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EXPERIMENT - 1
SECOND ORDER BUTTERWORTH LOW PASS FILTER

AIM:
To realise a second order butterworth Low Pass Filter.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS:

Op-amp µA741,Resistors, Capacitors,CRO,Function Generator,Connecting Wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

DESIGN:
For a cut off frequency, fC= 10KHz
1
fC = , Assume C=0.01 f , R= 1 .59K
2 πRC

Choose R=1.5K, ∴ For R=1.5K and C=0.01F, fc =10.6KHz

Rf
Gain of Non inverting amplifier Av = 1+ R1
For second order butter worth filter, Gain =1.586
Choosing R1= 10K, Rf= 5.86K
NOTE:
Gain of the filter,

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Vo Av 1
=
Vi √1+ ( f /fc )2 and fC= 2 π √ R 2 R 3C 1 C 2 R2=R3=R, C1=C2=C

PROCEDURE:
 Test the correctness of each component.
 Connect the Components as shown.
 Connect the function generator, set Vp-p >1or 2V
 Vary the frequency from 0Hz to maximum value in suitable steps such that the
3dB frequency values are noted.
 Plot a graph of Gain Vs Frequencies using semi log graph sheet.
 Determine the cutoff frequency and BW and roll of rate

TABULAR COLUMN:
Vin=………..V

Frequency Vout Gain(Av)=Vout/Vin Gain(dB)=20logAv

Roll of rate =gain at 10 fC-gain at fc

RESULT:
LPF was Designed and tested with below mentioned results

Theoretical Practical
Cutoff Frequency

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Passband Gain
Roll off Rate

About Low Pass Filter

LPF is a circuit which passes all the frequency components below a particular frequency
(called cutoff frequency fc) and attenuates all higher frequency components. The rate at
which it attenuates frequencies higher than fc depends on the order of the filter. In
general roll off rate is 20Xn dB. Where n is the order of the filter.Order of any filter
indicates the number of poles present in the transfer function of that filter.Hence second
order filter has two poles in its transfer function. Frequency response of an idle LPF is
as shown

Roll off rate for an ideal filter is Infinite it is not practically possible to implement such
a filter as such a system is non causal (ie inverse Fourier transform of such a response is
a sync function, which is non causal and hence cannot be realized practically). An
active filter is the one which uses active components like transistors, opamps
etc.Whereas passive filters are implemented only using passive components ie R, L& C.
APPLICATIONS:
LPF are widely used in communication ie during demodulation of signals, it is used for
anti aliasing in A/D converters, it is used in PCM to band limit the voice signal

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SECOND ORDER BUTTERWORTH HIGH PASS FILTER

AIM:
To realise a second order butterworth High Pass Filter.

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS:

Op-amp µA741,Resistors, Capacitors,CRO,Function Generator,Connecting Wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

DESIGN:
For a cut off frequency of fC=5KHz)
1
fC = , Assume C=0.01 F, R=3.18K, Choose R=3.3K
2 πRC

For R=3.3K and C=0.01F, fc =4.8 KHz

Rf
Gain of Non inverting amplifier Av=1+ R 1
For second order filter, Gain =1.586
Choosing R1= 10K, Rf = 5.86K
Vo Av 1
= , and fc=
Vi √1+ ( fc /f ) 2
2 π √ R 2 R 3C 1C 2

R2=R3=R, C1=C2=C

PROCEDURE:

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 Test the correctness of each component.

 Connect the Circuit as shown.
 Connect the function generator, set Vp-p of about 1V/2V
 Vary the frequency from zero Hz to maximum value in suitable steps such that
the 3dB frequency values are noted.
 Plot a semi log graph of Gain Vs Frequencies.
 Determine the cutoff frequency and BW, roll of rate.

