things and ourselves in reality, as they really are, without
imposing theories or opinions on this reality. It focuses on our felt experience
rather than on a scientific analysis of experience. Phenomenology encourages a
careful, reflective and meditative approach to everything, including education.
Phenomenology takes nothing for granted, and assumes nothing. The
philosophy of Phenomenology asks us to focus on ‘what is actually happening’
~ on the conscious experience we have of whatever it is we are experiencing. It
asks us to put our assumptions and beliefs to one side for a while. By doing this,
reality will ‘stand out’ and we will be able to experience, possibly for the first
time in our lives, a sense of wonder at the world around us and, indeed, at our
very selves.
The philosophy of Phenomenology can be divided into categories, namely:
* Phenomenology of the Self (Who am I?);
* Social Phenomenology (Who and what is my community?); and
* Cosmic Phenomenology (our place in the universe).

In this chapter, we shall be focusing on Phenomenology of the Self, and how our felt
of ourselves as human beings influence education. Phenomenology
of the Self asks: ‘Who am I? Who is this “I” that constantly interacts with the
world around me?’
Phenomenology claims that our biggest challenge is to confront ourselves in
all our ambiguity and complexity and thus to get nearer to the ‘real self’, As
such, Phenomenology believes that theories about ourselves and about life can
be very misleading and may lead to falschood and deep unhappiness. In a sense,
Phenomenology claims that such teachings are no more than a form of ideology
—a human construct imposed on reality. Phenomenology asserts that we should
not reduce people to things or objects by ignoring those huge areas of human
experience that we can't see or measure.
Unlike the other philosophies that we have discussed, Phenomenology does
not contain a body of content that can be taught. Instead, it is an invitation to
us to reflect, honestly and without pretence, on the human condition. It is also
an invitation, to each and every one of us, to discover our true selves, the ‘real
you' behind the masks and illusions of personality. Phenomenology claims that
human beings and the world interact with each other the whole time, the one
influencing the other. It is possible to sum up Phenomenology in the following
statement: ‘I am in the world and the world is in me.’
One of the crucial points in Phenomenology of the Self is that each and every
one of us has a real, essential
self with a vocation. Sometimes,this real self reveals
 itself in strange and inappropriate ways, particularly to people who are on the

:p Jaideys
fringes of society, such as artists and poets.
If we ignore Phenomenology, we will probably lack the capacity to ‘feel’ and
we are likely to never, or rarely, experience moments of real joy or real pain. It
is fair to say that, today, this is one of the major problems in Western society, a

uoneonpa pue <Sojouauouayg

society which, until very recently, has given no place to Phenomenology.
Many years ago, the philosopher Epicurus (341-271 nck) made the following
statement:

Empty is that philosopher's argument which by [sic] no human suffering is

therapeutically treated. For just as there is no use in a medical art that does not
cast out the sickness of bodies, so too there is no use in philosophy, if it does not
throw out suffering
from the soul. (Society of Friends of Epicurus, 2013)
This theme — the suffering of the soul — ran throughout Western philosophy and
Western theology until the 19th century, when science replaced religion as the
chief concern in people’s lives. In the Mass of the Latin Rite (whichwas said in
British and European churches for over 1 000 years), for example, the priest asks
the question — of himself, after he has bowed towards the altar— ‘Quare tristises
anima me, et quare conturbas me?' (‘Why art thou sad,O my soul, and why does
thou disquiet me?’) In relatively recent times, the fact of widespread depression
and social alienation has caused American, Canadian, British and European
philosophers to take up the same theme: how do we overcome despair? Their
response has been: the Western world needs to radically re-evaluate the whole of
human endeavour, including the human endeavour of seeking truth.

The history
of Phenomenology
Contemporary Phenomenology started with the work of the German philosopher
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), who was initially a mathematician. Husserl
claimed that reality consisted of two things (phenomena): human consciousness
and the world of objects. The world of objects can only be available to us as
mental constructs, and this is why any true philosophical enquiry must begin
and end by looking at the content of the human mind. Husserl claimed that
the knowledge we have of our consciousness is the only reliable foundation for
understanding reality and that philosophy should, therefore, consist of a careful
examination of human mental states and conditions. Such a careful examination
will reveal to us how things really are in themselves, and will also enable us to
understand how we create meaning.
Husserl’s work influenced another German philosopher, Martin Heidegger
(1889-1976). In his major work, Being and Time (published in 1927), Heidegger
attempted to answer the question which forms the basis of Phenomenology of
the Self, namely, ‘Who am I?’ Heidegger suggested that a person's true self is
linked to his or her self-consciousness. Indeed, modern Phenomenology can be
 regarded as starting with the study of the mind which, when Heidegger wrote
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Being and time, was still very much a new discipline (psychology), In the middle
of the 20th century, one of the people who was to look afresh at the human
condition and psychology was Carl Jung.
Jung (1875-1961) was a psychologist who initially studied under the empiricist
Sigmund Freud. For a number of years, Jung accepted Freud's theories about the
workings of the human mind but, as the two men worked and studied together,
Jung became increasingly disenchanted with Freud’s theories. He started to look
at the content of people’s dreams and their stream of consciousness without
attempting to impose any theoretical construct on either.
After his break with Freud, Jung worked alone. During this time (from about
1912 until about 1920), Jung tells us he ‘consciously submitted myself to the
impulses of the unconscious’ (1990: 197). As he did so, the games he had played
as a child started to surface in his memory. So vividly did these memories haunt
him that he tells us he had no choice but to start playing childish games, games
which, as an adult male, did not come easily to him. On his lonely walks, he
started collecting stones and rocks from the shores of a lake and, alone in his
study, he would use these stones and rocks to build churches, villages, castles.
His willingness to return to the world of his childhood released in him endless
fantasies and inner images. He describes it as a turning point in his life. These
fantasies and images began to ‘speak’ to him. He started drawing images of
mandalas, crosses, winged creatures. And he used his own growing confidence in
the healing power of these symbols to help the afflicted men and women who
came to him for inner healing and help.
In the 1920s, when Jung was inhis fifties, he travelled to Africa. In the autumn
of 1925, he travelled from Mombasa to Nairobi by train. Waking up in the train,
early one morning, he gives us the following vivid description of the scene that
met his eyes:
When the first ray of sunlight announced the onset of day, I awoke. The train ...
was just making a turn around a steep, red cliff. On a jagged rock above us a slim,
brownish-black figure stood motionless, leaning on a long spear, looking down
at the train. Beside him towered a gigantic candelabrum cactus. I was enchanted
by this sight ... I had the feeling that I had already experienced this moment and
had always known this world, which was separated from me only by distance in
time. It was as if I were this moment returning to the land of my youth, and as
if I knew that dark-skinned man who had been waiting for me for five thousand
years ... I could not guess what string within myself was plucked at the sight of
that dark, solitary hunter. I knew only that his world had been mine for countless
millennia. (Jung, 1990: 288)

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
1. In your portfolio exercise book, describe the scene on the train yourself.
2. What feelings does this scene evoke in you?
 Phenomenology and education

uopeonpa pue <dojouaumouayg ‘fp Jardey>

Just as it rejects abstract theories about ‘life’, Phenomenology tends to reject
abstract theories about education, and philosophers of education who support
Phenomenology are deeply unhappy with the notion that teachers and children
should work towards the achievement of certain outcomes. A phenomenological
approach to education focuses on what ‘really happens’ in the classroom, and
on what ‘really happens’ between the teacher and the child. Furthermore, a
phenomenological approach to education emphasises the sense of wonder in
discovering new worlds, and claims that, if education is about anything, it is
about encouraging children (and, indeed, adults) to explore new worlds.
If we use Phenomenology to guide our educational endeavours, we shall be
keen to point out to teachers and leamers that their society, in various ways, makes
constant demands of them, right from the time they are very young children. Indeed,
a philosophy of education that is based on Phenomenology is extremely concerned
by the fact that growing numbers of human beings now live in societies in which it is
illegal not to send young children into the formal education system; Phenomenology
points out that even the very best of these systems are deeply flawed and problematic,
particularly as far as the emergence of the individual leamer is concerned. Both
teachers and children are forced, by law, to conform to the demands of these systems.
Globally, most of these systems are now based on an economic ideology which insists
that teachers train children to become competent technocrats in capitalist societies.
Even putting aside the influence of economics and technology, in any education
system the young child comes into repeated contact with groups of people who
dominate him or her and force that child into a certain mould. This makes it very
difficult for any of us, later on in life, to discover who we really are.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 2
We have just made a number of disquieting statements about modern schooling
systems.
If you were in charge of public education in South Africa, write down the one
‘thing you would change, (It doesn't matter whether this is a big thing or alittle thing.)

Educators and Phenomenology

Notwithstanding our remarks about modern education systems, a number of
educators, both past and present, have used the philosophy of Phenomenology as
the basis of their attempts to improve state and private education systems.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)

In his work as a philosopher of Phenomenology, Merleau-Ponty emphasised the
primacy of our bodies and the role our bodies and our bodily senses play in
 how we experience ourselves and the world around us. His principal goal was to
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

encourage human beings to return to their lived and felt experiences, and to put
aside the claims of rationalism and abstract, logical reasoning. His most famous
work is Phenomenology
of Perception, published in 1945.
Later on in his life, Merleau-Ponty emphasised the need for human beings to
engage in creative expression (this is an example of how Phenomenology often
works with Hermeneutics in attempting to create meaning).
When he was in his early 40s, Merleau-Ponty was appointed to the chair of
Child Psychology at the University of the Sorbonne (France). His work in this
capacity showed him to be an educator who took the child's reality seriously — he
claimed that the primary task of any teacher was to understand the child and how
the child felt and experienced the world. Merleau-Ponty was deeply distressed by
the fact that, in schools and education systems, all too often adults simply impose
their views of life on the children they ‘teach’. Merleau-Ponty rejected the notion
that adults have the ‘answers’ and, in fact, went so far as to maintain that adult
teachers
learn at least as much from children
as children do from adult teachers.
Today,the educational work begun by Merleau-Ponty
is being carried on by two
people: the Dutch-Canadian educator Max van Manen and the American Shaun
Gallagher (who, as we will see in the next chapter, also works with Hermeneutics).

Max van Manen

In his work on teaching and learning, Max van Manen drew on his experiences
as a teacher in Holland, experiences and understandings that he took with him
when he emigrated to Canada in 1967. When he first started teaching as an
assistant professor at the University of Alberta, Van Manen was appalled at the
emphasis on performance, outcomes and detached, scientific analysis which was
the basis of Canadian and American education systems. As a result
of this ‘culture
shock', Van Manen spent most of his teaching and lecturing career actively and
consciously promoting a phenomenological approach to teaching. In 1991, the
American publisher Suny Press published The Tact of Teaching: The Meaning of
Pedagogical Thoughtfulness, (Today, the book is available as an e-book.)
In contrast to the view that the teacher and learner are engaged, in the
classroom, in little more than a series of disconnected tasks and activities, the
results of which can then be tested in examinations, Van Manen believes that
teaching and learning have to be based on personal relationships characterised
by trust and the hope in a better tomorrow for both the learnerand the teacher.
Furthermore, Van Manen completely rejects the notion that children come to
school as ‘empty pots’ that need to he filled with content by the teacher.
Like all philosophers of Phenomenology, Van Manen looks to the natural — he
is concerned by the impact of artificial, frenetic, electronic virtual realities on
the developing child; he also suggests that the natural condition of childhood is
gradually being eliminated as a result of this virtual reality.
Today, Max van Manen works in retirement on the impact of online teaching
and writing on privacy, secrecy and the construction of the individual self.
Shaun Gallagher

:p Jaideys
In his work on Phenomenology and learning, Gallagher starts by doing what all
phenomenologists do: looking at reality. And, according to Gallagher, this reality
tells us that human minds do not have direct access to other human minds. This
means that we can reject, once and for all, the notion that, somehow, the learner

uoneonpa pue <Sojouauouayg

and the teacher are simply two minds exchanging disembodied information. In
fact, nothing could be further from the truth.
In his work on learning and how we learn, Gallagher — like Merleau-Ponty —
stresses the primacy of the child's experience, specifically the child's experience
of learning from another. Gallagher rejects the various claims of empirical science
on learning, namely that a child learns via various objective tests and experiences
in the social environment. In fact, different children (and, indeed, adults)
respond very differently to the same social environment, and Western science
and Empiricism have failed to explain why. He also rejects the notion that the
child uses his or her own mental experiences as models for understanding other
people's minds (‘If doing a certain action makes me feel upset, then doing the
same action will make the teacher feel upset too.’) Gallagher
also points out that
certain types of Western neuroscience simply assume that we are all born with
innate learning mechanisms in the brain that we then use in infancy and later, at
school, to survive in our environments. To date, nobody has been able to locate
precisely which part of the brain these learning mechanisms reside in.
Gallagher points out that any form of learning seems to be based on watching
and interacting with the bodily movements and facial expressions of the people
around us. As the child does this with the teacher or the parent, he or she
responds — not necessarily by mimicking the teacher, but by making some sort
of matching gesture or movement. Gallagher in fact likens all human learning to
the movements of a dance. In this ‘dance’, a dynamic is created that cannot be
created by cither the teacher/parent or child acting alone and, in this dynamic,
meaning and understanding are created. Furthermore, spaces open up in this
‘dance’ which enables the child to gradually experience him- or herself as
separate from the other, leading to the possibility of the child reflecting on him-
or herself as a person who makes choices, including moral choices.
How free this ‘dance’ is depends, largely, on the person with power. In his
recent work, Gallagher has turned his attention to what happens in prisons,
where very little personal space is allowed.

¢ Phenomenology asks: What is reality?

* It urges us to put aside our beliefs and ideas and let reality show itself,
including the reality of ourselves.
* Phenomenology asks us to consciously examine ourselves and our lives. In
this, it remembers the ancient Greck philosopher Socrates, who said that
the unexamined life is not worth living.
 * Ifwe fail to respond to Phenomenology’s invitation to consciously experience
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

reality, then we run the very real risk of never experiencing wonder, and we
may find ourselves feeling that, somehow, life has passed us by.

Phenomenology and education: beware

Historically, in South Africa, the philosophy of education which claimed to be
based on Phenomenology was Fundamental Pedagogics.
One of the notions we have encountered in our discussion on Phenomenology
is the need for us to find out who we really are and, in this endeavour,
we need
to reflecton who we really are by referring to our community.
In South Africa, historically, communities were divided along racial lines. An
African person could only discover him- or herself in community with other
Africans, and through the guidance of specifically African teachers. The same
was true — or so it was claimed- of Coloured, Indian and Caucasian people.
These communities were fundamental to our identity. Hence the philosophy
of education that arose from this reasoning was called Fundamental Pedagogics.
This ishow Phenomenology can be distorted to serve an educational
ideology (in
this case, apartheid). In South Africa under apartheid, there were two distortions
at work: Fundamental Pedagogics (supposedly based on Phenomenology) and
Christian National Education (supposedly based on Hermeneutics).
Sadly, in South Africa, this twin distortion led to a widespread rejection of
Phenomenology and Hermeneutics, and an uncritical adoption, after 1994, of
a philosophy of education based — again, or so it was claimed — on Empiricism.

© Has any undistorted

form of Phenomenology
influenced education? No, except
incidentally through the teaching of poetry and, in the Western tradition,
Jungian psychology.
© What about higher education? Until recently, Western universities, even in
the teaching of philosophy, primarily focused on Empiricism and formal
logic, and little room was given to any form of Phenomenology. At the time
of writing
— early in 2014 — this was changing, and there is now a growing
interest in Phenomenology (partly as a result of the social chaos that now
characterises Western socicty).
© What can Phenomenology help us to achieve in education? A possible response
to this question is:
~ Why are educators so obsessed with achievement?
- How can any form of achievement, which is necessarily manipulative,
be compatible with true creativity and intellectual innovation (which is
necessarily fearless)?
 How does Phenomenology respond to formal education systems?

'p Jaadeys
Phenomenology is deeply concerned about the impact of formal,
prescriptive education systems on young children.
Phenomenology states that any real education, to be worthy of the name
‘education’, must pay far more attention to human values (eg dignity,

uopeonpa pue Adopouawiouayg

creativity and authenticity).
According to Phenomenology, education is not about the teaching of
technical competence,
Phenomenology claims that education mirrors the human condition,
which means that it necessarily contains an element of mystery. (In plain
terms, the child’s ability to learn is not easily understood and not easily
analysed.)

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 3
We ended our discussion of Shaun Gallagher by mentioning that, in his recent
work, Gallagher has turned his attention to what happens in prisons. As you
know, schools are often compared to prisons.
te What is your personal feeling about this comparison?
2. What feelings do you experience when you enter the classroom every
morning?
3. How can the teacher and the learner experience greater freedom in formal
schooling systems?

Concluding remarks
Modern Phenomenology started at the very end of the last century, with the study
of the mind and mental illness (psychology). In other words, Phenomenology
began as the study of human consciousness.
Phenomenology focuses on people (rather than on abstract ideas) and on the way
 in which people experience the world around them. Because phenomenologists
Philagephy of Edidation ‘Thdiy? Au law sduction

want to look at human experience as it really is, Phenomenology takes nothing.

for granted. A phcnomenologist trics to put to one side everything he or she has
been told about things. The phenomenologist tries to focus on ‘what is actually
happening’ — on the experience of human life itself When phenomenologists
study a phenomenon, including education, they try to put their assumptions and
beliefs to one side for a while.
By putting our views to one side, claims the philosophy of Phenomenology, we
allow reality to stand out more sharply. We may well find, when we do this, that
we see the phenomenon clearly for the first time and that we come to a new and
possibly disturbing view of that phenomenon.
Phenomenologists realise that we can only put our views aside at times.
However, they claim that, if we never do this, we will find ourselves increasingly
trapped in situations — including educational situations — over which we have no
control and which defy our understanding.
In the section Introduction to Part 1, we left humankind on the shores of Africa,
in Blombos Cave. If you remember our discussion, by the time human beings
were living on the shores of Africa, they were fully evolved: they had a brain
capacity of over 1 000 cc, they could plan ahead and, importantly, they could use
their hands and minds to engage in symbolism and ornamentation. The ability to
engage in symbolism — any form of symbolism, from beadwork to language — is
at the centre of the philosophy of Hermeneutics.
In this chapter, we shall be discussing the impact of the philosophy of
Hermeneutics on education. As an introductory comment, we can say that, in
education, the philosophy of Hermeneutics encourages an engagement with
our understanding of what education is all about. In other words, in involving
ourselves with the philosophy of Hermeneutics, we endeavour to interpret the
meaning of education.

Structure of the chapter

We shall start by telling you what the philosophy of Hermeneutics is and what
this philosophy focuses on.
Briefly, Hermeneutics focuses on:
- symbols as they are interpreted by specific human communities; and
— the need for all of us to create meaning in our lives.
Note that it was a unique and oppressive interpretation of what
constituted the South African human community that drove Christian
National Education in South Africa’s apartheid schools.
We will discuss the work of the modern American hermeneuticist Ken Wilber
and the work of the French philosopher, Jean Baudrillard.
We shall then go on to look at how Hermeneutics has influenced education by
discussing the work of three educators, namely:
- Hans-Georg Gadamer (a German philosopher who lived from 1900 to 2002);
- Rudolph Steiner (an Austrian philosopher and educator who lived from
1861 to 1925); and
- Shaun Gallagher (a modern American philosopher and educator whom we
first discussed in our chapter on Phenomenology).
 Again, note that none of these philosophers and educators
were or are concerned
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

with promoting oppressive ideologies and social structures. Instead, all these
philosophers and educators claimed (or claim) that any form of education
needs to take into account the human community in which knowledge is
discovered and generated.
* We shall then briefly discuss some of the educational problems encountered
when using Hermeneutics as a philosophy of education.
* We then use a series of FAQs to examine how Hermeneutics has influenced
education,
+ Finally, we shall end the chapter by discussing the philosophy of Constructivism,
which is closely linked to Hermencutics, and we shall briefly look at the ways
in which Constructivism influences education.

3 What is Hermeneutics?
Hermeneutics is the philosophy of interpretation. The philosophy of Hermeneutics
teaches that our experience of anything and everything depends on our
interpretation.This includes the way we interpret education and formal schooling.
The philosophy of Hermeneutics states that interpretation should not be imposed
on us by others, although it acknowledges the fact that our culture will necessarily
have an impact on the way we understand and experience anything in life.
According to the philosophy of Hermencutics, all human social action takes.
place by means of symbols. In fact, language itself is purely a series of symbols,
as are gestures, road signs, the information relayed to us by teachers - the whole
of social life, in fact.
Like Scientific Rationalism, Hermeneutics encourages openness, particularly
open communication. Also like Scientific Rationalism, it has no time for
oppression and authoritarian power structures. Scientific Rationalism
encourages openness in the pursuit of truth and the climination of falsity
— Hermencutics encourages openness in the pursuit of meaning and the
elimination of meaninglessness.
Hermeneutics claims that the pursuit of scientific truth alone does not make
life worthwhile — human beings need more than this. They need to be members
of a community, they need a sense of the sacred, and they need the guidance of
tradition in the creation of meaning.
Just as Empiricism
usually works with Scientific Rationalism
in its quest for truth,
so Hermeneutics
usually works with Phenomenology
in its quest for meaning.
In Western thought, Hermeneutics has largely been regarded as part of the
disciplines of literary theory and biblical studies; this is because, in the USA and
England, the intervention of Hermeneutics has heen confined to the interpretation
of texts, particularly sacred texts, On the European continent, the philosophy
of Hermeneutics has received considerably greater emphasis, particularly in
Germany. The philosopher responsible for reviving Hermeneutics in modern
times was the late Hans-Georg Gadamer, whose major work (published
in 1960)

uonenpa pur sspnauaunayy :¢ Jaxdeys

was Truth
and Method. In this book, Gadamer claimed that art, just as much
as science, pointed humankind towards truth. Gadamer also emphasised the
importance of the community in our attempts to understand ourselves and the
world around us. In recent times, the American philosopher Ken Wilber has also
worked within Hermeneutics, and it is to Wilber we shall now turn.

Ken Wilber’s work in Hermeneutics

We shall begin by discussing the context in which Wilber does his work. In the
philosophy of Hermeneutics, context is important. Hermeneutics claims that we
cannot start to interpret something or someone without taking into account their
context, and this is particularly true of people.
Wilber began his studies, in the 1960s, in medicine,
but soon became
disillusioned with Western approaches to healing, specifically with Western
approaches to the human person. Wilber rejected the West's conception of the
human being as a machine (a patient) that needed ‘fixing’; indeed, he rejected the
assumption, in Western medicine, that suffering human beings can and should be
treated as objects that could be examined and manipulated by medical experts.
In his work, Wilber makes it clear that he rejects the West's focus on
Empiricism (the philosophy we discussed in Chapter 2). Instead, he concentrates
on Hermeneutics.

Holons
The essential content of Wilber’s work in Hermeneutics can be summarised as
follows: the entire universe, which Wilber calls the Kosmos, and which includes
human beings and human beings in society, can be interpreted as holons. A holon
is anything we want it to be ~ a school can be a holon.
Each and every holon can be mapped
as follows:

Subjective Objective

Individual Individual
I it

We | its

Subjective Objective

Collective Collective

Mappinga holon
 For example, the holon of the school (seen from a learner's perspective) can be
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

mapped as follows:

INTERIOR EXTERIOR
Upper left quadrant Upper right quadrant
Interior - individual school (my school) Exterior - individual
school (what my
* [like/hate
my school uniform school looks like)
* How | feel about the subjects |have to | * School's
GPS co-ordinates
learn * Physical construction (number of
* Why I like my favourite teacher es
* My circle
of friends m
“ * Sports fields, gym
* School equipment(books, flipcharts,
computers, etc)

The ‘me’ quadrant The ‘it’ quadrant

INTERIOR EXTERIOR
Lower left quadrant Lower right quadrant

Interior - collective (the teachers and Exterior - collective (my school is one of
other learners at my school) a number of schools in South Africa)
© Rapport/lack
of rapport between * The school's place in the social system
teachers/principal * The school as a part of the national
© Rapport/ack of rapport between education system
teachers/learners
¢ Learners’ relationships with each other

The ‘we’ quadrant The ‘it’ quadrant

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
The upper left quadrant above, the ‘me’ quadrant, was mapped from the
standpoint
of a learner.
1. Now draw up the same quadrant from a teacher's point of view.
2. Where do the two differ?

The philosophy of Hermeneutics focuses on the lower left quadrant — the ‘we’
quadrant. This is the quadrant that Western philosophy, and Western education,
has ignored in its quest for definition and efficiency.

The ‘we’ and Hermeneutics

The reason why shared community — we — is so important in the philosophy
of Hermeneutics relates to what we have said already: interpretation requires
context, particularly a social context. An individual can collect sea shells and
make them into a string of beads by working alone, but without the symbolism
provided by that individual's community, the string of beads will be only that:

uonenpa pur sspnauaunayy :¢ Jaxdeys

a string of beads, an artefact that has no meaning. In fact, without the power of
symbolism and meaning — both of which depend on shared interpretation— it is
highly unlikely that the individual will make a string of beads or, indeed, anything
else. To quote Wilber: ‘I can only become truly human in ... symbolic community,
and I can only exercise my humanity ... in social engagement and sharing with
fellow communicators’ (Wilber, 1996: 168). Indeed, according to Wilber, and
the philosophy of Hermeneutics generally, it is only our membership of specific
human communities that enables us to be members of the scientifically defined
species Homo sapiens,
The tragedy of the modern West is that the Western
community has been reduced to little more than an efficient technological
consumption machine. And machines, by their very nature, do not engage in
meaning.

Hermeneutics and Western consumerism

Another Western philosopher who studied Hermeneutics was the French
philosopher, Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007).
Baudrillard’s approach to the philosophy of Hermeneutics led him to focus
on a common social pursuitin the West: shopping in the mall. Baudrillard asked
a simple question: What is a shopping mall? What happens in shopping malls?
He came up with the following answer: The shopping mall is the place where
we identify with the things we buy. We even have a sort of identity based on the
things we don't buy.
Let's take the example of a cell phone. Suppose I want to buy a new cell
phone:
* Which brand am I going to buy? That will depend, essentially,
on two things:
firstly, how much I can afford to pay for a cell phone, and, secondly, the kind
of cell phone I want to use and want others to see me use.
Suppose I have only a small amount of money. In this case, I will buy a cheap
cell phone from, say, an informal trader. But the problem I have now, according
to Baudrillard, is that using this cell phone sends the message: ‘I’m poor and,
therefore, insignificant.’ So what do I do?
Perhaps I don’t mention my cell phoneto anybody. Or, if someone notices my
.

new cell phone, I say something like: ‘Yes, I just bought this cheap cell phone.
I'ma practical sort of person — I didn’t want one of those fancy things, I just
need a phone that I can use to contact other people.’
In other words, the cell phone has forced me to define myself (in this case, as
a practical sort
of person) within the consumerist system.

The worst of it, said Baudrillard, is that this isn't just true of something like a cell
phone. Consumerism has invaded the whole of life. Consumer symbols are so
powerful that they define us.
 Optional activity
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Have you ever been on a shopping trip with your learners? If not, try to arrange
one.
1. Make your own notes on what happens during the trip.
2. Get the learners themselves to write up what happened and whether they
enjoyed the trip. Young learners can draw pictures, using, perhaps, the

Hermeneutics and education

If we use Hermencutics as our philosophy of education, we shall not accept the
view that there is ‘one right answer’ toa problem. We shall also tend to focus on
the artistic part of the curriculum rather than on a curriculum that emphasises
the hard sciences.
If we ignore Hermeneutics in any form of education or formal schooling,
then the learners we teach will probably be very unhappy at school and, later
on, at college and university. This is because we will be ignoring our needs as
human beings to create meaning and work in a community, Unfortunately,
there is a very real risk that this may be happening to children brought up
in formal, Western schools. As we have said, the focus today in education is
increasingly on pressurising children and young people to perform in areas such
as mathematics, science and computer technology, while ignoring human and
cultural studies.

Educators and Hermeneutics

Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-2002)
Although he wrote almost nothing on education as such, Gadamer's philosophy
of Hermeneutics has major implications for education and formal schooling
as practised in the Western world - a system which pressures teachers and
learners into acquiring academic and scientific mastery. According to Gadamer,
the notion of a person being able to observe and fully understand the world
around him or her is a pointless pursuit, simply because our understanding
is influenced by our social community, our language and the necessary
interplay between us and the world in which we live. Put simply: according
to Gadamer, there is no such thing as the detached, scientific observer as put
forward by the British philosopher we mentioned in earlier chapters, John
Locke. We are all of us, whatever our nationality and background, members
of communitics that have their own traditions of interpretation. We are born
into these traditions. This is not a negative point, but instead, according to
Hermeneutics, a realistic one.
 If we follow the philosophy of Hermeneutics, our educational aims will be

uonenpa pur sspnauaunayy :¢ Jaxdeys

much more modest: as teachers, we will simply be enabling the learner to become
a more competent and perceptive participant in the community.
Furthermore, according to Gadamer, none of us (including educators) should
be concerned with certainty: to be human is to be an interpreter — and no more
— of the reality around us. In its rejection of certainty, Hermeneutics is similar to
Scientific Rationalism.

Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925)

Aneducator who can be regarded as working with the philosophy of Hermeneutics
is Rudolf Steiner, the founder of Waldorf education. Significantly, in his carly
work as a philosopher, Steiner was concerned with bringing together science and
spirituality in an integrative whole.
Steiner's main work on education, entitled The Education of the Child, appeared
in 1909.
Steiner argued that any form of schooling and education — if it was to be
schooling and education — had to be free of government interference and
ideology. Steiner's aim, in education, was to foster children who were free to
express themselves and who were active participants in their communities.
To these ends, the task of the educator was, firstly, to encourage the young
child's participation in his or her social community by helping the child to
express him- or herself through the use of language and artistic expression. Only
then should purely academic disciplines be taught, and these too had to be part
of a curriculum that ensured a dialogue between the arts and the sciences.
Today, Waldorf education continues to be practised in all developed countries,
and has recently been introduced in China. Indeed, in some countries, it has the
support of State authorities.
In recent times, Steiner's emphasis on integration in education has linked him
to the American hermeneuticist we discussed earlier, Ken Wilber.

Shaun Gallagher
When this book was published, Shaun Gallagher was Professor of Philosophy
at the University of Memphis. He is probably the foremost Amcrican academic
working in the philosophy of Hermeneutics today.
Like Gadamer, he emphasises play and interaction in human understanding
and learning, and he refutes the view that our learning depends on our computer-
like brains locked away in our skulls. Instead, he argues that all forms of learning -
in both the very young child and the adult — are what has been called ‘embodied
cognition’, Human beings are primarily concerned with action: with grasping,
pointing, moving about and gesturing to cach other. It is through these bodily
activities (many of which involve our hands) that we learn; indeed, the brain,
body and nervous system themselves are in a hermencutic relationship with each
other in that they all seck to understand each other.
 In short, according to Gallagher, our actions shape our learning, and our
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

actions and our learning are both involved in our construction of meaning in our
communities,

Hermeneutics and education: beware

Hermeneutics is not necessarily democratic Indeed, one of the weaknesses of
Hermeneutics is that an oppressive community structure will encourage us to find
this oppressive structure meaningful. An example of this in South Africa is the
success of the Dutch Reformed Church under apartheid. Unnerving though it is
to admit it, many Afrikaners led what they considered to be meaningful lives as
a result of the peculiar religious and social hermeneutics that was prevalent from
1948 to 1994. Note that this religious hermeneutics was introduced to members of
that society in schools. The teachers in these apartheid schools, themselves products
of that same hermeneutics, handed out Bibles, religious literature and hymn books
to the learners of the day. And through this literature and social ethos, these learners
were made members of a society with which they whole-heartedly identified.
PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 2
In the section above, we noted that the teachers in apartheid schools, themselves
a product of the religious and social hermeneutics of the day, handed out Bibles,
religious literature and hymn books to the learners.
1. How did the hermeneutics of apartheid work? Remember that Hermeneutics
is about interpretation. Apartheid was based on a certain interpretation
of
South African society.
If you are not sure how to respond to this question, we suggest you read up on:
* Calvinism and the doctrine of predestination;
* the concept of the elect;
¢ Zionism and South Africa as a ‘new Israel’; and
¢ 1 Samuel 15:1-4 (Old Testament).
2. How did this interpretation of South African society lead to the oppression
of black, Coloured and Indian South Africans?
3. What role did religion play in the hermeneutics of apartheid?

Optional activity
How would you try to explain any of this to very young learners? By using
pictures?
In some other way?

¢ Hermeneutics claims that any human undertaking is based on interpretation.

* Hermeneutics teaches that our interpretation of any one thing depends on
the community into which we were born.
* Hermeneutics believes that to be human is to search for meaning.

uopeonpa pur smmnauaunapy :¢ Jaadeys

* Hermeneutics claims that our search for meaning and understanding must
be guided by our community's tradition and symbolism.
¢ Hermeneutics encourages us to take our place in the community as
co-creators in the community's search for meaning.

© Has Hermeneutics influenced education? Only in certain countries: in countries

dominated by the philosophy of Empiricism (eg the USA, Australia and
the UK), Hermeneutics has been confined to graduate and postgraduate
studies of sacred literature. Countries whose education systems have been
influenced by Hermeneutics include Canada and France. Certain alternative
education systems such as the Waldorf system have also been influenced by
Hermencutics.
¢ Has Hermeneutics influenced teaching? Not as much as it should have done.
Unfortunately, modern education systems tend to be overly prescriptive,
and therefore leave teachers with little opportunity to bring their own
interpretation to the teaching of any subject.
* What about science subjects that do have right and wrong answers? This is
not an easy question to respond to. Perhaps we should start by listing the
subjects that do have right and wrong answers. They are:
— maths;
~ physics; and
- chemistry.
As you can see, this is a very short list. Science includes other fields such as:
~ botany;
= zoology; and
— biology.
There are other subjects that are scientific, but which nevertheless involve
interpretation. Examples are:
- economics;
~ business management; and
= law.
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 3
What subjects
do you teach?
¢ If you teach a subject such as maths, how would you go about making this
subject more interesting to learners who are gifted in, say, art and music?
* If you teach a subject such as music, how would you teach this ‘more
scientifically’?

Hermeneutics’ ‘little brother’: Constructivism

Constructivism is based on the philosophy of Hermeneutics. Constructivism
claims that any form of knowledge is the product of our community's practices
and interaction with the world around that community. Constructivism takes
seriously Hermeneutics’ claim that we are dependent on interpretation,
except that Constructivism goes one step further and claims that the world
we experience is no more than a product of that interpretation. While
Hermeneutics accepts that there is a real world that needs interpreting,
Constructivism claims that there is no such thing as a ‘real world out there’ —
all we human beings possess is a complex scheme of interpretation that exists
in our own minds.
Therefore, according to Constructivism, education can never be about mastery
of a group of subjects; when we teach a learner, we are teaching him or her to
interpret and re-interpret a series of complex cognitive patterns.

Concluding remarks
The word ‘hermeneutics’ means ‘the science of interpretation’. Hermeneutics
today is about the interpretation of life itself; Modern hermeneuticists claim
that we can use Hermeneutics to try to understand art, music and even science
(which, they claim, is simply another form of encoded interpretation).
In the 20th century, Hermeneutics developed in western Europe primarily as
a response to Empiricism. The philosophy of Hermeneutics claims that values
and culture
have to be interpreted and understood, not ignored (which
is what

:¢ saxdey>
Empiricism encouraged).
In fact, hermeneuticists havea great deal of respect for
culture, tradition and for the past. Hermencutics claims that history speaks to us
— to all of us, whether we are African, American, British or European.
Hermeneutics claims that everything we want to understand, including

uoneonpa pur sxAnauauazy

education, is human. We should, therefore, never treat history and documents as
if they were ‘things’. Not only should we try very hard to listen to and understand
the voices of the past, we should also learn from these voices and apply what we
have learnt to the present. In other words, we should treat history creatively and
bring the past and the present together in an act of mutual communication.
Like Scientific Rationalism, Hermencutics has no time for dogmatism and
authoritarianism.
Hermeneutics is similar, in many respects, to Phenomenology, because
Hermeneutics also wants to get to the heart of things. It is also similar to Critical
Theory, because it believes that people's understanding is often influenced by
their personal bias and personal history.
In the section Introduction to Part 1, we briefly outlined the
long history and evolution of humankind, from its starting place
on the plains of Africa about 2 million years ago until some of its members left
Africa, departing from the Horn of Africa, about 60 000 years ago. The people
who left Africa crossed over the Bab el Mandeb strait to what is now the
Arabian peninsula. This group of human beings then went on to populate the
entire world,
As we have mentioned kay AUDI ARAMA
before, by the time these a
humans left Africa, they ‘ YEMEN
Bowe
had a fully developed
language, they engaged
in symbolic art, and they
were capable of long-term
aeorsanene
planning.
ETHIOPIA
As the various groups
of human beings thrived
and went their separate
ways, these — different
groups developed their
own cultures, languages
and world views. These
cultures, languages and
world views were passed
on down the years, from TANZANIA
~__pevowa|
parents to children, and
were thus preserved. These
cultures and world views
(which, over time, became
the world's religions) were The Horn of Africa
highly successful systems
that enabled the different
groups of human beings who practised them to survive and to create meaning.
A case in point — to take but one example ~ is the world’s most ancient religion:
the religion of India known, in English, as Hinduism. Hinduism has survived for
over 6 000 years and is an extremely complex religion. It owes its survival to
 many things, including its vibrancy, its highly participatory religious rituals and

Z Meg oy UoR2Npony
teachings,
its moral code and its essential peacefulness, One of the most revered
figures of contemporary times, Ghandi, was a practising Hindu.
Onc of the reasons for the success of Hinduism is that, like all religions, itis highly
ic. Indeed, Hinduism teaches that the existing social order is a reflection
of the will of Brahman — in essence (and this is a great oversimplification), the
individual soul is reincarnated in various forms until it is purified and can return
to Brahman. The person born into poverty reflects this process of purification,
as does the person born into wealth, The person who is born into wealth has a
moral and religious duty to practise devotion to the gods and charity to the less
fortunate: if he or she fails to do this, his or her soul will suffer a lower rebirth.
Given this teaching, Hinduism has enabled the peoples of India to prosper and
survive, peaceably, for many thousands of years. India knows of no revolutions
or civil wars and the country was able to throw off British rule, in the 1950s,
without resorting to violence. This is a good example, we believe, of a ‘happy
ending’ of the human story.
But, of course, social stratification and the success that accompanies it come at a
heavy price. Over the millennia, many human societies became locations of cruelty,
slavery, militarism and grotesque social injustice. Indeed, these themes became
incorporated into certain of humankind’s sacred scriptures, for example the Bible.
The religion of India itself, for instance, became subject to radical scrutiny and the
rejection of its social caste system in the life and teaching of the Buddha.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
In the paragraphs above, we have made a number of comments about the role
of religionin society.
1. Write down a brief description of your own religious beliefs. In what way do
you think your religious beliefs influence your teaching?
2. If you do not have any religious beliefs, explain how your lack of belief
influencesyour teaching.

What about philosophy? The response to this question is that it is only in very
recent human history that philosophies have arisen that have specifically been
reactions to the injustices of human social systems. These philosophies are:
¢ Systems Theory;
* Critical Theory;
¢ Feminism;
* Postmodernism; and
* Critical Realism.

Like the other philosophies we have discussed so far, Systems Theory, Critical
Theory, Feminism, Postmodernism
and Critical Realism all have something
to say
about education, specifically education as it is practised in modern schooling systems.
It is to these philosophies we shall now tum, in the second part of this book.
In this chapter, the first chapter of Part 2 of this book, we shall be discussing the
impact of the philosophy of Systems Theory on education. The philosophy of
Systems Theory encourages a logical and, as its name suggests, systematic approach
to education. Indeed, its emphasis on logic makes it similar to Empiricism.
However, as is so often the case, when a certain philosophy is applied to
education, the result is simply an ideology. In the case of Systems Theory,
‘education’ becomes equated with the various education systems that
predominate in formal schooling institutions, where it is taken for granted that
to be schooled is to be educated. This, as we shall see, is a dangerous half-truth.

Structure of the chapter

We shall start by telling you what the philosophy of Systems Theory is, and
.

what this philosophy focuses on.

Briefly, this philosophy focuses on:
.

— the need to analyse logically how a system works; and

- the need to carefully formulate the goals of a system.
Note the importance of goals. The goals of the modern education system
are the ability to pass examinations and achieve good grades. These goals
may or may not be compatible with true education.
We shall then go on to look at how Systems Theory has influenced education
.

by discussing the work of three educators, namely:

- John Dewey (an American philosopher who lived from 1859 to 1952);
- Norbert Weiner (an American mathematician and philosopher who lived
from 1894 to 1964); and
— Peter Senge (a modern American educator who, when this book was published,
worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
We shall then briefly discuss some of the educational problems encountered
when using Systems Theory as a philosophy of education.
We shall then use a series of FAQs to examine how Systems Theory has
influenced education.
Finally, we shall end the chapter by discussing the philosophy of Complexity
Theory, which is closely linked to Systems Theory, and we shall briefly look at
the ways in which Complexity Theory influences education.
 A global system

uoneonpa pue Aroary sutayshg 19 saideys

Before we start discussing what we mean by Systems Theory, and looking at its
impact on education, we need to ask: Is there a single overall system that defines
our lives and how we live them? We suggest that there might be, and that, in
South Africa, this single overall system is the global capitalist system. Capitalism
is the economic system in which goods are produced, distributed and traded at
a profit and in which,
in the process, capital
is accumulated and invested. Today,
with the demise of Marxism in both China and Russia, capitalism is practised —
with greater or lesser degrees of government constraint
— by all countries of the
world.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
In your portfolio exercise book, write your response to the following questions:
1. To what extent is any form of education simply designed to turn out young
people who will be more or less equipped to take their place in the global
economic system?
2. Does your school emphasise the importance of school-leavers being able to
find work?

These are disquieting questions and some would say that these are the
educational issues of our time, no matter where we live in the world.

What is Systems Theory?

The method of enquiry in philosophy that is concerned with the nature of
systems and their effects is referred to as Systems Theory.
The philosophy of Systems Theory is one of the ‘young’ philosophies covered
in this book. Unlike, say, Empiricism (which can be traced back to the time of
Aristotle), Systems Theory originated in our own time, in the 20th century. The
philosophy of Systems Theory focuses on the following questions:
* What is the system’s environment or context?
* How do the different parts of the system fit together?
* How does the system work?
* What is the goal of the system?

The object of the study of Systems Theory is any complex phenomenon. Systems
Theory insists that we can best understand a complex entity (such
as global
capitalism) by examining how it is organised and what its goals are.
Systems Theory works as follows:
* It focuses on the principles on which all complex entities are based.
* It uses mathematical models to analyse and describe how these principles
interact to drive these complex phenomena.
 It is important to note that Systems Theory is holistic. It seeks to understand
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

a complex entity in its entirety, not in its separate parts (however thoroughly
analysed these parts are). This is why Systems Theory is particularly concerned
with organisational principles.
Systems Theory started with the work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-
1972), who was a biologist. In education, the fact that Systems Theory was
invented by a man who studied living things is significant, and distinguishes
Systems Theory from the abstraction of the philosophies we have examined
so far. Bertalanffy believed that 19th- and 20th-century science had made the
mistake of studying organisms by breaking them down into their separate parts
in order to understand how those parts worked. This was futile, as parts of a
system do not work in isolation; they work as systems within environments
(which are themselves systems). In his work, Bertalanffy attempted to develop
a new approach to understanding, by looking at everything as a system. In 1968,
Bertalanffy's work General Systems Theory was published.
Systems Theory has since moved on from the work of Bertalanffy and, today, is
a philosophy that attempts to cope with the complexity of modern life. According
to modern Systems Theory, all systems have certain aspects in common, and are
governed by the same basic law of input and output.