TABULAR COLUMN
Vin=………..V

Frequency Vout Gain(Av)=Vout/Vin Gain(dB)=20logAv

Roll of rate =gain at fc-gain at fc/10

RESULT:
HPF was Designed and tested with below mentioned results

Theoretical Practical
Cutoff Frequency
Passband Gain
Roll off Rate
About High Pass Filter

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HPF is a circuit which passes all the frequency components above a particular
frequency (called cutoff frequency fc) and attenuates all low frequency components.
The rate at which it attenuates frequencies lower than fc depends on the order of the
filter. In general roll off rate is 10Xn dB/Decade or 3Xn dB/Octave where n is the order
of the filter. Order of any filter indicates the number of poles present in the transfer
function of that filter.Hence second order filter has two poles in its transfer
functionFrequency response of an idle HPF is as shown

Roll off rate for an ideal filter is Infinite it is not practically possible to implement such
a filter as such a system is non causal (i.e. inverse Fourier transform of such a response
is a sync function, which is non causal and hence cannot be realized practically). An
active filter is the one which uses active components like transistors,op-amps
etc.Whereas passive filters are implemented only using passive components i.e. R, L &
C.

APPLICATIONS:
HPF is used in communication systems to remove low frequency noise and dc
components. They are extensively used in Bio-medical signal processing.

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EXPERIMENT -2
AM MODULATION AND DEMODULATION USING ENVELOPE DETECTOR

AIM:
i)Tocalculate variationofmodulationindexwithvariation ofVm.
ii)Tocalculatetotalpower dissipated.

COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:
TransistorBF194,BC107,Signalgenerators,Resistors,CapacitorsI n d u c t o r ,
ammeter,connectingwires,probesand CRO.

THEORY:
CollectorAM modulator
The circuit diagram shows a basic circuit for BJT modulator. It is a high power class
Camplifier. The modulator is a linear power amplifier that takes the low level
modulating signalandamplifies it to ahighpower level.
In the absence of modulating input signal, there will be zero modulation. Therefore
collectorsupply voltage will be applied directly to the class C amplifier. When the
modulating signaloccurs, the ac voltage across the secondary of modulating
Transformer will be added to andsubtracted from the collector supply voltage. This
varying supply voltage is then applied toclass C amplifier resulting in variations
inamplitude of the carrier wave in accordance withthe modulating signal. Due to this,
amplitude of current pulses also vary in accordance withmodulatingsignal.
Thetunedcircuitthen convertsthe currentpulses intoan AMwave.

ENVELOPE DETECTOR
Anenvelopedetectorisasimpleandhighlyeffectivedevicethatiswell-
suitedfortheDemodulation of narrow-band AM wave, for which percentage
modulation is less than 100%.In an envelope detector, the output follows the envelope
of the modulated signal, hence thename.
It consists of a diode and a resistor-capacitor filter. In the positive half cycle of the
AM signal,the diode conducts and current flows through R whereas in negative half

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cycle of the AMsignal, the diode is reverse biased and no current flows through R.
As a result only positivehalf of the AM wave appears across RC. The capacitor
charges up to the peak value during thepositive half cycle and discharges when diode
is reverse biased, the discharge being throughRL.Thecyclerepeats
foreverypositiveandnegative half cycle.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1
For LC Tuned circuit f c = = 15kHz
2 π √ LC

PROCEDURE:
1. Rigupthe circuitas shownin thefigure.
2. Connect the AF generator. Vary the AF voltage and calculate the modulation index
whichis givenbym=Vm/Vc
3. Calculate thetotal power transmitted Pt=Pc(1+m2/2)

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4. Tocalculate Pc, switch offthe messagesignal and notedown VP-Pand RL.

OBSERVATION:
VAF VMAX VMIN %m Pt=Pc(1+m2/2)

CALCULATIONS:
VAF=Vm=(Vmax – Vmin)/2
VRF= Vc = (Vmax+ Vmin)/2
m=Vm/ Vc= (Vmax–Vmin) / (Vmax+ Vmin)

RESULT :
Thecircuithasbeen riggedandthe AMO/Phas beenverified.

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II - AM DETECTOR (DIODE DETECTOR)

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

DESIGN:
1/RC= ωm*m/√ (1−m2 )
Letfm=2.14KHz, m=0.6,C=3300pF
R=√ (1−m2 )/Cmωm
Therefore R=30KΩ
PROCEDURE:

1. Setupthecircuitas shown.
2. Feedtheinput AMsignal.
3. Vary the modulation index of AM signal and note down the values of
theoutputvoltage.
4. Plotthegraphof%modulationversusoutputvoltage.