Systems Theory and education

Systems Theory regards education as a complex system that consists of a number
of related functions. Furthermore, certain functions within education are
themselves mini-systems. Teaching learners a specific subject (eg Life Sciences)
can be regardedas a mini-system in itself—
the teacher gives the learners input and
the learners are expected, in assignments and examinations, to provide output.
Note that this output will also include, on the part of the learners, increased
awareness of the world around them, and the fact that their actions and decisions
influence their environment.
Finally, of course, the people in education can be regarded as systems in
themselves. The reasoning here is simple — a single human being is a complex
biological and psychological entity.
Systems Theory also focuses on the interplay between education and the
environment in which it operates. To make matters even more complex, Systems
Theory also emphasises the fact that education alters the learners’ environment
in that the process of education is invasive — it takes, say, a room and places
certain items in that room: books, computers, flipcharts and, of course, an adult
who has a specific function, namely teaching. Systems Theory points out that, in
education, things are done with a certain goal in mind, and this goal is to change
and improve the learner's own system.
 Educators
and Systems Theory

uoneonpa pue Aroary sutayshg 19 saideys

John Dewey (1859-1952)
Because of the complexity of his thought — and his emphasis on the need for
evolving organic wholeness between the child, the teacher, the school and society
at large — the educator John Dewey has, in recent times, been categorised as a
philosopher of education in the framework of Systems Theory (although Dewey
himself never used these terms).
Dewey lived and died during a period of enormous social change in the USA.
As a child, he lived through the crisis of the American civil war and, as an adult,
he saw the effects of increasing industrialisation on American society, a society
that, as a result of large-scale immigration, became increasingly more and more
heterogeneous. Possibly as a result of all these changes, as a philosopher, John
Dewey stressed the need for the organic unity of human beings and their social
environment.
When he turned his attention to education, he was convinced that it was
the task of the educator to encourage the child to become a person who could
and would create a community that was fully democratic (one of his most
popular works was Democracy and Education: An Introduction
to the Philosophy
of Education, which was published
in 1916).In such a community, each human
being would be valued and would fully participate to create a society that was
flexible, open and constantly evolving, and which formed a holistic unit.
In his work ‘My pedagogic creed’, Dewey wrote as follows:
In sum, I believe that the individual who is to be educated is a social individual
and that society is an organic union of individuals. If we eliminate the social
factor from the child, we are left only with an abstraction; if we eliminate the
individual from society, we are left only with an inert and lifeless mass. (Dewey,
1897: 79)
Put very simply: Dewey regarded the role of education as being the place in
which future communities were born, and that this birth was the result of a
creative dialogue between the teacher and the child. This teacher and child were
always learning and, therefore, each was becoming more complex.
Dewey had no time for the dull and dreary memorisation of ‘facts’ that
characterised 19th-century schooling. He courageously put to one side the
schooling traditions of the past and, working with feminists of the day, he initiated
a form of schooling (in the Laboratory School in Chicago) that started with
practical activities that children naturally enjoyed (such as art, cooking, sculpting
and simple weaving) and which introduced the more abstract skills of reading,
mathematics and science into a curriculum that was designed to encourage the
child and young person to think critically, create, imagine and reconstruct a
practical, just and therefore workable social reality.
Furthermore, Dewey was a philosopher of education who equated education
with philosophy — according to Dewey, to become educated was to become a
 philosopher, because philosophy, of all the traditional disciplines, accurately
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

records humankind’s past in order to examine our values and our mistakes, with
a view to recreating both,

Norbert Weiner (1894-1964)

Another educator associated with the philosophy of Systems Theory was Norbert
Weiner. Weiner spent most of his academic life teaching mathematics and logic
at MIT.
One of the things that concerned him most was the growing specialisation in
education, and the fact that education in the USA encouraged this specialisation.
In other words: the mathematician had no idea what the biololgist was doing, and
the biologist had no idea what the physicist was doing. All academic disciplines
worked independently of each other. Weiner insisted that this had to change
and that education, if it was to be education, should be interdisciplinary. Weiner
was a deeply moral man, and a man who believed that academic specialisation
encouraged bigotry and narrowness of outlook.
If we accept Weiner's view, we can say that the subject of mathematics, for
example, should be in dialogue with subjects in which music is taught, and
music subjects should be in dialogue with subjects in which physics is taught. (A
musical instrument, if it is to work properly, has to obey certain physical laws.
And the person playing that instrument has to know how it works — a concern
that also relates to physics.)
Weiner's interest in Systems Theory first came about as a result of his work
on sophisticated guided missiles during World War II. To carry out its function,
a guided missile relies on accurate information (about the position of an enemy
aircraft) being fed back into its complex internal electronic system. In 1961,
Weiner published his famous work on Systems Theory, entitled Cybernetics
or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. The discipline
of cybernetics focuses on the accuracy of feedback a system obtains from its
external environment.

Peter Senge
Today, the same holistic and interdisciplinary philosophy underlies the work
of the educator Peter Senge, who, when this book was published, was a senior
lecturer at MIT. He is also the founder of the Society of Organizational Learning.
Senge believes it important that human beings (his focus is on adult learning)
be educated to work towards a common goal that is not imposed on them from
further up a rigid hierarchy. In his book The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice
of the Learning Organization (1990), Senge specifically uses the term ‘systems
thinking’ to describe the type of rationality that focuses on communitics and
organisations as a whole. Senge emphasises the need for organisations to be
flexible, adaptive and open if they are to survive and thrive (Smith, 2001). This.
adaptiveness and openness necessarily involves the ability — of organisations and
 the people who make up these organisations — to recreate themselves. Senge

uoneonpa pue Aroary sutayshg 19 saideys

regards human beings as beings of innate worth who, sadly, often find themselves
working in structures that actively discourage creativity and competence. And,
like Dewey and Weiner before him, Senge wants this to change (Smith, 2001).

All forms of Systems Theory claim that, to be a system, an entity must meet
the following criteria:
* The parts of the system all work together.
* The system operates as a whole,
* The system has a goal (normally, survival).
* The system takes input and turns it into output.
¢ The system is specialised.

Systems Theory and education: beware

The danger of Systems Theory when applied to education
is that learners
and teachers become no more than subservient parts of a greater entity: the
system of schooling. We say this because the institution is one of the most
dominant characteristics of modern life — particularly modern educational life
— and all institutions are, by their very nature, systems. They exist within larger
environments, they absorb feedback from those environments, they have goals,
and they all have their own inner workings.
One philosopher who was particularly concerned with institutions, what they
do and how they work, was the French philosopher Michel Foucault. Foucault
was extremely concerned by the power of institutions. Foucault claimed that,
by insisting that people follow rules and regulations, institutions force people
into being artificial. But that is only the beginning of it, according to Foucault,
because all organisations and institutions do not stop at this. They invade our
very selves. How? By forcing us to see life, and to live life, in a certain way, and
nowhere is this truer than in the school, the institution where education occurs
in contemporary society.
By the word ‘forcing’, we do not mean that institutions use some form of
physical force (indeed, modern schools pride themselves on the fact that they
no longer use corporal punishment). Instead, what institutions do — and they
do this all the time — is to set up a complex and highly effective spy network.
All institutions spy on, and write reports about, the people who are in them.
This starts at school, and this is not an unimportant point. In South Africa
today, parents are legally obliged to send their children to school from the
age of about 5 onwards. In fact, many children now start school even earlier
— at kindergarten. From the time the child is extremely young, he or she is
constantly monitored by teachers and professional child-minders, and not just
 in terms of his or her academic achievements, In ‘good schools’, comments on
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

the child such as the following are regarded as perfectly acceptable and, in fact,
desirable:
¢ ‘Ntandi is a quict, hard-working child who achicves good grades. She is
becoming better at certain sports, but she still needs to participate more in
group activities. She is still too withdrawn."
* ‘Karl needs to calm down and work more consistently. He is a bright boy, but
apt to jump from one thing to another. He does well in Art, but his Maths is
poor. He needs to work on this.’
¢ Janct is a popular, clever student who seems to get on well with everyone.
She is likely to be voted head student next year. She seems to have overcome
her problem with exam nerves — the school therapist's intervention probably
helped, but Janet must take credit too.”

This sort of report writing is a classic example of the way in which the system of
the school coerces children into fitting in, and it was this sort of moulding and
coercion that particularly concerned Foucault. In its reporting, it seems as though
the school has an ideal ‘model’ child in mind.
This model child is clever, is cooperative, is a good ‘team player’, does his or
her homework, helps others, and generally supports the school's goals.
In other words, the ideal child or student is the one who fits in nicely with
the school’s system. The opposite of this is the ‘weirdo’ or ‘misfit’, These are
the children who are constantly told that they need to change their attitude.
In fact, however, these children are often learners with real abilities, and it is
worth remembering that, to date, no significant scientific discovery or artistic
achievement has been the result of team work or popularity.
Indeed, Foucault himself was a loner and a ‘misfit’ who did not fit into the
system, and yet Foucault's works are probably the most significant philosophical
works of the 20th century. His most popular work is Discipline and Punish: The
Birth of the Prison, published in 1975.

* Has Systems Theory influenced education? Yes, although not to the same
extent as Empiricism. Systems Theory tends to emphasise the scientific
disciplines, such as engineering, chemistry, maths and computer science.
Certain values in Systems Theory, such as efficiency and the need for
input and output, have also influenced the practice of modern education.
Put another way: like a complex machine (such as a computer or a
modern aircraft), education is expected to ‘work’ and not ‘fail’. Schools
and universities are expected to turn out people who can do certain
things.
 Sadly, an important aspect of Systems Theory that has been largely

1g saydeys
overlooked in modern education is that of holism — the need for the various
disciplines (science, the social sciences and the arts) to act together. As we
saw earlier in this chapter, Norbert Weiner criticised the fact that experts
in one discipline knew nothing about the work of their colleagues in other

uojeonpa pue Aroayy suaskg

disciplines. In modern education systems, this continues to be the case,
particularly owing to its emphasis on specialisation.
* Has Systems Theory influenced teaching? Yes. Teachers are expected to give
learners input (in the form of expert knowledge) specifically so that their
learners can produce output (in the form of exams passed and knowledge
mastered), Furthermore, teachers are expected to work efficiently within
the systems of the school and the curriculum.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 2
The following
is an example of a timetable
based on Systems Theory:

| Formal Logic Literature and Physics and

Context Applied Maths

Engineering:
Maths and
Calculus
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Computer Symbolism: Art and Poetry

Networks, Music and
Maths
LUNCH LUNCH LUNCH LUNCH LUNCH
Team sports Gym School Group ballet/
orchestra dancing
As you can see, we have left gaps in this timetable. In these gaps, put in what
you feel are the missing subjects from the first philosophy we discussed in this
book: African Philosophy. If you remember, African Philosophy promotes, for
example, ethics, religion and community values.

8 System Theory’s ‘little brother’: Complexity Theory

According to Complexity Theory, all systems become increasingly complex until
they reach the point at which they evolve into another system. In the process,
these evolving or emerging systems come to possess new characterisitics
and have
new functions. (A concrete example of this is the simple computer programs
of, say, the 1950s, compared with the complexity of the modern internet. The
internet is no longer about mathematical programs, but about huge numbers
of human beings communicating with each other, irrespective of geographical
location or time.) Complexity Theory is critical of the belief that a system is
harmonious. Complexity Theory focuses on change rather than stability.
The primary implication of Complexity Theory for education is that problems
in education arise when people attempt to simplify education (eg assume that
all learners can be taught to do certain things), and when people assert that, as a
harmonious system, education has a set of definable goals and outputs. Whereas
a systems theorist seeks to control, a complexity theorist takes a hands-off
approach, and suggests that education is, in some sense, mysterious, and that the
people involved in education should be allowed to speak for themselves and set
their own goals.

Concluding remarks
According to systems theorists, Systems Theory can help all of us to understand
things we encounter better, including education.
The first thing to note is that Systems Theory sees any particular thing as a
whole, rather than splitting it into parts. This approachalso encourages us to
keep the objective of a system in mind.
 In fact, according to the Systems Theory approach we should approach any

uoneonpa pure Aroayy suiaysdg :g saadeys

robin be tine coe the following questions:
© Wiese does ie reat) Ec lete ie tats) eatery
* How do the components of the system work together?
© What helps this system to work and: what prevents it front Working more
efficiently?
* What is the goal of the system?

Systems Theory studies the essentials of systems — that is, those things
that
make a system a system. Modern Systems Theory is based on the idea that all
systems have certain basic concepts in common. It also claims that all systems
are governed by the same basic laws of logic. In other words, modern Systems
Theory tries to understand the basic fundamental principles and operating logic
ofall systems everywhere. Systems Theory can be applied to anything, including
As we said in the section Introduction to Part 2, human societies, over the
millennia, have been characterised by various forms of serious social injustice.
As a result of these various forms of social injustice, philosophy has formulated
certain views. In this chapter, we shall be discussing the philosophy known, in
full, as the ‘Critical Theory of Society’. Not surprisingly, given the fact that formal
education is derived from government, this philosophy has had little impact on
educational institutions and practices.
The philosophy of Critical Theory encourages a radical approach to the way in
which social structures influence our very thought processes and actions. Indeed,
according to Critical Theory, schools themselves are simply places in which
teachers compel children to reproduce existing — and oppressive
— social structures.

Structure of the chapter

We shall start by telling you what the philosophy of Critical Theory is. We will
.

discuss what it focuses on, namely:

- a rejection of any form of knowledge that claims to be objective and
scientific; and
— an unmasking of the falsity and secrecy that pervades all societies, including
democratic societies.
We shall then go on to compare Critical Theory with the philosophies we have
.

discussed so far.
We then discuss the fact that Critical Theory has influenced certain educational
projects by examining the work of three educators, namely:
- Theodor Adorno (a German philosopher and thinker who lived from 1903
to 1969);
- Paulo Freire (a Brazilian philosopher who lived from 1921 to 1997); and
- Peter McLaren (a modern American philosopher and educator who, when
this book was published, worked at Chapman University in California).
Note that, in our own day, both the late Paulo Freire and Peter McLaren
are two philosophers who have written highly influential books specifically
on education, and what actually happens in schools. For details of these
books, see later on in the chapter.
 * We shall then briefly discuss some of the educational problems encountered

uonesnpea pue {roay_y jeonuD ty JaadeyD

when Critical Theory is used as a philosophy of education.
* We then use a series of FAQs to examine how Critical Theory can influence
education,

What is Critical Theory?

The full name of this philosophy is ‘Critical Theory of Society’. Critical Theory
claims that human societies are essentially pathological, and its adherents claim
that, to understand this pathology, we need to understand its causes fully. These
causes are to be found in a society's ideology, religion, economics, culture and
language (eg in its language of instruction, command and morality). According
to Critical Theory, the fact remains that all of us, no matter what society we
live in, are pawns in a game of chess, with rules that are skewed in favour of
an elite group. This theory claims that power structures do not just drive our
economic and social life; they actually influence the way we think. The emphasis,
in Critical Theory, is on false beliefs that serve the interests of elite groups. All
of us are fooled into believing certain things that make us accept our lot in life
passively. Given this, Critical Theory is essentially a philosophy of cynicism and
disillusionment. It secks to make people conscious of what is being done to them
by socicty. Once they are made conscious of this, pcople will work to emancipate
themselves and others.
Critical Theory started in Germany in the 1930s, as the Nazis were gaining
influence in society. The philosophers who created Critical Theory worked as
a group that became known as the Frankfurt School, led by a man called Max
Horkheimer (1895-1973).
Horkheimer set out to develop a philosophy which would do nothing less than
fully explain how society worked, and what and who constituted society. As far as
education is concerned, it is significant to note that Horkheimer wanted to break
down the barriers between the academic disciplines, partly because Horkheimer
believed that academics needed to work together to develop a comprehensive
theory of social reality. The Frankfurt School therefore included people from
psychology, literature, philosophy, etc.
Horkheimer’s work has been carried on, today, by another German philosopher:
Jurgen Habermas. Habermas focuses on the various crises facing so-called Western
democracies, and makes the point that the greatest of these crises is credibility.
One of the reasons why modern democracies are failing is the complexity of late
capitalism, which means that finance is now no to an elite group of experts— in
other words, economics is now non-participa
Habermas claims— and this is a great Seockicalion of his thought— that any
form of inquiry is driven by three concerns: the need to control, the need to
understand and the need to create alternative freedoms. This view of inquiry
obviously has implications for education.
 Critical theorists ask: ‘How do I know if something is true?’ Their answer is:
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

‘There is no such thing as truth, Truth has always been constructed

by those who
seck control of society. We must resist all truth claims as oppressive.’
The simplest way to describe the philosophy of Critical Theory is to contrast
it with the philosophies discussed in the first part of this book. As you will sce,
Critical Theory rejects these philosophies, and the basis of this rejection is that
Critical Theory claims that all these philosophies are constructed by human
beings working in oppressive societies.

Critical Theory and Empiricism

If you remember, Empiricism claims that the only real truth is truth that can be
tested by experience ~ preferably by measurable, scientific experience (what can
be seen and measured in a laboratory).
Critical Theory rejects any claim to objective, scientific truth. This is because
Critical Theory points out that all scientific knowledge is constructed by human
beings in society. While this may seem strange, a case in point is medical truth. The
fact remains that, today, modern laboratories are all owned by giant corporations
who are primarily concerned with maximising their profits. The scientists who
work in these laboratories are all paid employees. The medical profession depends
on these corporations for all the drugs it prescribes, drugs that are expensive and
only available to those who can afford them. Furthermore, some of these drugs
are controversial (eg the long-term effects of antibiotics and anti-depressants are
simply not known).

Critical Theory and Scientific Rationalism

Scientific Rationalism encourages us to question what we are told. In this respect,
it is similar to Critical Theory. For example, Critical Theory and Scientific
Rationalism would both welcome the paedophilia exposé of the Roman Catholic
Church. And both Critical Theory and Scientific Rationalism are sceptical in
their methods of enquiry.
However, Critical Theory claims that democracy is an illusion. Again, this may
seem strange. Nonetheless, the disquieting fact is that, when it comes to the real
decisions that propel society, these decisions are made by select groups of people
who work in secret. In modern society, we can quote the example of finance.
Significant financial decisions are made by certain companies’ boards of directors,
and these directors are answerable only to shareholders. The financial crisis of
2008 was caused by the fact that these directors became increasingly autocratic
and independent of their shareholders. Indeed, Critical Theory would claim that
Western-style democracy is supported by financiers because it provides them
with the social mask they need to operate in secret.
 Critical Theory and Hermeneutics

uoneanpe pue Ssoayy feonus ty sardey

Critical Theory rejects Hermeneutics. The reason for this rejection can be found
in the comments we made in the chapter on Hermeneutics, where we discussed
apartheid schooling. We explained that one of the weaknesses of Hermencutics is
that an oppressive community structure will encourage us to find this oppressive
structure meaningful. As an example of this in South Africa, we discussed the
success of the Dutch Reformed Church under apartheid and we pointed out that
this religious hermeneutics was introduced to members of Afrikaner society in
schools, The teachers in these apartheid schools, themselves a product of that same
hermencutics, handed out Bibles, religious literature and hymn books to the learners.
As far as Critical Theory is concerned, all community structures are oppres-
sive. Young Afrikaners were given religious literature and equally, today, young
Americans (and young Chinese children) are given technical and mathematical
literature in schools in order to set them up for their adult life as computer scientists
(because those in charge have interpreted society in terms of technology).

Critical Theory and Phenomenology

Critical Theory’s relationship with Phenomenology is complex. It endorses
Phenomenology in that both philosophies are concerned with freedom and
attempts to cast off the bogus claims of society. However, Critical Theory rejects
Phenomenology’s claims that human beings have real, essential selves and that
there is a real truth behind all masks and masquerades. Instead, Critical Theory
insists that all ‘truth’ is constructed.

Critical Theory and African Philosophy

Critical Theory accepts those areas of African Philosophy that are prepared
to criticise African social traditions and the authority of the community. If
you remember our discussion in Chapter 1, Africa's cthnic, sage and political
philosophies ail contain clements of reflection and self-criticism (‘sclf’ here
meaning the African community and the African self). Significantly, one of the
most influential African philosophers — the late Frantz. Fanon — is an important
figure in the philosophy of Critical Theory. Fanon’s most well-known work is
The Wretched of the Earth, published in 1961, Fanon concentrated on the damage
done to the human psyche by oppressive social structures, specifically the damage
done to the Negro human psyche by colonialism.
In the last part of the 20th century, the influence of Critical Theory working
from within the broader philosophy of African Philosophy was so significant
that it is not an exaggeration to say that Africa’s emancipation from colonial rule
owes much to the thought of philosophers such as Fanon. South Africa's final
 emancipation came in 1994, with the overthrow of apartheid in South Africa
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

and the country’s first elections open to all races, culminating in victory for the
ANC,

Critical Theory and education

The philosophy of Critical Theory has the potential to change the way we think
about, and practise, education. To begin with, Critical Theory is appalled by the
way in which modern schooling systems are simply the means by which dominant
ideologies are passed on to the very young and impressionable. Indeed, as far as
educators working with Critical Theory are concerned, modern schooling simply
teaches people to be passive consumers and technocrats — indeed, its main aim,
so they argue, is to disempower people from being able to reflect critically on the
society in which they live.
Given this, and given the fact that, according to Critical Theory, knowledge
is part of society just like everything else, the emphasis in any philosophy of
education based on Critical Theory is on the need for emancipation and the need
to change the way in which we regard ‘knowledge’.
As far as technology in the classroom is concerned, Critical Theory is very
sceptical about the benefits of this, Critical educationalists point to the complex
electronic network that now forms the basis of modern society. This network,
they claim, has enslaved us all by its penctration into daily life; also, this network
has made us all lonely and has alienated
us. Many of us now depend
on machines
(computers) to communicate with others.

Educators and Critical Theory

Education is a particular focus of Critical Theory and, today, a number of
critical theorists have written, and are writing, on education. These include Peter
McLaren, Michael Apple and Thomas Popekewitz. Historically, the topic of
education was first examined by the German critical theorist Theodor Adorno.

Theodor Adorno (1903-1969)

Adorno wrote several texts that focused specifically on education, namely
The Authoritarian Personality (1950), ‘Theory of Half Education’ (1959) and
‘Education after Auschwitz’ (1971).
The simplest summary of Adorno’s thought is to be found in his article
‘Education after Auschwitz’. Adorno opens this article with the following
remark: ‘The premier demand upon all education is that Auschwitz not
happen again’ (Adorno, 1971: 1). Auschwitz happened, said Adorno, because
European and German education systems taught young children to revere
authoritarianism and to treat people — including themselves — as simply cogs in
 a machine that was of far more importance than any human being. In mid-20th-

ty JaadeyD
century Germany, that machine was Nazism, and anybody who was perceived
as not furthering the demands of this machine was only worthy of destruction
— hence Auschwitz.
Adorno firmly believed that, in any form of education, there is an inherent

uonesnpea pue {roay_y jeonuD

tension between individual autonomy and the demands placed on the individual.

Paulo Freire (1921-1997)

Freire was a Brazilian, and his major work is Pedagogy of the Oppressed, first
published in 1968. Throughout his life, Freire was particularly concerned
by two
things: the fact that the poorest of people were excluded from society because
they were illiterate, and the fact that contemporary education systems were
simply tools in the hands of capitalism and succeeded in perpetuating social
inequalities.
Freire’s work on education was to have a global influence, largely because
Freire influenced American thinkers. In 1976, two Americans, Bowlesand Gintis,
published a book that was regarded as radical in the USA: Schooling in Capitalist
America.

Peter McLaren
Today, the tradition of Critical Theory in education in the USA lives on in the
work of Peter McLaren, who has worked with the Shack Dwellers Movement
in South Africa. As a young teacher, McLaren taught in schools (in Canada) that
were characterised by poverty, gang violence, crime and drugs.
Peter McLaren’s work includes Capitalists and Conquerors:A Critical Pedagogy
against Empire (2003), Critical Theory and Education Research (1995), Ethnic
Identity
and Power: Cultural Contexts of Political Action in School and Society
(1998) andLife inin SaSchools (2003).
McLaren describes himself as a humanist and a Marxist, which supports the
view that the philosophies of Phenomenology (which is deeply humanistic) and
Critical Theory (which is the basis of Marxism) share certain features.

* Critical Theory claims that all human societies, particularly large and
complex ones, are corrupted and distorted by deep-seated power structures.
These power structures influence the way we live, the way we think and,
indeed,
the way we are.
* Critical Theory claims that our first task is to understand thoroughly what
these power structures are and how they operate — we should then work to
dismantle these structures.
If we ignore Critical Theory, we are likely to live our lives according
to the
whims and manipulations of these powerful structures.
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Critical Theory and education: beware

One of the problems of Critical Theory is that it is essentially cynical and yet
ideological. This means that it can be used by political ideologists to ensure that
education carries out a largely destructive agenda. Some would argue that this
is how Critical Theory was used in education during the regimes of Communist
Russia and Maoist China.
Even more problematic for education is Critical Theory’s insistence that there
is no such thing as knowledge. While it is true that all human beings come to have
knowledge of things in socicty, and society can indced distort our view of things, it
is fair
to say, we think, that a learner being taught, say, biology, is being empowered
in a way that a learner being taught the tenets of, say, Marxism or Islam is not.
Also, it is dificult to see how Critical Theory can be used in the education of
very young children, except to indoctrinate them into various forms of Marxist
ideology. We say this because education of the very young must necessarily
include handing on the traditions and understandings of adults.

¢ Has Critical Theory influenced education? By its very nature, Critical Theory
has never formed the basis of any systematic education system. In fact,
this is where Critical Theory echoes some of the concerns of existentialist
Phenomenology: all education systems are manipulative and instrumental.
However, Critical Theory has succeeded in working ‘behind the scenes’ to
effect, at least in some places, a less instrumental view of education.
* Has Critical Theory influenced teaching? No, although individual teachers

uoneanpe pue Ssoayy feonus ty sardey

(such as McLaren) have been activists.
* What about moral teaching? Unlike some forms of Empiricism and Scientific
Rationalism, Critical Theory is a deeply moral philosophy. It encourages
people to pursue ideals (rather than moncy) and it holds a compassionate
attitude towards those who ‘fail’.
* What about exams? Critical Theory rejectsthe notion of success and failure
that is at the basis of modern examination systems. A teacher who is a
critical theorist would encourage learning for its own sake, and for the sake
of creating a better socicty.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
The following is a quotation from Theodor Adorno’s article ‘Education after
Auschwitz’:
When | speak of education after Auschwitz, then, | mean two areas:
first children’s education, especially in early childhood; then general
enlightenment that provides an intellectual, cultural,
and social climate
in which a recurrence would no longer be possible, a climate, therefore,
in which the motives that led to the horror would become relatively
conscious. Naturally, | cannot presume to sketch out the plan of such an
education even in rough outline. (1971: 3)

The following paragraph was written by an American cultural critical theorist,

Scott Savage, in 1998:
Children must be controlled and trained and disciplined, that’s for sure.
They are not little angels. But ... Evil, in my view, comes from an excessive
desire to control other people ... Unfortunately, excessive domination
is exercised in ... schools. If we really love our children, we must be
aware of the inclination for control in all of us, and humbly remember
that none of us knows the whole truth. | am afraid that many modern
Parents are regimenting little children too much for the convenience of
adults and out of ambition ... | fear this regimentation mostly because it
kills creativity — thinking for oneself - which in turn kills true leadership in
a democracy and encourages sheeplike docility to totalitarian authority.
(1998: 204)

1. What is your response to these paragraphs?

2. Try to do what Adorno tells us he could not presume to do: sketch out, in the
form of a rough outline, a liberating and humane timetable for the learners in
your school.
 Concluding remarks
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Critical Theory is a very radical philosophy. It says that we can’t treat knowledge
as something different from daily life. Critical theorists say there’s no such thing
as pure, neutral, abstract knowledge. All the knowledge we have was produced
by human beings — this means we should be extra careful about accepting what
people tell us.
Critical theorists look for the day when all human beings are really free to
discover their own talents and abilities. ‘Free’ here doesn't just mean free to vote
— it means a great deal more. Critical Theory says that all forms of domination
restricts our freedom. Onc of the ways it does this is by altering the way we relate
to cach other and the way we communicate with cach other.
Critical Theory is particularly scornful of the philosophy of Scientific
Rationalism, and it has a very different view of the future and the human
condition. Scientific rationalists believe that, provided we can have open debate
and questioning, society will improve. Critical theorists say that ‘open debate’
doesn’t
exist if people aren't completely equal.
In fact, critical theorists say more
pea ee top ol Boyer rele natch pi oy mai
is actually seriously impaired by domination and ‘power gam
According to critical theorists, see heel Wo aecsanin: an ME KANSAS
including scientific knowledge, is part of human existence and that our need to
know is a human need. There isn’t a separate place, away from human activity,
called ‘real knowledge’. All our knowledge is just that — our knowledge. It is
people who want to find out things, which means that education
is very much a
human activity, carried out by human beings. And all human beings are guided
by wants, desires, emotions and personal convictions.
One of the most pervasive forms of social injustice, and one that has been ~ and is
~ practised by all human societies, is the injustice of patriarchy: the rule of women
by men. Feminism is a recent philosophy, and one that only really came to the
forefront in the late 18th century, in Britain, as a result of the decline of religion
and the growing movement towards democracy and political enlightenment.
The philosophy of Feminism encourages a radical approach to the way in
which women's subordination, over the centuries, has come to have a huge
and, until recently, largely unexamined influence on human society. According
to certain versions of Feminism, schools themselves are simply places in which
teachers (and, tragically, these teachers are often women) encourage boys and
girls to reproduce patriarchy. That said, feminist philosophers are adamant that
educational opportunities should not be closed to girls, and that girls, like boys,
should be encouraged to learn.

Structure of the chapter

* We shall start by telling you what the philosophy of Feminism is. We will
discuss what this philosophy focuses on, namely:
— the need to give women greater power in society; and
- a rejection of the notion that women are somehow inferior to men.
We shall discuss various different forms of Feminism, namely liberal feminism,
.

phenomenological feminism, radical feminism and African feminism.

We shall then go on to look at how the various versions of Feminism are linked
to philosophies we have discussed already.
We shall then look at the ways in which Feminism responds to formal, male-
designed educational institutions.
We shall then discuss the work of five feminist educators, namely:
~ Charlotte Perkins Gilman (an American feminist who lived from 1860 to
1935);
- Nel Noddings (a retired American educator who has held the post of
President of the North American Philosophy of Education Society);
- Jane Rowland Martin (an American feminist and educator who, when this
book was published, worked at the University of Massachusetts);
 — Maxine Greene, who died at the time of writing (an American philosopher
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

and educator who lived from 1917 to 2014); and

~ Ileana Jiménez (a modern Brazilian educator who, when this book was
published, taught in New York City).
* We then use a series of FAQs to examine how Feminism has influenced
education.
¢ Finally, we shall end the chapter by discussing the philosophy of Queer Theory,
which is closely linked to radical notions of Feminism, and we shall briefly look
at the ways in which Queer Theory influences modern forms of education,
particularly electronic education.

What is Feminism?
Feminism
is a family of philosophies rather than one single philosophy. In the
2 first part of the 21st century, Feminism can be divided into various schools of

* radical feminism; and

¢ African feminism.

Before we discuss the different types of feminism, we need to define what is.
meant by ‘patriarchy’. The word ‘patriarchy’ literally means ‘the rule of the
father’. This rather cryptic comment entails that all non-fathers (including
men) are subject to the wishes of older males who have biologically fathered
children. A patriarchal society is a society whose members are ruled by fathers,
who occupy the positions of moral authority and who are the law-givers. As
such, these fathers appropriate to themselves certain essential rights: the right
to property, ownership, political and religious control and, gencrally, the right to
rule others. In such societies, young men, women and children are all regarded as
of value only in so far as they serve the interests of the patriarchy.
Also note that all forms of Feminism focus on:
* sexual stereotyping;
* creating a bigger place for women in the world; and
* rejecting the view that women are inferior to men,

Liberal feminism
This form of Feminism is probably the oldest form of Feminism, and draws
largely on the philosophies of Empiricism and Scientific Rationalism. Its main
purpose is the achievement of legal, social and economic equality between the
sexes.
In Western philosophy, this form of Feminism can be said to begin with the
publication of Mary Wollstonecraft’s text A Vindication
of the Rights of Woman,
 which was published in England
in 1792. Significantly, in this work, Wollstonecraft

2g Jaidey
argued that education should be made available to women as well as men. Her
argument was based on the notion that women, like men, are capable of rational
and logical thought and that women, like men, should be educated in order to
make a greater contribution to society. In this text, Wollstonecraft laments the

uoneronpa pue wstumuay

way in which British women of the day were confined to the home and forced to
engage solely in domestic matters.
In the USA, liberal feminism was initially expressed in the Declaration of Rights
and Sentiments of the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. Importantly, the two
women who drew up the declaration were active opponents of the institution
of slavery and one of them, Lucretia Mott, had been a teacher. Mott's interest
in Feminism was awakened when she discovered that the male teachers in her
school received a salary more then twice her salary.The Declaration of Rights and
Sentiments also protested against the fact that women at the time had no access
to higher education. The text reads:
[Man] has monopolized nearly all the profitable employments, and from those
she is permitted to follow, she receives but a scanty remuneration. He closes
against her all the avenues to wealth and distinction which he considers most
honorable to himself. As a teacher of theology, medicine, or law, she is not
known,

He has denied her the facilities for obtaining a thorough education, all colleges
being closed against her. (Lewis, 2015)
Three years later, at the Women’s Rights Convention in Ohio in 1851, the
black woman and ex-slave Sojourner Truth gave her ‘Ain't | a woman?’ speech.
Sojourner’s powerful rhetoric (which was to be reflected, years later, in the
speeches of Martin Luther King) ridiculed the notion that women were frail
weaklings who needed men’s protection.
Since the days of Lucretia Mott, Sojourner Truth and Mary Wollstonecraft, it
is fair to say that women (in the West) have succeeded in obtaining the political
and social rights that were systematically denied to their female ancestors. The
last ‘battle’ of social and political feminism was fought and won in the 1970s,
when large numbers of women started to enter well-paid employment and gain
access to senior management positions.

Phenomenological feminism
As its name suggests, this form of Feminism focuses on the sort of concerns
we encountered in the chapter on Phenomenology. This form of Feminism
insists that the human experience cannot be interpreted solely in terms of the
masculine experience. Indeed, phenomenological feminism lays the foundation
for radical feminism (see below) in that it rejects the notion that only men are
‘real’ people and that women are somehow less real and less authentic than
 men, Its classical textual expression can be found in the French author Simone
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

de Beauvior’s book The Second Sex (published in 1949). The modern novelist
Margarct Atwood (a Canadian) takes up De Beauvoir's themes in her books The
Edible Woman, The Handmaid's Tale, The Robber Bride and Cat's Eye. In Atwood's
novels, the female protagonist attempts to find meaning in a world dominated
by
patriarchal notions of marriage and family.

Radical feminism
This form of Feminism focuses on the effect of motherhood and r. ion as
the basis of women’s subordinationto men. However, it goes further than other
forms of Feminism in that it argues that women should seck complete autonomy
from men. Radical feminism can be categorised with the philosophy of Critical
Theory in that it seeks ultimate liberation from all forms of oppression, and,
indeed, radical feminism owes much to Marxist methodology. Its first text was
The Dialectic of Sex, published in the USA in 1970 and authored by Shulamith
Firestone. In this book, Firestone argues that the goal of true Feminism is to
eliminate gender differences, This form of Feminism tends to advocate celibacy,
childlessnessand lesbianism.

African feminism
In general, patriarchy is seen as being deeply embedded in the societal
structures of the African continent, a fact which contributes significantly to the
oppression of African women. Yet there have been significant advances in the
African women’s movement, despite the fact that the continued destabilisation
of the economy in Africa has marginalised women and invalidated their social
institutions.
African feminism focuses on legal and social reform, combating violence
against women, conflict resolution, economic empowerment and other issues in
Africa.As a women’s movement, African feminism can be described as a political,
pragmatic, reflexive and group-orientated form of feminism, also referred to as
‘the sisterhood of Africa’. This form of African feminism is similar to what we
have described as liberal feminism in the West. African feminism also focuses on
the struggles of African women to create a space of independence and dignity
out of a triple layer ofoppression ~ the oppressions created by colonial, Western
patriarchal and African cultures,
Furthermore, ‘Afcicant feniinism ‘riticiess Westitii and European feminists for
trying to speak for African women, thus denying them the ability to voice their
thoughts for themselves. African feminism argues that African liberation depends
on the development of an independent feminist voice that will perpetuate the
tradition of female involvement in African socictal affairs. Its emphasis on the
multi-layered nature of oppression, and the uniqueness of African women's
struggles suggest that this form of Feminism is akin to that version of radical
feminism which is based on Marxism.
 Feminism and other philosophies

2g Jaidey
Feminism has links with various methods of inquiry in philosophy that we have
already discussed, namely:
* Scientific Rationalism, because it questions accepted opinion;

uoneronpa pue wstumuay

* Critical Theory, because it challenges the status quo;
« Empiricism, because it looks, scientifically, at the actual consequences of
denying women basic social and political rights;
* Hermeneutics, because certain forms of Feminism insist that women’s
interpretation of existence is as authentic as men’s; and
* Phenomenology, because it looks at women’s actual felt experiences in the
world,

Feminism and education

Historically, in the West, liberal feminism has argued convincingly that women
should have the same educational opportunities as men. It is important to note
that, traditionally, in Western thought, logic and rationality were regarded as
male traits - women’s minds were regarded as inferior to men’s, and the female
was identified with emotion, intuition and nurturing. Given this, educating
women was seen as pointless and it was only in the 19th century,
in Britain, that
the first higher education institution was opened for women (Girton College,
Cambridge, which opened its doors in 1869). Since then, women have succeeded
in gaining access to all forms of education: medical, legal, economic and in
academia generally. Today, this form of Feminism continues to advance women's
educational rights through the work of the Feminist Majority Foundation in the
USA.
More radical forms of Feminism are now seeking to challenge and influence
formal education systems. These types of Feminism can be seen as ways of
approaching education rather than an all-encompassing theory. Like Critical
Theory, more radical forms of Feminism ask troubling questions about the nature
of power and authority (eg given that the teacher is a paid State employee, how
can he or she do anything but hand on existing social inequalitiesto learners?)
Feminist approaches to education focus on inclusion and cooperation, and are
anxious not to marginalise anybody in the classroom, the school or the college. If
such marginalisation does occur, feminist educators want to make both teachers
and learners aware that it is occurring, and get both teachers and learners to
ask why it is occurring. Again, like Critical Theory, Feminism believes that it
is the social structures that support formal education that encourage certain
people to be marginalised and ‘labelled’ in schools and colleges. And, again like
Critical Theory, Feminism respects learners and students as co-creators in the
construction of truth.
It is worth pointing out that feminist approaches to education make much of
 the fact that most teachers are women, a fact that has often — and curiously
— been
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

ignored by many male philosophers of education. Indeed, feminist philosophy of

education draws attention to the fact that pedagogy in the formal classroom is
based on mothering — not only are most teachers women, but learners are the
very young and the young. This obviously has implications for male teachers.
Finally, as far as the curriculum is concerned, Feminism focuses on those topics
that tend not to be explored in schools: the learner's feelings about his or her
body, the influence of culture on learning, social and sexual violence and trauma,
reproduction, and spirituality. In many colleges in developed countries, women's
studies is now a subject in the degree curriculum, as is feminist literary theory.

Educators and feminism

Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860-1935): a liberal feminist
Charlotte Gilman was born in Connecticut, in the USA, at a time when women
were constrained by a patriarchal society which was, nevertheless, in the process
of change. It is only recently that her contribution to educational philosophy has
been acknowledged; in her life, she was primarily known as a short story writer.
Gilman can be considered a liberal feminist in that her primary concern was that
women should enjoy social and economic equality with men. That said, she was
inspired by a utopian ideal of a democratic society and this meant that, for her
day, some of her ideas were radical.
Educationally, she was self-taught. Her story is an interesting one. Her mother
was abandoned by her husband and, as a result of the emotional and economic
turmoil this caused, Charlotte's mother encouraged her two children — Charlotte
and her brother, Thomas — to avoid male company. As a result, Charlotte, as a
child, spent her days teaching herself to read (which she could do by the time
she was five). Later, she spent time alone in various public libraries, reading
extensively,
When she was a young woman, she married and gave birth to a child. She then
suffered an intense and prolonged bout of what is now recognised as post-natal
depression. As a result of this experience, which brought her close to madness,
she physically separated herself from her husband and child and went to live
alone, a step that was both extremely courageous and virtually unheard of in the
society of her day.
In the ensuing years, she came to redefine what it meant for a society to be
truly democratic, and what this meant - or should mean — for the women in that
society, and the way in which they were educated.
Like others of her day (eg John Dewey), Gilman believed that education
was a way of advancing and improving society and all the human beings who
constituted society. Although she did not use the term, it is fair to say that Gilman
took an approach to education that was based on Scientific Rationalism (she
was influenced by Darwin and she rejected the claims of religion). Education,
 she claimed, should be about teaching people to think and understand clearly,

2g Jaidey
about teaching people to participate freely in a democratic socicty and, lastly,
about encouraging people to reject superstition and the passive acceptance of
prevailing opinion. Like Dewey, she saw cducation as a way of creating free,
rational and autonomous individuals.

uoneronpa pue wstumuay

Finally, like some modern feminist philosophers of education (eg Jane Roland
Martin), Gilman believed that education and motherhood were linked. Given
the acceptance of schools and colleges as places of achievement, it is worth
quoting Gilman's views directly here:
To feminize education would be to make it motherly. The mother does not rear
her children by a system of prizes to be longed for and pursued; nor does she
set them to compete with one another, giving to the conquering child what he
needs, and to the vanquished, blame and deprivation ... (In: De Simone, 1995).
Gilman's works on education are Concerning Children (1900), The Man-made
World (1911) and Herland (1915).

Nel Noddings: phenomenological feminism

In her early career in education, Nel Noddings qualified as a mathematics teacher
(she taught mathematics for over 15 years) and education administrator. Later,
she held the position of President of the North American Philosophy of Education
Society. At the time of publication of this book, she held, in retirement, the
position of Professor Emerita of Education at Stanford University. Her most
important work on education is Caring:A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral
Education, which was published in 1984. Since then, she has written extensively
on educational issues and moral education.
Given her emphasis on caring and on the educator's primary task to teach
the whole child, it can be said
that Professor Noddings works within the
phenomenological approach to Feminism. Professor Noddings, like most female
educators, has little time for an achievement-only approach to education —
indeed, she makes a point of distinguishing between the conscientious, virtuous
teacher who works hard to ensure that the children achieve good grades and the
teacher who truly cares for the children in his or her classroom.
Also, like the phenomenologist Van Manen, Noddings challenges the role of
the educational ‘researcher’ who analyses the classroom in terms of a number of
disconnected tests and activities conducted by teachers and children. Indeed, she
goes further than Van Manen in that she decries the way in which learners are
driven by conscientious teachers — these learners may achieve good examination
results, she says, but they have no interest in what they are being taught. Indeed,
these learners come to equate education with coercion and control and, not
surprisingly, they seck escapist forms of entertainment as soon as their studics
are finished.
Worse still, society itself can encourage a form of schooling in which both
teachers and learners are taught not to care and where they may even fail to live
 up to their ethical ideals. In this respect, therefore, Nel Noddings' approach to
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

education bears a similarity to more radical feminist approaches.

Jane Rowland Martin: radical feminism/phenomenological

feminism
When this book was published, Jane Rowland Martin was Professor of Philosophy
at the University of Massachusetts.
Her work in education picks up on the ideas first put forward by Charlotte
Perkins Gilman, namely that education and the home are linked. Indeed, as a
philosopher, Martin's first foray into education began when she examined the
way in which domesticity and intellectual achievement are presented as two
opposing possibilities for women. Like Gilman, Martin quickly came to realise
that this was an absurd juxtaposition — a great deal of teaching happens in the
home, and domesticity itself is a form of cultural and educational creation.
Jane Rowland Martin challenges the view that schooling and education are
one and the same thing — indeed, she believes that schools, far from educating
people, are often little more than examination ‘factories’, where learners are
treated as pieces of raw material to be processed by underpaid teachers for the
next ‘stage’, She is keenly aware of the problems in modern-day schools, and
claims that equating education with schooling is little more than a convenient
fiction put forward by a society that is deeply divided and at war with itself
(she is referring to the USA, although her comments can be applied to
virtually all contemporary societies). Indeed, Martin claims that we need to
rethink education, and to remember that all of us are educational agents who
should be committed to teaching our children the values of caring and social
connection,
Martin's works on education include Reclaiming a Conversation: The Ideal of
the Educated Woman (1985), The Schoolhome: Rethinking Schools for Changing
Families (1992) and Cultural Miseducation: In Search ofa Democratic Solution
(2002). Like Professor Noddings, she has also been the president of the North
American Philosophy of Education Society.

Maxine Greene: hermeneutics/phenomenological

feminism
Maxine Greene, who dicd in 2014, was another American philosopher of
education. She has focused on the need to include the arts in the curriculumas
a means of helping young children and young people create personal meaning,
express themselves and encourage the development of the imagination,
including the ability to re-imaginenew social structures and new ways of doing
education.
Maxine Greene was opposed to the view that the ‘task’ of the learner is simply
to imitate the teacher. Instead, she claimed that all human beings, including young
human beings, bring their own understandings and interpretations to the world,
and these unique understandings and interpretations should be part of any living
encounter between the teacher and the learner. Furthermore, all of us, as unique
 human beings, have a role to play in helping to create a more just and humane
society.
In her work as an educator, Greene encouraged people to speak in their own

1g J
words and images, and not in the words and images given to them by socicty.
In 2003, she established the Maxine Greene Foundation for Social Imagination,

uoneanpa pue wstunuay

the Arts, and Education. In retirement, she continued to conduct workshops
at the Lincoln Center Institute for the Arts in Education.Her major works in
education include Existential Encountersfor Teachers (1967), Teacher as Stranger
(1973) and A Teacher Talks to Teachers (1980). Maxine Greene died at the time
of writing, in May 2014.

lleana Jiménez:
radical feminism
Mleana Jiménez is a teacher, and she focuses on safety in schools for marginalised
groups of people. She came to public attention as a result of her work in this
field in Mexico City, where she worked, as a teacher and activist, towards making
Mexico's schools safe places for gay youngsters. In her lectures and work, she
also stresses the unacceptability and prevalence of sexual harassment of girls and
women in schools.
When this book was published, she was working as a teacher in New York City,

of teachers, and in promoting the professional development of teachers.

* Feminism claims that the entire experience of ‘being human’ has been
scriously damaged and distorted by the marginalisation of women.
¢ Feminism challenges the abusive power relationships that characterise human
societies — societies that have always been dominated and run by men.
¢ Feminism is based on the principle that women have innate worth,
inalienable rights and valuable ideas and talents that socicty ignores at its
peril.

¢ Has Feminism influenced education? No. Feminism,

like Critical Theory, has
failed to influence mainstream education. Until very recently, mainstream
education was entirely at the mercy of patriarchy and, in recent times, it has
been directed at turning children into technocrats.
Having said that, certain philosophies of education have been influenced by
phenomenological feminism, particularly Waldorf education and Montessori
education.
 = Waldorf schooling is based on a humanistic philosophy and claims that
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

each child, as a young human being, is of value in his or her own right.
The goal of education, according to Waldorf philosophy, is not to train
children to participate in the economy, but to enable each and every child
to reach his or her full potential.
= The Montessori philosophy of education has much in common with
Waldorf and has the merit, as far as Feminism is concerned, of being
developed by a woman (in the late 19th century). Maria Montessori put
aside bureaucratic notions of education and concentrated, instead, on what
was then the new science of psychology, particularly child psychology,
Rather than children being pawns in some educational agenda, Maria
Montessori believed that real education was based on innate, natural
human tendencies, such as the child’s need to explore, play, manipulate
and create, and engage in abstraction.
In brief: phenomenological feminism, when applied to education, takes the
child seriously.
Has Feminism influenced teaching? Yes. Radical feminism has joined hands
with Critical Theory and has worked, through teachers’ unions and other
bodies, to press for better working conditions and higher pay for teachers.
Radical feminists point to the empirical fact that the teaching profession is
dominated, numerically, by women, whose labour is exploited and who are
forced to implement male-created educational philosophies (eg Outcomes-
based Education) that have been formulated in the abstract, by men who
themselves will not stand in front of a classroom.
How can Feminism
help the teacher in the classroom?
This depends on the
type of Feminism the teacher follows.
- Liberal feminism can help teachers and educators to ensure that girls
gain access to science and maths. This is not unimportant. It can also
help education to remain — or become — more democratic. By its very
tradition of consensus, this form of Feminism encourages parent-teacher
cooperation.
- If at least some of the values of phenomenological
feminism could be
brought into active influence
in mainstream education, then both teachers
and children are likely to benefit, both emotionally and psychologically.
- Like Critical Theory, it is fair to say that radical feminism encourages
scholarship and research. Furthermore, certain forms of radical feminism
take a very different approach to the whole notion of learning as a form
of ‘mastery’. This is significant in the teaching of science which, until
now, has assumed an objective knower and a passive field of knowledge.
Radical feminism views knowledge as a form of ‘listening’ (eg to what
nature is saying to us). This can be made part of any curriculum that
claims to include the teaching of science.
 1g Jaideys
uoneanpa pure wsjuruay

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
1. What specific feminist issue interests you? (This issue can be anything -
from the history of how women got the vote in the West to Feminism in
Africa.) It is quite likely that your own life story will include a feminist issue
(eg if your mother raised her children without their father).
2. Draw up a lesson plan in which you talk about this issue to your learners. In
your lesson plan, encourage your learners to share their own thoughts about
the position and problems of women in South Africa today.

Feminism’s ‘little brother’: Queer Theory

Queer Theory is essentially analytical in its approach to what certain parts of
socicty regard as deviant sexuality. It asks us to reconsider whether our sexuality
is, in fact, a biological ‘fact of life’, and strongly suggests that the answer is ‘No’.
Queer Theory owes a certain amount to the work of the French philosopher
Michel Foucault who, in his work, looked at the ways in which society constructs
what it claims is ‘normal’ and — for want of a better word — ‘non-normal’.
What is perhaps unusual about Queer Theory is that it combines its analysis
of ‘queerness’ with humanism in that it urges us to accept all human beings as
members of the human race. In this, Queer Theory echoes the sentiments of the
ancient Roman playwright, Terence: ‘Nothing human is alien to me.”
Queer Theory also focuses on the way in which we can construct and re-
construct our identities, an issue that is becoming increasingly topical in a world
dominated by electronic methods of communication, methods that ‘mask’ the
human being behind the computer.
 As far as education is concerned, this obviously has implications for all forms
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

of e-learning
and e-teaching, It is no longer clear, in e-learning, what constitutes
the classroom (Is there one?), who is the teacher, who is the learner and, indeed,
precisely what constitutes
the subject matter.

Concluding remarks
Like African Philosophy, Feminism is an extremely complex philosophy which
should not be over-simplified. Also, like African Philosophy, the philosophy of
Feminism is a response to cruelty, domination and exploitation. We have just
said that Feminism should not be over-simplified, but if one had to summarise
Feminism neatly, it could be described as a philosophy that focuses on women
as human beings in their own right, rather than helpers of men and mothers of
children ~ the latter being the way in which men have arrogantly defined women.
It is difficult to say when and where Feminism started in the West, but the
work of Mary Wollstonecraft (A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, published in
1792) can be regarded as the beginnings of Feminism
Today, there are many forms of Feminism —fir Baers faaeen maton
on women’s social rights and aspirations, to radical and postmodern feminism
that utterly rejects any form of male-defined knowledge and understanding and
that secks to redefine the entire world of ideas, including morality, legality and,
of course, education.
 In this chapter, we shall be discussing the philosophy known as Postmodernism.
As we shall see, Postmodernism cannot be easily defined or described. In many
ways, like Phenomenology, it is a movement and response to what can broadly be
called ‘the human condition’.
The philosophy of Postmodernism has, to date, had little impact on government
education schemes, largely because, like Critical Theory, it rejects all forms of coercion
and control. Furthermore, Postmodernism repudiates the notion that there exists any
form of concrete knowledge that can be handed on to children and young people.
Indeed, Postmodernism has a horror of the regimentation imposed by the classroom.

Structure of the chapter

We shall start by telling you what the philosophy of Postmodernism is. We will
.

discuss what Postmodernism focuses on, namely:

- arejection of, and disillusionment with, Western modernism;
— arejection of all grand schemes (from Christianity to Marxism) that claim
to explain reality in all its complexity; and
- an insistence that all knowledge is temporary and passing, simply because
all knowledge is constructed by fallible human beings.
We shall discuss the work of three educators, and the extent to which these
educators can be called postmodernists. They are:
— Ludwig Wittgenstein (an Austrian philosopher and thinker who lived from
1889 to 1951);
- Jean-Frangois Lyotard (a French philosopher who lived from 1924 to
1998); and
- Nicholas Burbules (a modern American philosopher and rationalist who
takes the claims of Postmodernism seriously).
We shall then briefly discuss some of the educational advantages and
disadvantages of Postmodernism, using a series of FAQs.
We end this chapter by discussing the philosophy of Deconstruction,
which is linked to, but very different from, Postmodernism. As we shall see,
Deconstruction can certainly be used to analyse the assumptions on which
formal schooling is based radically.
 i What is Postmodernism?

i4
Postmodernism is a French philosophy. Its leading advocates are Jacques Derrida,
Gelles Deleuze, Jacques Lacan, Luce Irigaray and Julia Kristeva. The American
radical feminist philosopher Judith Butler can also be regarded as a postmodernist.
Another philosopher who is regarded as a postmodernist is Friedrich Nietzsche
(1844-1900). Indeed, Nietzsche's following words in The Gay Science are an apt
summary of the mood of postmodernism:
Philosophy of Education

I derive a melancholy happiness from living in the midst of this confusion of

streets, needs, voices: how much enjoyment, impatience, desire, how much
thirsty life and drunkenness of life comes to the light of day every moment! And
yet for all these noisy, living, life-thirsty people it will soon be so still and silent!
How behind each of them stands his shadow, his dark companion! And all and
everyone believes that what has been is nothing or little, this immediate future
is all: and thus this haste, this clamour, this self-deafening, this self-overreaching!
(2001: 278)
Before we go on to define Postmodernism, we need to give a brief account
of Modernism, since Postmodernism is, essentially, a disillusionment with
Modernism.
Modernism was the ideology that dominated Britain and Europe during
the 19th and 20th centuries. It was an ideology based on the ideals of the
Enlightenment: rationality, reason, science, freedom of thought, the rejection of
religion and a conviction that human beings could progress, both socially and
intellectually. Although it was the dominant ideology of Britain and Europe until,
approximately, the end of World War II, it was not without its critics, and it is in
these critics that the seeds of Postmodernism were sown.
Briefly, these critics were a group of people who are now termed the Romantics.
They were largely literary figures and they attempted to assert the primacy and
importance of human emotions against the claims of cold, calculating reason.
The Romantics include the novelist Charlotte Bronté, the horror writer Edgar
Allen Poe, and many poets, among them Byron, Shelley and Wordsworth.
However, even putting aside the criticisms of the Romantics, the history
of the 20th century was such that a belief in the power of reason to advance
humankind became increasingly difficult to maintain. For the 20th century was
a century of horrors, starting with the slaughter of World War I, and goingon to
Nazism, Hitler's concentration camps, Stalinism, Maoism, apartheid, Vietnam,
and the inexorable growth and spread of the industrial-military complex, which
culminated in the invasion of Iraq in 2003.
As a philosophy, Postmodernism first came to public attention with the
publication of The Postmodern Condition:A Report on Knowledge. This book was
written by a French philosopher, Jean-Francois Lyotard, in 1979.
Postmodernism claims that humankind’s attempts to use reason to capture
and formulate ‘absolute truth’ is a flawed mission that results only in the sort
of horrors we have referred to above. To begin with, postmodernists make the

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valid point that the human intellect is finite and operates in space and time. Any
truths we come to, then, will also be temporary and limited. Put another
way: the
‘truths’ of today will not be the ‘truths’ of tomorrow.
Note that this is true of moral truths also. Indeed, Postmodernism claims
that moral truths are, in some ways, the most problematic of all — our notions
of good, they say, depend entirely on our notions of evil. (To take a concrete,
everyday example: you can't have truth-tellers unless you have liars.) Trath
{including moral truth), like everything else human beings engage in, has a
history. Interestingly enough, as far as the hard sciences such as maths and
physics are concerned, it was as a result of his examination of geometry (in his
work Edmund Husserl’s Origin of Geometry: An Introduction, published in 1962)
that one postmodernist, Jacques Derrida, came to realise that there is simply
no such thing as perfect truth. He realised that even geometry, that most hard-
and-fast and logical of subjects, consists of little more than the arrangement
and rearrangement of symbols created by fallible human beings. The validity of
these symbols depends on the system of symbols within which they are used
~ outside that system, these symbols are meaningless. Furthermore, all such
systems ~ including language systems — are human-made, temporary, finite and
passing.
Postmodernism, then, rejects any suggestion of absolute truth. Many feel that,
because of this, it is a rather pointless philosophy. But, in fact, Postmodernism
contains certain concepts and ideas that many people (including educators)
have found extremely useful. In no particular order, these concepts are the
following:
¢ There is no such thing as neutrality. We all have biases and agendas when we
discuss any form of ‘truth’. (Here Postmodernism is similar to Hermeneutics.)
* There are many forms of reason, and the logical, abstract, mathematical
reasoning that dominates Western science is just one form of reason. (Radical
versions of Feminism and Queer Theory also claim that ‘reason’, as understood
in Western philosophy, is extremely limited and refers only to certain masculine
abilities — based on the wiring of the heterosexual male brain — to engage in
formal, abstract logic and mathematics.
¢ Human beings construct reality (including, note, educational reality). Human
beings decide what is and what is not the case. There are no ‘givens’. (Again,
note the similarities with Hermencutics.)
Human knowledge has a contingent history. What you and I regard as
true depends on our histories, and the histories of our communities. (Here
Postmodernism is similar to Constructionism.)
+ Knowledge is constructed and produced in societies that are ruled by social
inequalities, (See the chapter on Critical Theory.)
¢ Human beings are not ruled by reason, and nor should they seck to be ruled by
reason. Emotions, hopes and dreams are extremely important and of yalue in
any pursuit of knowledge. (Here there are similarities with Phenomenology.)
 Like Phenomenology, Postmodernism foregrounds the human condition in all its
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

complexity and, like Phenomenology, it examines areas of our humanity such as:
* our images (including our images of ourselves);
* our inner needs, hopes and dreams;
¢ the way in which we are all subject to the power of impersonal, goal-directed
institutions and systems (eg schools, colleges, government departments, large
business organisations);
* mental distress;
* our moral norms and how they are derived; and
* our capacity for both good and evil.

We said above that Postmodernism refutes the view that the only form of valid
knowledge is mathematical and scientific knowledge. In fact, one of the reasons
why Postmodernism has come to the fore since the 1990s is that science itself, in
that branch of science known as quantum physics, is ‘postmodern’ in that it has
come to realise, with Einstein, that the universe is chaotic and dynamic.
It is this chaos and dynamism that Postmodernism takes seriously, and on
which is based Postmodernism’s rejection of any unifying life theory. Such
unifying theories include philosophies such as Empiricism (truth is anything that
is verifiable and testable), Marxism (human history is to be understood as the
gradual movement towards a classless state), Capitalism (human history is to be
regarded as the overall thrust towards the creation of wealth and consumption)
and, of course, all the world’s great religions (eg Christianity, Hinduism, Islam
and Judaism). As far as Postmodernism is concerned, the point is that none of
these grand theories adequately predict the future or explain the present. This
is because all grand theories are based on a static view of reality that can be
explained and controlled, and reality is not static. Indeed, there are many realities,
and all contain a ‘joker in the pack’.

Postmodernism and education

One of the fundamental notions that Postmodernism critiques is that of the
validity of our knowledge. In other words, how do any of us know we're right
about anything? On what basis do any of us make confident assertions?
For the teacher of the very young, Postmodernism may present no real
challenges,
simply because such a teacher deals with concrete notions that do not
involve any grand schemes. Indeed, it is fair to say that Postmodernism, in a sense,
asks us all to return to the world of the very young child in that it encourages
play, emotions and ‘messing around’ as a way of exploring our humanity in a
constantly changing and evolving world.
But what about ‘advanced’ forms of education? It is here that Postmodernism
has significant implications. If there is no such thing as ‘real’ knowledge about the
‘real world’, and if all our knowledge is little more than constructions imposed
 on us by the powerful, then — at the very least — the classroom becomes a place

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in which the student, rather than the teacher, is central.
More radically, however, it is questionable whether there is really any place in
Postmodernism for the classroom (or any type of formal education) at all. Indeed,
certain postmodern feminists (eg Judith Butler) claim that schooling does little
more than impose a fabricated view of reality on learners and, in the process,
actually succeeds in alienating the learner from him- or herself and disabling the
learner's natural ability to question and explore.
Postmodernism also points to the hard fact that, for many young children and
learners, school is not something they enjoy, nor is it a place in which they can
become the people they want to be.
Given Postmodernism’s rejection of the notion of absolute truth, one can
argue that, strictly speaking, Postmodernism and education are naturally opposed
to each other. After all, if the learner can never hecome a reasoning, independent
seeker of truth, what is the point of teaching him or her anything? Is anything
that occurs in the classroom little more than an adult using his or her power to
impose a certain view of reality on young people who are not in a position to
rebel?
This is where Critical Theory and Postmodernism
become partners, and
it is this pessimistic view of the mainstream curriculum that is endorsed
by, for
example, Peter McLaren.
But that is not the end of the conversation — some educators (see below) take
the claims of Postmodernism seriously. In fact, they argue that Postmodernism
makes education more realistic in that it enables teachers to accept the
uniqueness of their learners, their own uniqueness, and the fact that differences
between communities and values (for example) can be respected and taught
rather than ignored. Yes, symbols operate in systems, but, for now, these systems
(and geometry is only one example) have something to offer humankind and it is
morally acceptable ~ indeed, desirable — that adult teachers teach young children
and learners how to use these systems.

Educators and Postmodernism

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
Ludwig Wittgenstein was born in Austria. As a young man, he went to Britain
and studied under the most well-known empirical philosopher of his day,
Bertrand Russell. Initially, Wittgenstein was thoroughly convinced by Russell's
view of truth (basically, that truth was accessible to all human beings via logic
and mathematics). Following on from Russell’s The Principles of Mathematics,
published in 1903, Wittgenstein went on to publish his major work in logical
analysis: The Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). In this, Wittgenstein spelt
out, in detail, how all truth claims can be successfully reduced to statements of
formal, mathematical logic.
However, in his midlife, Wittgenstein did something very unusual for a leading
 intellectual: he trained to become a primary school teacher. For six years, from 1921
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

to 1927, he taught mathematics in Austria's rural primary schools, Wittgenstein

is particularly interesting, because it was as a result of his experiences of teaching
children that he came to change his philosophy and move towards what, today,
would be called a more postmodernist approach to truth.
To begin with, he realised that he could only communicate with his young
pupils through language and that the language of the child is not the same as
the language of the teacher. Put simply, Wittgenstein realised that human beings,
depending on their community, their stage in life and their inner psyches, all had
different ‘little languages’ and that human life itself was nothing more than a
complex series of what he called ‘language games’.
Although as a teacher Wittgenstein is a controversial figure (like other teachersof
his day, he was perfectly prepared to administer physical punishment to children in
his classes), he was keenly aware of the distress caused to children by their attempts
to understand adult reasoning, and in his attempts to reach out to children, one
of the few publications to appear during his lifetime was his children's dictionary.

Jean-Francois Lyotard (1924-1998)

It was in a modest introduction to Michael Peters’ Education and the Postmodern
Condition (1995) that Lyotard, as a postmodernist, vividly brought to educators’
attention the plight of young children subject to modern schooling methods —
methods that are based on the conviction that all children have a duty to master
a curriculum based on the acquisition of rational knowledge. Also, and to make
matters worse (for both the child and the teacher), modernist educators then
apply the techniques of performance (exams, tests, assignments) to check on the
child and ensure that he or she is ‘progressing’.
Lyotard called the text he wrote The spaceship, and it is worth quoting directly
from this text:
Sometimes I dream that | am an astronaut. | land my spaceship on a distant
planet. When | tell the children on that planet that on earth school is compulsory
and that we have homework every evening, they split their sides laughing. And
so I decide to stay with them for a long, long time ... well anyway ... until the
summer holidays.
On the first day back at school in September David, aged seven and a half,
comes home with the following homework: he has to learn this little story by
Erhardt Dietl. In the space of one hour he can recite it in the right tone of voice
without any mistakes, He has drawn the distant planet in his exercise book and
the spaceship approaching it. The first thing that school makes him learn is the
happiness ofa world without school, with no obligations and no homework. The
world exists only on another planet. It is reached in a spaceship. It seems just as
natural as climbing on a bicycle. Years ago my sister and IT would go off with two
or three little friends, on long bicycle rides into the blue Atlantic summer, with
our parents’ blessing and our day’s supplies of food on the carriers.
 To educate is to lead out. The moderns have stressed the efforts necessary

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to lead and let oneself be led out of nature toward language. But ‘out’ is possibly
not ‘outside’. It is no doubt within, far inside. One cannot reach it by uprooting
oneself but by plunging deep within toward what is most intimate, where lies
desire. The child knows a lot more than we do about the state of dependency
not only in relation to adults, but to what he cherishes in itself, with or against
‘big people’,
well or badly.
When are we educated? When we know more or less which is the far-off
planet we desire, and when we do all that we can to set off for it. If adults are
often tough and sad, it is because they are disappointed. They do not listen well
enough to the invitation to grace which is in them. They let the spaceship rust.
Adults take their holidays on the Riviera or in Florida. They really need
them for their work exhausts them. To carry out their work, they have to give up
their desire. Yet giving it up is impossible. In each of us there is an unconquerable
resistance to the serious ‘ends’ that social life proposes, a profession, a career,
success. These ends count for nothing against a bicycle ride to another planet.
This does not mean that| am advocating spontancity as a pedagogical method
and I don't believe that children are angelic. We are indebted to them and there
is only one way to clear this debt, by assisting them to take off in their spaceship
to the planet of their dreams. (In Peters, 1995; 19-20)

Nicholas Burbules
When this book was published, Nicholas Burbules worked as Professor of
Education Policy, Organization and Leadership at the University of Illinois in the
USA. He is a theology and philosophy graduate and, since 1983, has worked in
the field of philosophy of education. He is not a postmodernist, but an example
of a rationalist who takes seriously the claims of what he calls ‘postmodern doubt’
and what this ‘doubt’ means for education.
It does not mean that we should abandon education. What Postmodernism
means, instead, is that, as educators, we need to remember that when we teach
a learner, then we are engaging with that learner, we are inviting him or her
into dialogue. If 1 am a teacher paid by the State then, yes, this dialogue is not
a dialogue of equals, perhaps, but that does not make it worthless, A respectful
exchange between the teacher and the learner in the classroom is to be valued
and is part of any educational endeavour.
Also, Nicholas Burbules makes the point that the challenging questions the
teacher asks the learner can also be asked by the teacher of him- or herself.
Professor Burbules is also aware of the validity of Postmodernism’s rejection of
‘outcomes’ in education, In fact, education tends to have a number of purposes,
and it may not be possible or realistic to expect the teacher or the learner to achieve
all of these purposes — some may have to give way to others, Today, Professor
Burbules focuses on the availability of informal educational opportunities as a
result of e-learning using inexpensive, portable devices, devices that break down
the Modernist approach to formal schooling.
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

* Postmodernism rejects the notion of absolute truth.

¢ Postmodernism can be regarded as a humanist response to a world dominated
by technology and bureaucracy.
* Postmodernism is a response to the failure of science to make human life
easier and more rewarding.
¢ Postmodernism radically challenges rigid morality, and asks us to question
notions
of ‘duty’.

* Has Postmodernism influenced education? To date, no, although it is now

taught in certain universities.
° I'm a science teacher. Can Postmodernism help me at all? In fact, yes.
Postmodernism believes that we can all take a more ‘relaxed’ view to
what we do, no matter what our profession is. A conscientious science
teacher who is worried that his or her pupils are ‘underperforming’ can
use some of the concepts of Postmodernism to engage more effectively
with learners who seem to be uninterested in science. Also, remember that
Postmodernism is not anti-science. It is only anti-Modernism, and the two
are not the same.
¢ I'm a history teacher, and I’ve heard that Postmodernism takes history
seriously. Yes, it does. Postmodernism also asks us to rethink history not as
a rather tedious list of facts, but as the story of humankind. One way of
adopting a more postmodernist approach to the teaching of history would
be to tell historical events as a story — even very young learners will relate
to this.
* I’ve read the Spaceship paragraph and, as a teacher, I think it's irresponsible.
Some people do feel that Postmodernism is not to be taken seriously and
that it encourages a foolhardy approach to life, including educational life.
However, remember that Lyotard was a French philosopher, and the French
formal academic system is extremely demanding.
Conscientious teachers who work in South Africa’s troubled education
system can, nevertheless, benefit from Postmodernism if only because it
encourages teachers to remember that there are certain differences between
adults and children. In other words, if a child ‘fails’, it may not be the
teacher's fault. Also, Postmodernism encourages all educators to re-assess
what is going on when a child ‘fails’.
 {6 Jaydey>
pue WSU Japougsog
uoReonpe
PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
In your journal, write about your own ‘spaceship’ and describe how, if at all, the
school you work in helps you follow your dreams.

Postmodernism’s ‘partner’: Deconstruction

Postmodernism is not to he confused with Deconstruction, which is a far
more specific philosophy. Deconstruction is a form of Hermeneutics in
that it examines alternative ways of interpreting a text, based, usually, on
investigating the assumptions on which a text (including a sacred text) is
based,
Having said that, Deconstruction is Postmodernism’s partner in that it helps
ist to ‘view things differently’. Jacques Derrida is generally regarded
as the first deconstructionist philosopher and, as we saw in this chapter, he is also
a postmodernist.
A deconstructionist working in education would focus on certain written
educational texts (eg government instructions, curricula, the school’s mission
statement) and would question the validity of the assumptions on which these
texts were written.

Concluding remarks
The philosophy of Postmodernism is, in effect, a rejection of Modernism. Indeed,
postmodernists have been called ‘disillusioned modernists’. Given the complexity
of some postmodern writing, it is best to keep this in mind as the essence of
Postmodernism.
 Postmodernism rejects any attempts to control the world through Western
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

modes of understanding, and it rejects any attempt to understand the world in

terms of some grand scheme (such as Christianity, Islam or Marxism). In many
ways, Postmodernism is a pessimistic philosophy in that it is sceptical about
progress(which it also sees as another bogus, grand scheme).
It is fair to say that modern Postmodernism is a philosophy that is best regarded
as a philosophy that concentrates on the emotive and the visual rather than the
rational. This remark is in keeping with our earlier comments in this chapter on
Postmodernism, namely that it repudiates the notion of truth, and that
it views
all human endeavour as just that: human and not absolute.
But, for all that, Postmodernism should not be regarded as a pointless
philosophy. It can be a deeply compassionate philosophy in that it is horrified by
any process by which people are persuaded, or forced, to adopt certain norms.
A norm is an accepted form of behaviour, dress, morality, and so on. Any norm
— including, of course, the norms imposed upon children and young people in
educational establishments — are, according to postmadernists, simply a means of
domination, social manipulation and control.
In this chapter, we shall be discussing the philosophy of Critical Realism, and
the interaction between Critical Realism and education. As you will see as you
make your way through this chapter, Critical Realism is not an easy philosophy
to understand, and this chapter — our final chapter — we freely admit is more
complex than the work you have done to date.
We can start by saying that it was the failings of Empiricism and Postmodernism,
particularly in education, which led to the emergence of Critical Realism. Whereas
Empiricists focus on a way of finding truth that can be knowable, Postmodernists
claim that there is no truth. Critical Realism, however, sees truth as existing
(alethic truth), but sometimes unknowable. Knowledge, therefore, is constituted
by our best approximation of that alethic truth.
When it comes to education, it is argued that Critical Realism’s conception of
truth provides the most useful basis for democratic education in a multicultural
context such as South Africa. An example is the Philosophy for Children (P4C)
movement, which encourages children to think critically about issues from
different perspectives. This kind of activity holds implicit in it the idea that there
is truth ‘out there’, but we cannot know it and so we have to make the best
decision with what we do know (closest approximation of alethic truth).

Structure of the chapter

We shall commence our discussion on Critical Realism by asking the question,
‘What is Realism’?
Having established what Realism is all about, we will proceed to determine
what Critical Realism is concerned with and how it differs from Realism.
* Next, our attention will be directed to Roy Bhaskar; a major thinker in Critical
Realism.
* We will then consider the status of Critical Realism as a philosophy of (social)
science.
* Having considered the status of Critical Realism as a philosophy of (social)
science, we will discuss the significance of Critical Realism for education
research.
 + We shall then move on also to discuss the significance of Critical Realism for
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

education
in general.
In bringing the chapter to a close, we will provide a concise summary of the
main tenets of Critical Realism, and suggest what Critical Realism can help us
do in education, and where Critical Realism can fail in education.

What is Realism?
Realism is a reaction against the view that all human beings are locked into their
various states of mind without recourse to any idea of reality. In its truest sense,
Realism believes that there is a reality ‘out there’, and as a result, objectivity
is possible. In contemporary times, Realism started in America, in the early
20th century. These American realists, who were in a sense Empiricists, claimed
that our senses do really tell us the truth about
the external world. Like many
philosophies in their infancy, however, Realism suffered from simplicity: it was
unable to satisfactorily explain human sensory error, such as hallucinations.
Considering that hen was, at the time (early to mid-20th century) influenced
by the findings of psychology and the medicine of psychiatry (eg the work of
Freud and Adler), this simplicity was problematic, and no philosophy that failed
to take adequate account of human mental health problems was likely to survive.
The idea of Realism had to be refined to be consumable.

What is Critical Realism?

We now need to turn to the second part of this philosophy — ‘critical’. In 1920, a
small group of American realists published the book: Essays in Critical Realism:
A Cooperative Study of the Problem of Knowledge, The second part of this title tells
us what we need to know about ‘critical’, which is that human knowledge, by
its very nature, is a problem. We can be confident that we know something and
then, later on, find that our confidence has been misplaced. (If you remember,
this is the central view of the philosophy of Scientific Rationalism.)
Critical Realism is an ambitious philosophy in that it seeks to bring together
two very different strands in philosophy: objectivity (what we can confidently say
about the physical world) and subjectivity. Objectivity, in philosophy, is covered
by the philosophies of Empiricism, Scientific Rationalism and Systems Theory.
On the other hand, there is the problem of fallibility and subjectivity, and it
is this willingness to be critical, to criticise what we know, that comprises the
term ‘Critical’ in ‘Critical Realism’. Subjectivity, in philosophy, is covered by the
philosophies of Scientific Rationalism, Hermeneutics and Phenomenology.
Critical Realism seeks to harmonise and bring together all these philosophies,
while recognising the necessary divide between them. As we said earlier on, it is
not a simple philosophy; it is an ambitious philosophy.
 What we can say is that, like Phenomenology, Critical Realism encourages a

uoneanpa pue wsyeay [EORUD :O] Jeadeyo

careful approach to everything, including education.
It is important to realise that Critical Realism, by setting up a divide between
‘Realism’ and ‘Critical’, rejects the view that human understanding and reality
can be merged into one seamless, unproblematic whole which can then be
studied. This obviously has educational implications. Our studies must be serious
and yet pursued in a spirit of humility, given that we are all — teachers included
— fallible human beings. To put the matter more strongly: By setting up this
divide, Critical Realism is an anti-humanistic philosophy. It asserts that human
beings, rather than being ‘masters of the universe’ are, in fact, at the mercy of a
reality that is constantly changing and impinging on them, and of which they
understand only a part. In other words, any attempts at describing and explaining
the world are bound to be fallible and knowledge, as a result, is defined as the
closest approximation of what truly exists.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
In your view — and we know that you only have an overview of Critical Realism so
far - how does Critical Realism fit in with African Philosophy? We have provided
the table (African Philosophy and Western philosophies) from the Appendix to
help you here:

x v
v x

v ° °
v oO oO
Critical Theory y v v
Feminism x v v
Systems Theory v x v
Postmodernism v x x
Critical Realism x x v

¥ = areas of agreement X = areas of disagreement

O = areas not discussed/neutrality

Put in your own Vs, xs and Os.

Today, the philosophy of Realism can be divided into the following categories
(see Burnett, 2007; Corson, 1991; Scott, 2010):
¢ Realism, which maintains that there is an objective reality that we can know
 — this is the position that Empiricism and Positivism adopt. If you remember,
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

these philosophies claim that the only authentic knowledge is scientific

knowledge, which is derived from sensory experience and interpreted through
reason and logic.
Critical Realism, which focuses on a subjective reality, a reality that refers
to alethic truth that is frequently unknowable. In this instance, knowledge is
constituted by our best approximation of that alethic truth

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 2
1. Of the two versions of Realism we have referred to above, which one is your
personal choice? Try to say why.
2. Of these two versions, which one do you think is the most relevant to
education? Or do you think that both are relevant to education? Again, try
to say why.

Roy Bhaskar - a major thinker in Critical Realism

Critical Realism received the support it needed, outside America, in the work
of the late Roy Bhaskar (1944-2014). Unlike the empirical philosopher, AJ
Ayer, who moved effortlessly within the philosophy of Empiricism, Bhaskar's
early life was characterised by conflict and struggle in his efforts to find his
path in life. A brilliant scholar, Bhaskar graduated with first class honours in
Philosophy, Politics and Economics. His conviction that human beings are at the
mercy of an exterior reality caused him, initially, to turn to Economics, because
this enabled him to study real problems in the real world, particularly the real
world of underdeveloped countries. However, the demands of the academic
world of the university and the needs of the real world caused him to become
disenchanted with Economics, and he turned his attention to Philosophy. His
work in Philosophy, like his earlier work in Economics, was dominated by his
concern with reality, in particular with three strands of reality:
1. Science
2. The social world
3. Human angst and the human yearning for emancipation

‘This three-stranded concern led him to the writing of three books: A realist
theoryof science (1975); The possibility
of naturalism: a philosophical critique of the
contemporary human sciences (1979); and Scientific realism and human emancipation
(1986). From the late 1980s until the early part of the new millennium, Bhaskar
went on to establish in his writing a new approach to philosophy
that was highly
critical of Empiricism and Pragmatism. In 1989, he published Reclaiming reality;
in 1991, he published Philosophy and the idea of freedom; and four years later,
in 1995, he founded the Centre for Critical Realism. Five years on, in 2000, he
published From East to West.
 Critical Realism as a philosophy of (social) science
Bhaskar is seen as the key theorist in the development of Critical Realism

“O14
through his work in the late 1970s onwards, which he continued to develop and
refine until his death in 2014. His work can be quite inaccessible at times duc to
the ‘dense’ language and style of putting his key concepts into detailed formulae.

uOReonpa pue wsyeay feu

Critical Realism is a philosophy of (social) science and as such it offers a
meta-theory that is one which, according to Bhaskar (1978, 1989), embraces
ontological and epistemological elements that tell us what structures, entities
and mechanisms make up the social world, Ontology (the nature of reality) is
identified as the ‘world as it is’ and epistemology (the nature of knowledge) as
the ‘world as we know it’, or in other words our ‘knowledge of it’.

Ontology
When it comes to ontology, Critical Realism is based on three ontological
premises about social reality, namely:
1. intransitivity and transitivity;
2. the stratification of reality; and
3. causal relations.
Intransitivity
and transitivity
One of the most important philosophical distinctions associated with Bhaskar's
Critical Realism is the one made between intransitive and transitive objects of

What is an intransitive object of knowledge? Intransitive objects of knowledge

are objects of knowledge that are, according to Bhaskar (1978: 32) ‘... in a non-
changing relationship with respect to our knowledge of them; they are the real
things and structures, mechanisms and processes, events and possibilities of the
world; and for the most part they are quite independent of us’.
What is a transitive object of knowledge? A transitive object of knowledge
refers to our knowledge of the world. In other words, the transitive dimension, as
the name alludes to, refers to the fluid theories, ideas, and notions that humans
have about the intransitive dimension, which are approximations of the world.
In this way, social scientists, according to Sayer (2000), use the transitive
dimension of knowledge to construe the intransitive. In the ‘tree of the sciences’
a different discipline of science is allocated to each of the strata in the tree.
The chemical world is studied through chemistry, and the inanimate world
through botany, to mention a few. In this way, it becomes clear how the transitive
dimension of knowledge is the domain of humankind’s fluid, changeable ideas
and theories about the intransitive dimension.
An example that Sayer gives to illustrate the difference between the two
knowledge dimensions is that of the carth. Years ago humans construed the earth
as flat and that if one walked to the horizon, one would eventually fall off the
end of the earth. Today, we claim that the earth is a sphere, and that we can't
 fall off the earth because of the force of gravity. The earth would constitute
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

the intransitive dimension of knowledge (at the level of the physical world),
because the nature of the earth has not changed between the time when it was
construed as flat and the time when it was construed to be a sphere (which
happened through the science of physics). The theories about the world are what
constitute the transitive nature of knowledge because, as has heen demonstrated,
they change over time and are fallible (Potter & Lopez, 2001: 12).
Simply put, the intransitive object is a theory or idea that approximates a
phenomenon. So, in the classroom, an intransitive object could be that the earth
rotates around the sun over a period of 24 hours, which makes the sun look like
it is rising in the East and setting in the West. The intransitive object is what
actually happens, which could be, for all we know, a higher power switching on
and off a gigantic light bulb to create day and night. The point is that we cannot
ever know if it is correct. Transitive objects fit into the transitive dimension;
intransitive objects fit into the intransitive dimension.
To try and clarify things further, it is important to note that critical realists
believe that human beings and their social relationships exist in the natural world.
Thus, social structures such as those with which critical theorists are concerned
are real and yet changing; social structures
have their own qualities, independent
of our knowledge and understanding of them. Moreover, such social structures
have to be discovered as they are not transparently obvious to us.
This implies that some things that exist in the intransitive dimension can
become progressively known through the interaction between humans and their
experience of the world as they move towards the closest approximation of
truth. Indeed, this is the reason for undertaking research into society and its
structures; when we do research, we are attempting to interpret social structures
in order to expose inequalities and bring about social change. In the same way,
Critical Realism aims to interpret the world in order to ultimately bring about
change, or as Bhaskar (1989: 5) states: ‘the world cannot be rationally changed
unless it is adequately interpreted’.
Bhaskar, therefore, adopts a compromise position between Positivism and

According to Sayer (2000: 11), critical theorists claim that social scientists
can only ‘construc’ and not ‘construct’ the world around them. What this
means is that humans can only approximate the world, as opposed to creating
knowledge about it. Critical Realism, therefore, is directly contrasted with
Constructivism. If one extends Rata’s (2012: 108) argument about indigenous
knowledge (which is an example of constructed knowledge), which says that
through constructing one’s own knowledge, disadvantaged groups are ‘doubly
disadvantaged’ by a lack of intellectual tools of ‘objective thinking’, one will see
that it runs in contrast to Critical Realism. Critical Realism on the other hand,
allows the individual to ‘release himself from his self-incurred tutelage through
the courage of his own reasoning’ (Kant, 1784, reproduced in 1990: 1).
 PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 3

uoneonpa pue wsyPay [P2nUD :Q] Jardeyy

We have said: ‘Critical Realism aims to interpret the world in order to ultimately
bring about change.’
What other philosophy focuses on interpretation?
Nes

What other philosophy focuses on changing the social world?

How does Critical Realism differ from Positivism?
Pee

How does Critical Realism differ from Constructivism?

Explain, in your own words, how Critical Realism is a philosophy of
compromise between Positivism and Constructivism.

The stratification of reality

The second ontological premise in Critical Realism, is the belicf that reality is
stratified, in other words, that we encounter different layers of reality, which
in turn is distinguished by the following domains — the real, the actual and the
empirical.
The ‘real’ represents the mechanisms and structures that have causal powers
which may or may not be exercised. The ‘actual’ refers to events that happen in
the world outside of our perception of them. The ‘empirical’ is viewed as things
that we can experience through our senses or perceptions of what is occurring,
and these, by their very nature, can be misleading.
Critical realists ‘distinguish not only between the world and our experience of
it, but between the real, actual and the empirical’ (Sayer, 2000: 11). The ‘real’
is what exists regardless of our knowledge of it; it is the intransitive dimension.
Within the ‘real’ is a ‘potentiality, that is, unexercised or unrealised causal
mechanism ...’ (Potter& Lopez, 2001: 11). It is these powers and structures that
are explored in the transitive dimension of knowledge (Sayer, 2000: 11).
The ‘actual’ refers to the events that happen when those potentialities of
objects are realised. It is in the actual that causality occurs. Critical realists reject
the Humean notion of linear causality, or that a constant conjunction of events in
repeated instances constitutes a constant conjunction of events, and the Kantian
notion that the category of ‘causality dependence’ imposes itself on our sensorial
experiences of the conjunction of events, which leads us to believe that we can
see causality. Instead, critical realists posit that the real stratum, where objects
have potentialities or causal powers, creates causality.
The ‘empirical’ refers to the sensory experience that we have of those objects,
or the observability of the causal powers. Wheelahan (2010: 71) warns, however,
that when we are observing an event, ‘... we do not have unmediated access to
causal mechanisms since we experience only their effects through events ...’
What Wheelahan is saying is that we can never have complete knowledge of
these objects because we do not necessarily have knowledge of the potentialities
within the real stratum; thus, our empirical observation is only a construal
(construct) of the reality of the world.
It is on the basis of this that critical realists claim that they have a ‘stratified
 ontology’, while empirical realists and positivists are accused of having a ‘flat
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

ontology’ (Sayer, 2000; 12). This so-called ‘flat ontology’ is due to the empiricists
positing cither the actual or the empirical, or, as the positivists do, a collapsing
of the one into the other. Critical realists call this ‘flat ontology’ the fallacy of
actualism where ‘reality ... consists of two domains — the actual and the empirical
— with the latter being a subset of the former and the (direct or indirect) basis of
all knowledge’ (Potter & Lopez, 2001: 10).
Langsford (unpublished paper) refers to a really useful example of billiard
balls to explain these concepts. Within billiard balls lies the potential for action
(the real), We cannot see this potential, but we can speculate on it, The actual
refers to the rolling of the billiard balls where the causality occurs. The empirical
refers to our senses of watching these billiard balls. Our senses might lead us to
postulate that the billiard balls rolled because they were struck with the end of
a cue, but we do not know the causal mechanisms within these billiard balls that
truly caused the balls to move.
And finally, another significant aspect in relation to the three domains is that
of the independence of the ‘real’ domain from the others. This is noteworthy
because it is closely related to the distinction that is often made between open
and closed systems; where ‘open’ systems are those viewed as having multiple
mechanisms and interactions taking place at any one time that can never be
exactly replicated, and that this must be recognised within any claims regarding
generalisations sought from research. In a closed system, interactions are limited,
repetitious, and serve to keep the system going ~ this is often true of institutions,
including schools. It is also true of certain types of research.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 4
What is the significance of these claims when it comes to education research that
is directed at decolonising learning in the classroom, and teaching methods?

Causal relations
A major element in a critical realist perspective of causal relations is the belief
in ‘the dual character view of the world’, that is, a mutually reciprocal view
of the world (see Bhaskar, 1989a). This is the view that individuals and social
structures have a degree of independency and interdependency that brings about
the ‘riddle’ of structure and agency, where structure is viewed in relation to
the social structures at play and agency is identified as human purposiveness
such as wants, beliefs, desires and emotions (see Archer, 1995). In other words,
this means that the critical realist view of social reality is that individuals both
reproduce and transform social structures as well as being formed by them;
social structures both shape and place constraints on individuals, but are also
the result of continuous activity by individuals. In Bhaskar's words:‘... society
must be regarded as an ensemble of structures, practices and conventions which
individuals reproduce or transform, but which would not exist unless they
[individuals] did so’ (1998b: 36). This is important because it brings about the
 possibility of transformational social activity. The critical realist view, is that there

uoneonpa pue wsyPay [P2nUD :Q] Jardeyy

is an opportunity for individuals to make an impact on society while recognising,
at the same time, that society can make an impact on them.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 5
How would Bhaskar respond to attempts at transforming the education system
in South Africa by those calling for the decolonisation of the curriculum?

Epistemology
Critical Realism keeps ontological (that which ‘is’ in the sense of reality with
reference to alethic truth) and epistemological (that which is knowable) elements
separate and sees this as vital in ensuring that, as Bhaskar (1978: 12) observes,it
does not a fall into the ‘... “epistemic fallacy" where ontology and epistemology
are conflated with the result being that reality in the sense of what “is” becomes
absolutely knowable’. This will now be explained in a seriesof steps, which all
say the same thing, but gradually make the notion of the ‘epistemic fallacy’
clearer. Critical Realism says that you cannot reduce statements about the world
(ontology) to statements about our knowledge of the world (epistemology);
put simply, one cannot claim that they are the same thing.
This means, in everyday language, that we cannot say that what we understand
about the world (our knowledge) is necessarily how the world is. Critical
Realism acknowledges that our knowledge of the world may be wrong, and
that we need to bear that in mind when making knowledge claims about the
world. So, pulling this back into academic discourse, critical realists reject the
conflation of ontology and epistemology, maintaining that they are separate. As
you know from previous chapters, empiricists, for example, conflate ontology
and epistemology (the world is exactly the same as our knowledge of it, or,
alternatively, our knowledge of the world is a perfect representation of how
the world actually is). Critical realists would accuse empiricists of upholding
an epistemic fallacy.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 6
See Bhaskar’s explanation of the ‘epistemic fallacy’ in a video on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TO4FaaVy0ls&t=99s

In your own words, explain Bhaskar's observation above and indicate what you
understand by his reference to the ‘epistemic fallacy’.

The ontological premises of Critical Realism- that ontology cannot be conflated

with epistemology— give rise to certain epistemological claims directed at:
* knowledge and discourse;
* values and beliefs; and
* Critical Realism as a form of scientific discovery.
 Knowledge (as our closest approximation
of truth) and discourse
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

Critical realists see systems of discourse and material social structures as

somewhat autonomous, yet mutually influencing one another, as is the case with
causal relations. Hence, it can be concluded that critical realists view knowledge
as being socially produced and, therefore, also transient insofar as knowledge
represents our closest approximation of the real as conceived in the concept
of alethic truth,

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 7
What other philosophy views knowledge as absolute and beyond our reach,
and indicate how it claims we go about knowing?

These discourses of socially produced knowledge or traditions of thought are

manifested in human behaviour and are subject to change and decay. They can
best be defined as the way a society or group of people understand the nature of
the world (their ontological beliefs) and how one can come to know it or come to
have knowledge of it - or understand what knowledge is (their epistemological
beliefs).
Given Critical Realism's view of the intransitive and transitive objects of
knowledge, another aspect of its epistemology relates to the belief that all
knowledge is fallible in the sense that it is ever changing in approximating truth,
that is, the alethic truth.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 8
1. What do you remember when it comes to the concepts intransitive and
transitive with reference to Bhaskar's ontology? Explain.
2. Do you think that this distinction is important for teaching and learning?
Substantiate your response.
3. What do you understand by Critical Realism’s assertion that ‘all knowledge
is fallible’ and what does this mean for teaching and learning?
4. Does this notion that ‘all knowledge is fallible’ have any currency in a
multicultural
society like South Africa?

Therefore, what is accepted as a view of ‘truth’ by society or groups within society

is not so much about its level of correctness but more about its function and how
particular communities of people construct and reconstruct forms of knowledge.

Values
and beliefs
For many researchers the whole area of values and beliefs in research is potentially
fraught with problems when it comes to discussing these in relation to the social
sciences.
 This is not the case in Critical Realism.
To quote Bhaskar (1978, 1989a) again:

uoneanpa pue wsy[eay [RUD OT dey

*... human sciences are necessarily non-neutral; that they are intrinsically critical
(both of beliefs and their objects) and self-critical; that accounts of social reality
are not only value-impregnated but value-impregnating, not only practically
imbued but practically imbuing; and that in particular they both causally
motivate and logically entail evaluative and practical judgements ...’

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 9
Do you believe that education research should be ‘non-neutral’? Explain your
answer by indicating what you understand by Bhaskar's claim that ‘... human
sciences are necessarily non-neutral’.

Scientific discovery
Within the realm of scientific discovery, the two major elements that characterise
a critical realist perspective are those of it as an explanatory critique and its claim
of having an emancipatory role.
Critical realists believe that explanatory critiques have an important role to
play in the development of a free and equal society, as Bhaskar (1998: 389) states:
‘They expose not just false beliefs, but the false beliefs by which oppression and
injustice are disguised, whether consciously or not, and perpetrated’.
Critical realists go on to explain that ‘the ideas integral to a society can be
logically contradictory’ (Bhaskar, 1998: 394). Once this contradiction has been
exposed, it is more than possible to criticise these ideas and society itself. In other
words, such explanatory critiques or theories can and do transform practice.
In positing the power of explanatory critiques or theories, Critical Realism
promotes freedom of belief and in doing so addresses the critical theorists’ call for
philosophy to stop describing the world and to start changing it. Because Critical
Realism espouses a view of alethic truth, it requires us to arrive at reasoned, though
provisional, judgements about what objective reality is. As we gather evidence,
our reasoning can change and contradictions in society can be uncovered. For
example, a contradiction that we may grapple with is that we are all unique and
special, but we must behave in a socially acceptable manner. So, our specialness
is
acceptable until we walk out of the front door with no clothes on. We have come
to these separate conclusions (special and social) through rationalising, but they
are logically contradictory. Because we have exposed this contradiction, we are
then able to criticise these conclusions and try to reconcile them in our minds, in
an attempt to approximate the truth of how humans should behave.
Another example could be taken from Galileo, The belief during his time was
that the sun revolved around the earth (as the centre of the universe). Through
scientific enquiry (which Critical Realism does not dispute) and rationalisation,
Galileo posited that the earth moves around the sun. Therefore, a contradiction
was born. However, more than just the contradiction about which heavenly body
revolves around which, this contradiction exposed the issues surrounding the
norms and beliefs of the day.
 PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 10
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

1. Explain in your own words what you understand by the reference to

“explanatory critiques or theories’.
2. What is the significance of the notion of ‘explanatory critiques or theories’
for teaching
and learning?

Another important element to undertaking critical realist research is best

described by Bhaskar (1989b: 271) who states: ‘At its core, Critical Realism
rests on the assumption that the accounts of the research participants are valid
scientific data that can lead to consequential social transformation if properly
interpreted’. In accepting this,it gives credibility to undertaking a range of
research methodologies in any study. However, also to be remembered, all
research findings are fallible but worthy of consideration as approximations of
the real, and that Critical Realism requires the researcher to not just explain an
outcome, but also to try understand and explicate the causal mechanism.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 11
According to critical realist research, what gives credibility to undertaking a
range of research methodologies in, for example, education?

The second area that Critical Realism's epistemology emphasises

is its emancipatory
potential. Emancipation, from Bhaskar's (1998: 410) perspective, is dependent
‘upon the transformation of structures, not the alteration or amelioration of
states of affairs’. Critical Realism is, therefore, grounded in scientific theory and
is also revolutionary in intent.
In summary, taking into account the ontological and epistemological elements
that undergird Critical Realism, Bhaskar as a critical realist is concerned with
‘emancipatory social practice’. For him the world cannot be changed rationally
unless it is interpreted adequately and this interpretation has as its prerequisite,
the philosophical idea of the independent existence of the natural and the social
world. He extends his ideas from the sciences directly into the social sciences, and
his organising theme is: the nature of, and prospects for, human emancipation.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 12
1. Paraphrase the summary statement above for Bhaskar's concern as a
critical realist in your own words.
2. What do you understand by Bhaskar's concern for ‘emancipatory social
practice’?
3. What do you think this concern may mean for education?
4. What problems in education do you think can be addressed by Critical
Realism? (Identify at least two problems and indicate how these problems
could be addressed by Critical Realism.)
 Critical Realism and education research

uoneonpa pue wsyPay [P2nUD :Q] Jardeyy

Critical Realism provides a helpful framework that offers researchers, according
to Egbo (2005), a philosophical ‘compass’ with which to be engaged in critical
social scientific inquiry. In so doing, Critical Realism provides educational
research with the following:
+ Acompromise position between Positivism and Constructivism in its rejection
of a causal model for research in education which claims that it is possible
to
predict events.
« A model for research which provides a “both/and’ rather than an ‘either/or’
paradigm for qualitative and quantitative research in education. The key issucs
in the quantitative-qualitative debate are ontological and epistemological.
Traditionally, quantitative researchers perceive truth as something that
describes an objective reality, separate from the observer and waiting to be
discovered. Qualitative researchers are concerned with the changing nature of
reality created through people's experiences. That qualitative and quantitative
researchers do not, in fact, study the same phenomena is fundamental to
this viewpoint. Critical Realism provides a way out of this impasse in that it
views science and social science as building claims that approximate reality.
Because it is concerned with the causal mechanisms of why events happen,
it resolves this divide as quantitative research tends to describe the outcome
while qualitative research tries to understand why the outcome happened.
Thus, Critical Realism values both.
« An emancipatory social practice for research in education, which is grounded
in scientific theory and is also revolutionary in intent.
+ A model that regards research participants as valid scientific data that can
lead to consequential social transformation if properly interpreted, and in so
doing giving credibility to undertaking a range of research methodologies in
education. /
A model for education research that provides ‘explanatory critiques’ or
theories that can and do transform education practice.
A non-neutral model for education research that provides accounts of social
reality which are not only value-driven but also value-giving.

Critical Realism and education

If we endorse the philosophy of Critical Realism, we shall come to view education
as a serious activity that needs to be pursued by all of us in our search for truth —
both objective and subjective truth. According to Critical Realism, education is a
real activity that takes place in the real world — it is certainly not illusory (as some
versions of Postmodernism claim), and it is not a construct invented by human
beings (as some versions of Hermeneutics, particularly Constructivism, claim).
And also, it is not pointless, because all that we learn is relative to who we are,
 and so have no shared grounds, as Postmodernists might say. Formal education is
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

part of the social, objective world and can be discussed and studied as such. At
the same time, education — real education — is a responseto the world ‘as it really
is’— it is not, or should not be, simply
a way of socialisingchildren to take their
part in society. Of course, human beings are social and education is part of the
social, which means that, indeed, it may be influenced by culture and even ‘social
trends’. However, it is as much a real object as tables and chairs — put simply, we
‘bump into’ education (in the form of schools, colleges and universities) in much
the same way we ‘bump into’ the real objects of tables and chairs.
If we are Critical Realists who take education seriously, then we shall endorse
the view that education is about knowledge that can be validated or rejected —
in this respect, Critical Realism shares something in common with Empiricism
and Scientific Rationalism. According to critical realists, schools are places where
young human beings are initiated into the body of human knowledge — with a
view to understanding that body of knowledge and critiquing it (because Critical
Realism insists that human beings make mistakes).
Critical Realism has something in common with Phenomenology when
it comes to education because, like Phenomenology, Critical Realism teaches
that all education is about human beings exploring a subjective world, but a
subjective world which is real and which encourages in human beings a sense
of wonder. Again, like Phenomenology, Critical Realism, particularly that strand
of Critical Realism that deals with social structures, points out that modern
education systems are no more than a training ground that equips people to
become technocrats in a global society that is, in fact, passing away.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 13
We have just compared Critical Realism to Phenomenology.
1. What other philosophies, in your view, are comparable to Critical Realism?
2. Inwhat respectsis Critical Realism similar to African Philosophy? (To help you
respond to this question, remember that African Philosophy includes sage
philosophy, ethnic philosophy, political philosophy and pure philosophy.)

* Critical Realism focuses on two realities: the reality of the objective world,
and the subjective reality of human thought and action.
* Critical Realism acknowledges the fact that social reality is often flawed
and in need of change, and it claims that educational endeavour can help to
critique and bring about change to our social world.

Critical Realism is really useful in that it opens up possibilities for both making
current knowledge useful, and for propulsion forward towards the trailblazing of
new knowledge. Let us contextualise:
* Positivism, for example, says that once it's observed, we know about it. No
 need to move forward or explore some more. Knowledge = real, therefore, no

uoneonpa pure wsyeay yeonUD :o] sadeyD

need to deepen our knowledge.
Interpretivism/Postmodernism, for example, says that knowledge is all so
relative that it’s not worth pursuing because what's true for you may not be
true for me. There is no such thing as the real; therefore, knowledge is so
relativist it loses value,
Critical Realism says that knowledge is useful in the now, because it is our best
.

approximation of the real at this point. It also says that we need to continue
to explore in order to close the gap between our knowledge of the world and
the real (in a tangential sense, of course — we can never truly close it), and
that we can continue to explore our world because the real does in fact exist.
Knowledge # real, but is still useful and powerful.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 14
1. How would you use Critical Realism to improve the curriculum?
2. Which particularforms of African Philosophy encourage questioning? What
other philosophy encourages questioning?

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 15
Provide a practical example of how Critical Realism can encourage learner-
centred education by ‘acknowledging the real and motivating learners to
approximate
the real’.
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 16
Do you agree with points 1-6 above, which highlight where Critical Realism can
fail in education? If you don't agree explain
why.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 17
1. What does Critical Realism have in common with African Philosophy?
2. What aspects of Critical Realism and African Philosophy would you like to
see exert more influence on the curriculum? Why do you say this?

Concluding remarks
We have seen that critical realists argue about the matter of truth, that there is
an ultimate truth which is of course the intransitive dimension of knowledge
located in the real. Because humans cannot have full knowledge of the causal
mechanisms that reside in the real, we cannot have full knowledge of the real
world. It is for this reason that critical realists claim that we can only construe
or approximate the real world. Thus, ‘... knowledge is not identical to the world
it describes’ (Wheelahan, 2010: 71) and we cannot claim that the scientific
methods used to understand that reality, account for all of the underlying causal
mechanisms that exist. Therefore, the deep-seated belief that positivists held in
the unity of the sciences, and in the empirical observation of truth and causality
would constitute a closed system because extraneous variables are eliminated to
isolate the effects of one causal mechanism. While critical realists do not say that
these scientific endeavours are for naught, they do say that these experiments
and scientific observations cannot constitute the truth because reality occurs in
an open system, where all of the potential and actual causal mechanisms cannot
be accounted for, and, thus, our observation statements must be made tentatively
in the knowledge of this inadequacy of our observations.
 And so critical realists claim that there are two truths: the ‘alethic’ truth
which is situated in the real, and due to its nature of possessing unrealised causal
mechanisms, can never be fully known; and the other truth, our approximations,

:OL 4
based on scientific experiment and observations. However, it is important that this
truth is understood for what it is — fallible, provisional and continuously subject
to re-evaluation, indicating the need for ongoing scientific experimentation and

woneonpa pue wsyeay [ERE

knowledge growth. As Potter and Lopez (2001: 12) put it, critical realists pursue
science in the hope that’... we can produce truer and truer (truth is not absolute)
accounts of reality’.
The critical realist’'s conception of truth — that truth is our closest approximation
to the alcthic truth that resides in the real — provides the most useful basis for a
democratic education in a multicultural context such as South Africa. The reason
for this is because knowledge, according to Critical Realism, can be contextualised
but is not context hound. This premise for the claim is simple: knowledge and,
thus, truth is fallible but it is objective at the same time. According to Wheelehan
(2010: 75), knowledge cannot be reduced to its constituents, and so it becomes
objective insofar as it is irreducible to its determinants.
What this means is that there are some truths that can be taught to learners.
These truths must, however, be taught in the light that they are fallible and
subject to change through scientific study. This fallibility of truth and knowledge
allows learners to become critical of the knowledge, which is an integral part of
becoming a global, democratic citizen. Knowledge, although tentative, can be
learned and engaged with because it is an approximation of reality that does
exist.
Different learners may have experienced hermeneutic moments, that is,
moments
where the reality of the intransitive dimension
of knowledge is briefly
uncovered and thereby enabling learners to engage critically with the knowledge
that they are exposed to. In all of this, there is still room for learners to verbalise
and explore their own understanding of reality within the fallibility of the theories
and truth that we tentatively accept. And finally, due to the fact that knowledge
is fallible, different people's voices become more credible in the study of truth,
and thus learners become involved in ‘... the dissemination and interrogation of
the knowledge production they face’ (Sefa Dei & Doyle-Wood, 2006: 154).
 In the preface to this book we asked the question: What is
philosophy of education?

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 1
1. Do you recall what our answer was to this question? If not, look up the
answer we gave to this question in the preface to the book.
2. Having worked through this book, what would you say philosophy of
education is all about and what does it set out to do?
3. How does a philosophy of education differ from an educational ideology?

In the preface to this book, we also went on to say that our aim was to make the
student of education aware of the opportunities and threats inherent in all forms
of philosophy of education — whether this philosophy of education comes from
the West or from our own continent, Africa.

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 2
1. Which form of philosophy of education that you encountered in this book
appealed to you the most? Provide reasons for your answer.
2. Which form of philosophy of education that you encountered in this book
appealed to you the least? Provide reasons for your answer.

Education is as old as humankind itself and has taken on many forms over the
course of history. There are many descriptions of what education is and what it
can achieve.
¢ John Dewey said this about education: ‘Education is not preparation for life;
education is life itself’ (BrainyQuote.com: Dewey)
¢ Albert Einstein declared that, ‘Education is what remains after one has
forgotten what one has learned at school.’ (BrainyQuote.com: Einstein)
* Paulo Freire argued as follows:
Education either functions as an instrument which is used to facilitate the
integration of the younger generation into the logic of the present system and
bring about conformity or it becomes the practice of freedom, the means by
which men and women deal critically and creatively with reality and discover
how to participate in the transformation of their world. (2000: 34)
* Oprah Winfrey, when thinking about education concluded that, ‘Education is
power. I think that being able to communicate with people is power. One of 2
my main goals on the planct is to encourage people to empower themselves.’ 3
(Inspirationalstorics.com)
Martin Luther King stated that, ‘To save man from the morass of propaganda,
in my opinion, is one of the chief aims of education. Education must enable
one to sift and weigh evidence, to discern the true from the false, the real from
the unreal, the facts from the fiction.’ (1947)
In recent days, Nelson Mandela had the following to say about education:
°

‘Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the
world’ and, ‘Education is the great engine of personal development. It is
through education that the daughter of a peasant can become a doctor, that
the son of a mineworker
can become
the head of a mine, that a child of farm
workers can become the president of a nation.’ (2013: 121)

PORTFOLIO ACTIVITY 3
And so, to end off with, write down your answers to the following questions:
1. Which of these descriptions of education best describe your philosophy of
education? Provide reasons for your answer and describe your philosophy
of education.
2. What contribution do you think your philosophy of education can make to
the society in which you live? Provide reasons for your answer.
3. How would you describe education?
African Philosophy and Empiricism
An empiricist would start by asking us to define what we mean by ‘African
Philosophy’ . Empiricism is a very precise philosophy - it has no time for vagueness.
We divided African Philosophy into four types of philosophies, namely:
ethnic philosophy;
sage (wisdom) philosophy;
Sey

political philosophy; and

pure philosophy.

Ethnic philosophy can be defined as ‘the philosophy of Africa’. It is distinctive

and consists of the religious and moral beliefs of the continent of Africa. African
ethnic philosophy and Empiricism disagree for the following reasons:
¢ Empiricism is based on what can be proved and known — in other words,
what can be tested. The truthfulness or falsity of religion cannot be tested and
therefore, according to empiricists, all religious statements are meaningless. It
is important to note that empiricists reject all religious claims, and not just the
claims of traditional African religion.
Until recently, Empiricism tended to treat moral beliefs as being in a class
.

of their own — empiricists didn't reject morality, but they were aware that a
philosophy that focuses on what can and cannot be proved has little to say
about morality.

Sage (wisdom) philosophy focuses on those individuals in society who are known
to be wise and far-sighted and who can think critically. These are the people whose
views challenge the authority of the community's decision. Empiricists welcome
philosophies that encourage critical thinking and challenge authority. This is
because Empiricism focuses on facts, not feelings, and community decisions are
— at least sometimes — based on emotion rather than what is factually true and
what is not factually true.
Pure philosophy is philosophy done by African philosophers in the areas of
Empiricism, Scientific Rationalism and Existentialism.
Empiricists would state that this form of African Philosophy is real philosophy
and that it is this philosophy that should be pursued in Africa. Their arguments
for adopting this position are as follows.
 + All human beings, no matter what their cultural situation, are capable of

sarydosopryd waysa,q\ pue Aydosopyg uesuyy jo uoseduiod y :xtpuaddy

pursuing truth that is based on what can and cannot be proved. Indeed, this is
the only form of truth that exists.
¢ Empiricists accept the claims of Scientific Rationalism because this philosophy,
too, is based on facts.

However, empiricists reject Existentialism as a method of philosophical enquiry.

Existentialism is that method of enquiry in philosophy that asks: What is the
meaning of life? The existentialist philosophy tends to look to psychology,
symbolism and relationships as a way of answering this question. It is fair to say
that Existentialism tends to encourage a religious approach to life.
As far as Empiricism is concerned, to ask ‘What is the meaning of life?’ is to
ask a question that cannot be answered and a question that is, therefore, invalid.
It is similar to asking ‘What makes people happy?’, in that happiness depends on
many things and different people experience happiness differently. The reason
why Empiricism dismisses these questions is, to reiterate, because Empiricism is
concerned with facts, and facts alone.

African Philosophy and Scientific Rationalism

The main thing to remember about Scientific Rationalism is that it is a questioning
philosophy. Scientific Rationalism is primarily concerned with moving away from
falsity.
In the chapter on African Philosophy, we said that African thinkers are keen to
disprove the Western belief that Africans are unable to develop a scientific and
rational culture, Scientific Rationalism endorses this view — as far as scientific
rationalists are concerned, all human beings in all cultures are distinguished by
their capacity for scientific and rational thought which, by its very nature, tests
truth claims. Scientific Rationalism is inclusive and international. For example,
winners of the Nobel Prize include people from the USA, Japan, Europe, China
and India.
What about Africa’s ethnic philosophy? It is fair to say that, more so than
Empiricism, Scientific Rationalism takes on board our ‘view of life’. Scientific
Rationalism is particularly interested in two issues on which African Philosophy
focuses:
+ How should we understand the universe? This is, we think, the central issue in
scientific endeavour, and certainly in Scientific Rationalism. As far as scientists
are concerned, any attempt to further our understanding of the universe is
essential — indeed, Scientific Rationalism claims that this is the most important
pursuit any human being can engage in.
How should my community be governed and led? This question is also
important in Scientific Rationalism, because science cannot be practised in
societies subject to authoritarian power structures. This point is crucial. As far
 as Scientific Rationalism is concerned, democracy is essential for one simple
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

reason: democracy alone promotes human well-being, Human well-being and

the scientific endeavour are intrinsically linked. Both science and democracy
allow and encourage questioning and participation by all members of socicty.
In short, in answer to the question: ‘How should my community be led?’,
Scientific Rationalism responds by saying: ‘My community should be led by
a group of people elected democratically, in elections that are open, free, fair
and in which nobody is subject to any form of intimidation or coercion.”

As far as African ethnic philosophy is concerned, Scientific Rationalism rejects

any form of unquestioning adherence to tradition, no matter how revered that
tradition is (eg prominence given to the ancestors, initiation rituals, etc). Like
Empiricism, it rejects the claims of religion (all religion, not just traditional
African religion).
Scientific Rationalism also endorses those individuals who have the courage to
challenge authority, including the authority of the community.

African Philosophy and Phenomenology

Like Phenomenology, African Philosophy cannot be neatly categorised into
representing a school of thought or body of knowledge.
Phenomenology is similar to African ethnic philosophy. Like African ethnic
philosophy, it emphasises the whole of human experience, and it emphasises
‘real’ experience, including the human psyche, human emotions and the whole
of human sentience (touch, hearing, smelling, taste and sight). It is important
to realise that Phenomenology, like Hermeneutics, embraces the role of the
imagination and the role of the symbol (because these, too, are an essential part
of the human condition).
What about African sage philosophy? Phenomenology tends to neglect
the importance of individual social critics and social innovators in bringing
change to society and the human community. This is because social criticism,
while often valid, then leads to other forms of rather rigid social structures
that impose serious and damaging limitations on the human spirit. The same
is true of Phenomenology’s attitude to African political philosophy — although
Phenomenology would acknowledge the need for African political philosophy to
be authentic to Africa.
What about that category known as pure philosophy? Two things are of
importance here. First of all, Phenomenology rejects the notion that rationality is
of overriding importance in philosophy. This is because Phenomenology distances
itself from a problem-solving approach to life. According to Phenomenology, a
‘problem’ is not something that can be objectified and then eliminated. Instead,
any situation, with its ‘problems’, should be entered into. Phenomenology,
then, is very different
from Scientific Rationalism.
It is also very different from
 Empiricism in that, unlike Empiricism, it does not seek to measure and master

sarydosopryd waysa,q\ pue Aydosopyg uesuyy jo uoseduiod y :xtpuaddy

an objectified reality.

African Philosophy and Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics would welcome African ethnic philosophy. This is because African
ethnic philosophy focuses on the traditional beliefs and religions of Africa, and
Hermeneutics, as we saw in the chapter on Hermeneutics, values tradition. Indeed,
in Chapter 1 we said that African ethnic philosophy is a holistic philosophy -
Hermeneutics would welcome this, because a holistic point of view includes the
view that people, society and things cannot be understood in isolation — they all
require a context.
It would be more difficult for Hermeneutics to accept sage philosophy. This is
because African sage philosophy values the input of more independent, critically
minded individuals who are prepared to critique the community and its values.
The problem with social critique, as far as Hermencuticsis concerned, is that it is
iconoclastic.
It tends to destroy society's symbols and leave society in something
of a vacuum as far as meaning is concerned.
One area of African Philosophy that is of interest to Hermeneutics is
African political philosophy. The belief that Africa’s political structures must
be African, and not some other structure, is an example of a hermencutical
(‘we') approach to society. In other words, African political philosophy claims
that Africa must be interpreted by Africans, and not by some other group of
people. Although this sounds like rather a closed approach, this approach can
best be explained by referring to Wilber's Hermeneutics. One of the concepts
that Wilber uses is the concept of ‘mutual resonance’ (Wilber, 2006: 150).
Mutual resonance can be described as ‘being on the same wavelength’. African
political philosophers (eg Julius Nyerere) are simply saying that this mutual
resonance has to be the guiding force in African political philosophy — not
the mutual resonance that exists, say, between socialists or WASP Americans.
As a Western-style, rational argument, this hermeneutical view is not without
force, given that, as we said in the chapter on African Philosophy, all African
Philosophy is a response to the problems and troubles of Africa and to the
domination of Western thought.
What, finally, is Hermeneutics’ response to pure philosophy? As we mentioned,
pure philosophy, in African thought, consists of the philosophics of Empiricism,
Scientific Rationalism and Existentialism.
First of all, Hermeneutics believes that Empiricism is only one philosophy
among many. Hermeneutics rejects Empiricism’s claim that truth can be
objectively discovered, although it acknowledges the contribution Empiricism
makes to our discovery of truth. According to Hermeneutics, there is
certainly a place for Empiricism, but it regards Empiricism's domination of
Western thought as unfortunate.
 Hermeneutics endorses Existentialism, because the philosophy of Existentialism
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

is humankind’s quest for meaning. Indeed, Hermeneutics and Existentialism can

be said to be ‘partners’, although Existentialism is the more abstract of the two
philosophies,

African Philosophy and Critical Theory

Critical Theory accepts those areas of African Philosophy that are prepared
to criticise African social traditions and the authority of the community. We
mentioned that Africa's ethnic, sage and political philosophies all contain
elements of reflection and self-criticism (‘self here meaning the African
community and African self). Significantly, one of the most influential African
philosophers ~ the late Frantz Fanon ~ is an important figure in the philosophy
of Critical Theory. Fanon’s best-known work is The Wretched of the Earth.
Fanon concentrated on the damage done to the human psyche by oppressive
social structures, specifically the damage done to the African human psyche by
colonialism.
In the last part of the 20th century, the influence of Critical Theory working
from within the broader philosophy of African Philosophy was so significant that
it is not an exaggeration to say that Africa’s emancipation from colonial rule owes
much to the thought of philosophers such as Fanon.

African Philosophy and Feminism

Western Feminism and African Feminism adopt a highly critical attitude towards
Africa's ethnic philosophy which, as we saw earlier on, includes the religious
and moral philosophy of Africa, This is because, historically, religious and moral
philosophies (whether they be African or Western) are the creation of men and
tend to assign to women a limited and subordinate role in society.
Both African and Western Feminism are more at home with Africa's sage
philosophy which, by its very nature, is critical of community decisions (and
note that, until very recently, ‘community’ here consisted solely of men). Instead,
it focuses on the far-sightedness and critical perception of individuals. It is fair to
say that, in African traditional societies, it is accepted that older women can be
wiser and more perceptive than male leaders.
African Feminism would accept that Africa's political philosophy must
be based on African views of life and must radically critique Western cultural
tions.
Finally, Africa’s pure philosophy ~ which is largely empirical — is, as we have
said, the basis of the liberal feminist tradition in the West. African feminists who
welcome certain Western values (eg democracy) can also find a ‘home’ in the
pure philosophy of Africa.
 African Philosophy and Systems Theory

sarydosopryd waysa,q\ pue Aydosopyg uesuyy jo uoseduiod y :xtpuaddy

As we have seen, Systems Theory is holistic — that is, it seeks to understand
complex entities as a whole. It focuses on the inner organisation of the complex
entity, how this entity survives and achieves its goals, and the interaction between
the entity (the system) and the external environment.
Systems Theory accepts and endorses Africa’s ethnic philosophy, simply
because African ethnic philosophy examines and interprets the human
experience (including religion) holistically. In this, African Philosophy is akin
to Systems Theory in that it insists that ‘no man is an island’, We are each of
us interdependent and all human beings are part of a much bigger and more
complex entity: homo sapiens sapiens.
In the case of African sage philosophy, the relationship between Systems
Theory and African Philosophy is more complex. It would be fair to say that
Systems Theory has little time for the individual working alone (indeed, Systems
Theory claims that the individual cannot work alone). That said, if one — or a few
— people act as social critics, providing the community (the system) with accurate,
if unpopular feedback, then Systems Theory can certainly accommodate African
sage philosophy.
African political philosophy emphasises African uniqueness, but Systems
Theory emphasises the fact that Africa is part of a larger whole, this whole being
the global political, social and economic system. Indeed, in focusing on the need
to be unique, Systems Theory would point out that African political philosophy
is no friend of Africa, but is actually helping Africa to remain vulnerable to
invading colonisers.

African Philosophy and Postmodernism

As you can see from the table on the next page we have ticked African Philosophy
and Postmodernism as having similarities in terms of African ethnic philosophy
and African pure philosophy. This is because, like African ethnic philosophy,
Postmodernism takes contingency seriously and eschews any notion that there is
one universal
truth that somehow rules hi ind.
As far as African pure philosophy is concerned, Postmodernism
has a certain
amount in common with, specifically, Existentialism — like Existentialism, it
takes the human condition scriously, including human beings’ inner worlds and
the human obsession with imagery. Also — and here it is similar,again, to African
ethnic philosophy — Postmodernism rejects the West's mid-20th century embrace
of Modernism and science.
Furthermore, given the social and political dynamism of Africa, it should not
be forgotten that Postmodernism takes dynamics and chaos seriously; indeed,
Postmodernism focuses on dynamics more than it focuses on order. It may be, then,
that Postmodernism has something in common with African political philosophy.
 Historically, Postmodernism is a French philosophy, just as its counterparts,
Philosop hy of Education Today: An Introduction

Empiricism and Scientific Rationalism, are British and American philosophies.

Postmodernism's main philosophers are and were French, not African. Of course,
this does not preclude the possibility of an African version of Postmodernism and,
in fact, given its focus on historical contingency, the philosophical movement of
Postmodernism would welcome such input.

African Philosophy and Critical Realism

When it comes to Critical Realism you will recall the following:
* Critical Realism focuses on two realities: the reality of the objective world and.
the subjective reality of human thought and action.
* Critical Realism acknowledges the fact that social reality is often flawed and
in need of change, and it claims that education endeavour can help to critique
and bring about change to our social world.

As such, Critical Realism is a radical critique of Western philosophy, especially

Positivism, which conceives of reality as knowable through objective methods.
of observation and logical deduction and in so doing is closely associated with
Western modernity. Its relevance for African Philosophy centres on the fact that
Critical Realism gives primacy to the human values of freedom and emancipation
rather than to the objective concerns that are central to Western modernity and
ignore the human values of freedom and emancipation. In this regard, Critical
Realism may be directly linked to developments in Critical Theory, which was a
reaction against the excesses of Positivism.

Table of African Philosophy and Western philosophies

x v
v x

oO °
oO O°
Critical Theory v v
Feminism v v
Systems Theory x v
Postmodernism x x
Critical Realism x v

¥ = areas of agreement X = areas of disagreement

O = areas not discussed/neutrality
Books
Archer, M. 1988. Culture and agency: the place
of culture in social theory. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Archer, M. 1995. Realist social theory: the morphogenetic approach. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Audi, R. (ed). 1999. The Cambridge dictionary of philosophy. 2nd edition.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bhaskar, R. 1978. A realist theory of science. 2nd edition. London: Verso.

Bhaskar, R. 1989a. The possibility of naturalism. 2nd edition. Hemel Hempstead:

Harvester.

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145

145

E
cree (og Contents
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 Please note: Page numbers in italics refer to figures or tables.

A Phenomenology and 138

Postmodernism and 141-142
absolute truth 108, 109, 111, 114
representatives of 14
actual, the 123, 124
Systems Theory and 141
Adorno, Theodor 86, 90-91, 93
Western philosophies and 142
Africa's emancipation (from colonial rule)
89-90, 140 Afrocentricity 28, 29
vs Eurocentricity 28
African
education systems 26-27 see also African identity
Feminism 95,98, 140
alethic ruth 117, 120, 125, 126, 127,
heritage, protection of 27
131, 133
angst 120
knowledge systems, sources of indigenous
24 anti-humanistic philosophy 119
liberation 98
apartheid vii
Fundamental Pedagogics 47, 48, 53, 60
religion 136, 138
Hermeneutics and 60, 70, 89
Renaissance 16-17, 28
Phenomenology and 53, 60
values 17, 18,21, 22
African identity 15, 17,21, 22 schools 47, 63, 70, 89
Appiah, Kwame Anthony 14
vs Western identity 28
Apple, Michael 90
see also Afrocentricity
artefacts, human 8-9, 9
African Philosophy
Asmal, Kader 48
communality 3, 19-21, 22, 23,31
Atwood, Margaret 98
description of 3, 13-15
discourses of expression 14 Auschwitz, 90-91, 93
education and 3, 17-22 Australopithecus afarensis 5
of education 22-23, 27 authoritarianism
ethics and 27 Critical Theory 90-91
four types of 136 Hermencutics 64
Scientific Rationalism 44, 47-50, 52
history of Africa and 15-17
other philosophies and 89-90, 136-142 see also
Ayer, AJ 120
summary 18, 21, 23
ubuntu 18-19, 21, 22, 23, 31
see also African political philosophy; B
ethnic philosophy; indigenous African Baudrillard, Jean 67-68
knowledge systems; pure philosophy; behaviourism 47
sage philosophy Bhaskar, Roy 120
African political philosophy books by 120
African Feminism and 140 causal relations 124-125
Critical Theory and 89 epistemology and 125
definition of 14 intransitive and transitive objects of
Hermeneutics and 139 knowledge 121, 122
 on role of explanatory critiques 127 intransitive
objects of knowledge 121
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

scientific discovery 127, 128 and 117,118, 120-123, 125,

three strands of reality 120 126, 130-133
values and beliefs 127 objectivity and 118
Biko, Steve 16 ontological premises of 121-125
Black Consciousness 16 Pl and 130
Blombos Cave 9-10 Positivism and 120, 122, 129, 130,
Bodunrin, Peter 14 _ 131, 142
Burbules, Nicholas 107, 113 Postmodernism
and 117,129, 131
Butler, Judith 108 Realism and 118, 119-120
reality and 4, 119, 120, 121, 125, 127,
c 129, 130, 132, 133; 142,
Roy Bhaskar 120-122, 124, 125, 127,
Cabral, Amilcar 14
capitalism 77, 87,91, 110 128
scholasticism 40
causal relations 124-125
social reality and 142
subjectivity and 4, 118, 132
transitive objects of knowledge 121
view of education 129-130
Critical Theory
eee ee of 92
African Philosophy and 89-90, 123, 124
African political philosophy and 89
African sage philosophy and 89, 140
education and 19-21, 22
dangersof 92
Complexity Theory 2.4.84
description
of 4, 87-88
Constructivism 3-4, 72
education and 90, 92-93
educators/teachers
and 86, 90-91
contingency 141, 142

y and 142, 142

alethic truth and 117, 120, 125, 126,
127, 131, 133
conceptionof truth 117, 126, 127,
132,133
religion and 87
Constructivism
and 122,129
contemporary 4, 75
Scientific Rationalism and 88, 94
summary 91-92, 94
Critical Theory and 142
description
of 118-120 cultural
diversity 27
heritage, protection of 27
ics 80
cybernetics
epistemology
of 125-128
cynicism 87
ethnic philosophy and 142.
as a form of scientific discovery 125,
127-128
framework
for research in education 129
freedom
and emancipation and 142
 xapuy
knowledge and 35,36
morality and 40, 136
Outcomes-based Education and 32,
121 41,47
see also authoritarianism religion and 136, 138
Derrida, Jacques 108, 109, 115 Scientific Rationalism and 43, 49, 52
Dewey, John 76, 79-80, 100, 101, 134
dimensions of knowledge 121-123, 126
domination
forms of 13, 24, 93,94
epistemic fallacy 125
of Western and Eurocentric forms of
knowledge 3, 13, 22, 24, 139. 125-128
consequences of 14, 16, 22
Dutch Reformed Church 70, 89

t >and discourse 126

Economic Freedom Front 44 scientific discovery 127-128
education values and beliefs 126-127
definition
of 36, 134-135 ethics
forms of 1-2 in African Philosophy 27
philosophies applied to 2, 3-4 empiricism and 37,40
philosophy
of vii, 12 Feminism and 101, 102
systemsin Africa 17, 18, 22,25 Scientific Rationalism and 51
systems of vii, 4, 58, 61,71 Systems Theory and 83
educators,
see teachers ethnic philosophy
Einstein, Albert 50, 110, 134 Critical Realism and 142
e-learning,
see technology Critical Theory and 89, 140
emancipation 87, 90, 120, 127, 128, 129, definition
of 14, 136
140, 142 Empiricism and 136
see also freedom, liberation Feminism and 140
emancipatory Hermeneutics and 139
potential 128 PI and 138
role 127 Postmodernism and 141
social practice 128, 129 Scientific Rationalism and 137, 138
emotions 38, 45, 108 Systems Theory and 141
knowledge 24 Western philosophies and 142
empirical, the 123, 124 Eurocentric knowledge systems 3, 13, 24,
Empiricism
advantages of 40
African ethnic philosophy and 136
African pure philosophy and 136-137,
139
analysis and 35,36
pure philosophy and 136,
137,139
Hermeneutics and 140
Postmodernism and 141
 explanatory critiques/theories 127, 129 global systems 77
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

exploitation 23, 26, 30-31, 106 globalisation 13, 24

Greene, Maxine 96, 102-103
F
facts H
categories of 32, 34-35 Habermas, Jurgen 87
roe and 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 41, Heidegger, Martin 55-56
137 Hermeneutics
Scientific Rationalism and 52, 137 advantagesand disadvantages of 71-71
falsity 44-45 African Philosophy and 139-140
Fanon, Frantz 14, 89, 140 African political philosophy and 139
Feminism African pure philosophy and 139
advantages
and disadvantages of 105 African sage philosophy
and 139
African Philosophy and 140 Christian National
African pure philosophy and 140
African sage philosophy and 140
of 4,96-98
forms of 96-98, 106
education and 99-100, 103-105
educators/teachers
and 95-96, 100-103,
104, 106 educators and 63-64, 68-70
ethics and 101, 102 Empiricism and 139
ethnic philosophy and 140 ethnic philosophy and 139
influence
on education 103-104 Existentialism and 139, 140
knowledge and 104 Feminism and 99, 102-103
morality and 106 Ken Wilber’s work in 65-67, 65-66,
ather philosophies and 99, 102-103 65-66, 139
Queer Theory and 4, 96, 105-106, 109 religion and 70
religion and 95, 100 summary 70-71, 72-73
schools
of thought 96 Western consumerism and 67-68
summary 103, 106 sso 74,75, 110
Feminist Majority Foundation 99 historical contingency 14, 89, 142
financial
crisis of 2007-2009 47, 48, 88 history, importance of 73, 109, 114
Firestone, Shulamith 98 holism, see specialisation
flat ontology 124 holistic philosophy 14, 78, 80, 139, 141
Foucault, Michel 81-82, 105 holons 65-66, 65-66
Frankfurt School 87
freedom 87, 89, 120, 142
Freire, Paulo 86,91, 134
Freud, Sigmund 56 Catherin
Fundamental Pedagogics vii, 47, 48, 53, 60 Horkheimer, Max 87
Horn
of Africa 10, 11, 74, 74
Hountondji, ii, Paulin 14
Gadamer, Hans-Georg 63, 65, 68-69
Galileo 127 angst 120
emancipation. 120, 128°
Gallagher, Shaun
experience 54, 64,97, 138,141
Hermeneutics
and 63, 69-70
sentience 138
Phenomenology and 53, 58, 59
Gandhi, Mahatma 75 subjectivity 4, 132
humanism 16, 18, 105
gang violence 2, 91,92
humanistic
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins 95, 100-101
philosophy 104
 23,31 K

xapuy
humankind, origins of 5-12, 5-7, 9, 11, Kaunda, Kenneth 16
43-44, 63,74, 74 King, Martin Luther 97, 135
Husserl, Edmund 55 King, Noel 16
knowledge
itical Realism and 117, 118, 120, 125,
130-133 /
Critical Theory and 90, 92, 94

of Modernism 108
IKS, see Indigenous Knowledge Systems
indigenous African knowledge systems intransitive abjects/dimension of 121,
African education systems and 26-27 122, 126
characteristics
of 24 plagiarismof 26
colonialism and 15 Plato and vii
Postmodernism
and 109, 110
Scientific Rationalism and 43, 49

Systems Theory and 83

transitive objects/dimension of
121-123, 126

systems

see also African Philosophy _ Letseka, Moeketsi_ 19

Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) leaming, origins of 5-12, 5-7, 9, 11, 63, 74,
programme 27-29 74
views of Odora Hoppers and 28, 29 liberal feminism 96-97, 104, 106
incorporation
in school curriculum in liberation 98
SA 29 Locke, John
integration
of Western and African Empiricism and 32, 35, 36
knowledge systems in an 29-30 Scientific Rationalism and 43, 49
indigenous knowledge, sources of 24 Logical Empiricism 35
indoctrination 37 Lyotard, Jean-Francois 107, 108, 112-113,
14
injustice 75, 86,95, 127
inner-city schools 2
intellectual inalisation 26
interpretation 3, 64, 66-67, 72 Mandela, Nelson 135
ivism 131 marginalisation 26,99
intransitive objects/dimension of knowledge of African values 17
121, 122, 126 of women 103
intransitivity 121-122 Martin, Jane, see Rowland Martin, Jane
Marxism vii, 91, 92, 98, 110
J
Jiménez, fleana 96, 103 McLaren, Peter 86,90, 91,93, 111
Jung, Carl 56, 60 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 53, 57-58
 Outcomes-based Education vii, 32, 38, 39,
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

47-49

Pp
paedophilia scandal, in Roman Catholic
Church 46-47, 48
Montessori education 103-104
patriarchy 95, 96, 98
morality Peters, Michael 112
Cnitical Theory and 87
Peters, Richard 32,37
Empiricism and 40, 136
phenomenological feminism 97-98,
Feminism and 106 101-104
Postmodernism and 114, 116 Phenomenology
Scientific Rationalism and. 45
4
advantages and disadvantages of
moral truth 109 138-139
Mosesthe Black 15 African Philosophy and 138-139
Mou, Lucretia 97 African ethnic philosophy and 138
mutual resonance 122 African political philosophy and 138
African pure philosophy and 138
African sage philosophy and 138
name-calling 44 Critical Theory and
Haciohoetes boy 6-8, 6-7 dangers of 60
Nazism 90-91, 93 description of 3, 53-55
education and 57, 60-61
educators and 53, 57-59
Feminism and 99
Fundamental Pedagogics 53, 60
Nkrumah, Kwame 14, 16,26 history of 55-56
uo 95, 101-102 reality and 53, 54,55, 59
norms 116 :
Nyerere, Julius 14, 15, 16, 139

fe] philosophy,
Pitoeceey kes Chien, 8 meet
OBE, see Outcomes-based Education
objective reality 4,119, 127,129
pidlociy of eduextion
definition of vii

plagiarism
of knowledge 26
Plato
old knowledge 3,24
ontological premises (of Critical Realism)
relations 124-125
intransitivity and transitivity 121-122
stratification of reality 123-124
ontology (of Critical Realism) 121-125 Critical Realism and 120, 130, 131, 142
causal relations 124-125
Constructivism and 122, 129
intransitivity and transitivity 121-122
stratification of reality 123-124 postcolonial regimes 26, 28
origins of humankind 5-12, 5-7, 9, 11, postcolonialism 13, 15, 17,26
postmodern feminism 106
43-44, 63, 74, 74 Postmodernism
Oruka, Henry Odera 14
 African ethnic philosophy and 141 African 136

xapuy
African political philosophy and 141-142 Critical Theory and 87
African pure philosophy and 141 Empiricism and 136, 138
Critical Theory and 111 Feminism and 95, 100
Deconstruction
and 107, 115 Fundamental eet 47
education and 110-111, 114-115
educators and 107, 111-113

knowledge and 109, 110 scandal in the Roman Catholic

Church
morality and 114, 116 46
reality and 109, 110, 111 Scientific rationalism and 49
religion and 108 Systems Theory and 141
summary 114, 115-116 religious schools |
revealed knowledge 24
Roman Catholic Church 46
Romantics 108
Rowland Martin, Jane 95, 102
Empiricism and 136-137, 139 Russell, Bertrand 111
Existentialism
and 136, 137, 139
Feminism and 140
Hermeneuticsand 139
Sagan, Carl 43,50
sage (wisdom) philosophy
Critical Theory and 89, 140
Scientific Rationalism and 136, 139 definition
of 14, 136
Western philosophies and 142
Feminism and 140

Q
quantum physics 110
Queer Theory 4, 96, 105-106, 109
questioning approach (of Scientific
Rationalism) 42, 43-44, 48-49

R
i feminism 98, 102, 103, 104, 106, during apartheid 47, 63, 70, 89
Empiricism and 39
seat inca 35, 36,94, 110
feminism and 99, 100, 101, 102, 103
real, the 123, 124, 131, 132,
Realism 118, 119-120 physical force and 81

Critical Realism and 4, 119, 120, 121,

125, 127, 129, 130, 132, 133, 142
stratificationof 121, 123-124
Phenomenology and 53, 54,55, 59
tae and disadvantages of 51
Postmodernismand 109, 110, 111
layers
of 123
African Philosophy and 137-138
African pure philosophy and 136, 139
idea of 118
Critical Theory and 88, 94
domainsof 123, 124 description of 3, 42-49
nature of 121
education and 47-48, 49, 50-51
see also Ontology
educators and 43, 49-50
religion
 global system 77
Philosophy of Education Today: An Introduction

knowledge and 83
ethnic philosophy and 137, 138 religion and 141
summary 81, 84-85

rm
Taung child 5-6, 5, 8, 43-44
teachers/educators
Critical Realism and 132
Critical Theory and 90-91
Empiricism and 32, 33, 36-38, 39, 40,
41,48
Feminism and 95, 97, 99, 100-103, 104
Hermeneutics and 63, 64, 66, 68-70
Siegel, Harvey 32, 37-38 in schools 1,2
social injustice 75, 86, 95,
socialism 15-16
Social Phenomenology 54 Postmodernism
and 110, 111-113, 115
social reality
Scientific Rationalism and 49-50, 51
causal relations 124-125
Systems Theory and 78, 79-81, 83
Critical Realism and 124, 127, 129, 130, technology 90, 105-106, 113
142 ; Teffo, lnc 19
intransitivity and transitivity 121-122 Terence (Roman playwright) 105
stratification of reality 123-124 Touré, Sékou 16
transitive objects/dimension
of knowledge
121-123, 126
transitivity 121-122
social world, the 120,121 truth
Socrates 59 approximation
of 126, 127, 131, 133
South African education system 27-30
Critical Realism and 4, 117, 120, 129,
132, 133, 133
Critical Theory and 89
Empiricism and 33, 34, 38, 40, 41, 88,
Steiner, Rudolph 63, 139
Bisse diene rsa 121, 123-124
fallibility
of 133
stratified ontology 123, 124
Hermeneutics and 64
subjectivity 4, 118, 132 Phenomenology and 89
see also Critical Realism
Postmodernism and 109, 110, 111
symbolism 8-11, 63-64, 67 Pragmatism and 40, 41
Systems Theory
Scientific Rationalism and 43, 49, 64,
advantages and disadvantages of 83
137
African ethnic philosophy and 141
view of alethic 127, 133
African Philosophy and 141 Truth, Sojourner 97
African political philosophy and 141 Turkana boy, see Nariokotome
boy
Africansage philosophy and 141
Complexity Theory and 2, 4, 84
dangers of 81-82 U
description of 4, 76-78 ubuntu 3, 31
education and 78, 82-84 education and 14, 18-19, 21, 22, 23
educators and 76, 79-81 meaning 18
ethics and $3 ujamaa 16
unifying
life thearies 110
United Nations Declaration
on Rights of Western knowledge systems 3, 13 =
Indigenous People 26 African knowledge systems and 24-25,
28-29, 30
=
Vv fe te ae Sees
Western modernism 107
Van Manen, Max 53, 58
Western philosophies
verification 33
vs African political philosophy 142
violence 1, 2,98, 100
Von Bertalanfly, African
pure philosophy and 142
African sage philosophy
and 142.
ethnic philosophy and 142
Ww Wilber, Ken 63, 65-67, 65-66, 69, 139
West, Yusef 32,37 Winfrey, Oprah 135
Waldorf education 69, 103-104
Wa Thiong’o, Ngugi_ 16 wisdom philosophy, see sage philosophy
Weiner, Norhert 76, 80, 81 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 107, 111-112
Western Wollstonecraft, Mary 96-97, 106
women, marginalisation of 103
education systems 21, 22
Western identity 15 PA
vs African identity 28
see also Rurocentricity Zambian humanism 16
westernisationof cducation in Africa 17-18