OBSERVATION:

Vmax Vmin %m Vop-p

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Amplitude Modulation

Envelop Detector

RESULT:

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1. Collectormodulatoranddiodedetector aresuccessfullydesigned.
2. Thewaveformsandgraphareplotted.
DSBSC MODULATION AND DEMODULATION USINGLF398 AND LM741

AIM:
To Realize DSBSC Modulation and Demodulation

COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:
IC- LF398 & IC- LM741, Resistor, Capacitor, CRO, CRO Probes, Board

Fig 1: Block Diagram Of DSBSC Generation

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

DESIGN:
a. Inverting amplifier
Av= -1
Rf=R=1K

b. Low pass filter design

fd =1Khz and Cd=0.1ufd

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fd = 1/2 RdCd Rd =1.5k ohms : Use 5k pot

PROCEDURE:
a. Modulation

1. Construct Inverting amplifier using LM741 as per the design & check for the
inverting operation. ie . –m(t)
2. Feed m(t) & -m(t) as a message signal & C(t) as a carrier signal for the
given specification .
3. Apply +Vce & -Vcc to both LM741 & LF398 IC
4. Check for DSBSC o/p ie o/p should 1800 Phase reversal .
5. Trace m(t). –m(t) , C(t) & S(t ) on a linear graph
Result : Observe for 1800 Phase reversal
WAVEFORMS:

DEMODULATION:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1. Choose the Carrier frequency same as the one used at the transmitter as one i/p.
DSBSC and its inversion also as inputs.
2. Obtain the demodulated wave ,m’(t)
3. Trace DSBSC wave & m’(t)
NOTE m’(t) is an estimate of the original message, m(t) .
EXPECTEDWAVEFORMS:

PIN DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect DSBSC output to demodulator input.
2. Check the demodulated output
3. Trace the signals on a linear graph.

RESULT:
Observe the DSBSC Modulation and Demodulation waveforms.

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EXPERIMENT - 3
FREQUENCY MODULATION USING IC 8038

AIM:
To realise a frequency modulation using IC 8038 and determine bandwidth.

COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:
IC8038,Resistors,Capacitors,CRO,Connecting Wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Note:For minimum distortion of carrier signal,connect a resistor of 81K atPin No.12

WAVEFORMS:

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connectthecomponentsasshown
2. Withoutm(t),checkforthetriangularandsquarewavesatpin3and9respectively
3. Applym(t)(around500hz-1Khz)andnotedown theFMoutputatpin 2
4. Varytheamplitudeofm(t)suchthat3adjacentwavescanbeseenattheoutput
asshown in figureaorshowninfigure b
5. Notedown∆t and calculate frequencydeviation∆f
6. Determinebandwidth(BW)andmodulationindex(β).

DESIGN (for RA and RB):

+ −
(V −V )
Assume current I=0.2mA ,RA= 5I

( 10−0)
RA= 5 x 0. 2 m RA =10 K , RB=RA= 10K
,

0. 3
C=
Let f=9KHz; RXf C=3300pF

 Frequency deviation∆f=f2- f1 , Where f1=1/t1 and f2=1/t2

 fm= frequency of message signal m(t)…………………..Hz, BW=2(fm+ ∆f)

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Δf
 Modulation Index , β= fm
NOTE:
Observe the outputs for square input.

RESULT

Frequency modulated wave was generated using IC 8038.

Band width =……………
Modulation Index β =…………..

FM DETECTION USING SLOPE DETECTOR

AIM:
To realise a frequency demodulation using slope detector circuit

COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:
Resistors, Capacitors, CRO, ConnectingWires, IFT (Intemediate Frequency
transformer), OA79 Diode

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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FM I/P using FM FUNCTION GENERATOR

C(t)=1/2 IFT Frequency,10V m(t)=1KHz at 5V

DESIGN:
Let RC>>T, i.eRC = 50T i.e T = 1/f , f is IFT frequency obtained.
Choose C= 3300pF, then calculate R= ….. K  .
PROCEDURE:
 Verify the correctness of all the components.
 Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
 ApplyFM signal that is generated as an i/pto IFT. (set carrier frequency half of
IFT frequency set at around 10V and message m(t) around 1Khz at 5V in FM
function generator)

RESULT:

Waveforms at the secondary of the IFT, output waveform are observed and verified.
WAVEFORM:

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EXPERIMENT - 4
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING AND DE-MULTIPLEXING

AIM:
To achieve Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing of two band limited signals.

COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:
IC CD4051, Signal generators, Patch chords, CRO Probes, and connecting wires.

THEORY: TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING:

Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and receiving
independent signals over a common signal path by means of synchronized switches at
each end of the transmission line so that each signal appears on the line only a fraction
of time in an alternating pattern. It is used when the bit rate of the transmission medium
exceeds that of the signal to be transmitted. This form of signal multiplexing was
developed in Telecommunications for Telegraphy systems in the late 19th century, but
found its most common application in Digital Telephony in the second half of the 20th
century.

TIME DIVISION DEMULTIPLEXING:

It is the process of recovering the originally transmitted message signals that
were used for TDM. The individual sine and square wave signals are recovered by
reversing the process of time division multiplexing.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXER:-

Fig 4.1: Time Division Multiplexer

TIME DIVISION DEMULTIPLEXER:-

Fig 4.2: Time Division Demultiplexer

PROCEDURE:
TDM MULTIPLEXING:

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1. Rig up the circuit as shown in fig no 4.1

2. Apply signals message signals m1(t) and m2(t) to pin number 13 and pin
number 14 respectively.
3. Apply control signal to pin number 11.
4. Observe TDM output at pin number 03 and note down necessary readings.

TDM DEMULTIPLEXING:

1. Rig up the circuit as shown in fig number 4.2

2. Apply TDM input to pin number 03.
3. Apply control signal to pin number 11.
4. Observe output m1(t), m2(t) at pin number 13 and pin number 14 respectively
note down necessary readings.

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS

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RESULT:

The experiment was conducted, Multiplexed & De-Multiplexed of two band limited
signal was verified.

EXPERIMENT - 5
PAM- MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
AIM:
i. ToconductanexperimenttogeneratePAMandalsotodesignacircuittodemodulatetheP
AM signals.
ii. Verification of sampling theorem.

COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:

BJTBF194, signal generators, resistors, capacitors, connecting wires, probes and CRO.

THEORY:
It is very easy to generate and demodulate PAM.the signal to be converted to PAM is
fedthroughtheswitchwhichiscontrolledbyapulsetrain.Whenthepulseispresent,i.esignalisa
t high level,switch is closed. When the pulse is absent,i.e signal is at low level, switch
isopen.WiththiscontrolactionoftheswitchwegetPAMwaveformattheoutput.Thesamplesar

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e taken at the regular intervals of time. Each sample to a pulse.if enough samples are
taken,areasonable approximation of the signal being sampled can be constructed at the
receivingend.Thisis known as PulseAmplitude Modulation.
ForthedemodulationofthePAM,it ispassedthroughalowpass filter.ifthecutofffrequency
of this filter is greater than the highest signal frequency but at the same time muchless
than the sampling frequency of the pulses, the original signal can be recovered
withoutdistortion.
Sampling theorem
The carrier frequency is varied to verify the sampling theorem Keepfc=2fm.
The demodulated wave appears slightly distorted. This is critical sampling.
Keep fc<2fm
The demodulated wave is more distorted. It is under sampling.
Keep fc>2fm
The demodulated wave is perfect sine wave. This is oversampling.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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DESIGN:
R1C1=T=1/fc
LetC1=0.1µF, fc=5KHz
Therefore R1C1=1/(5*103)
Therefore R1=2KΩ
PROCEDURE:
1. Rigupthe circuitas shownin thefigure.
2. Applythemodulatingsignal m(t)andsampling input. ObservePAMoutput
3. Notedown thewaveforms.
4. Connectthedemodulatorcircuit. Observeandnote downtheoutput.
5. Verify the sampling theorem for the demodulated wave.i) Keepfc=2fm.
The demodulated wave appears slightly distorted. This is critical
sampling. ii)Keepfc<2fm
The demodulated wave is more distorted. It is under sampling.
iii)Keep fc>2fm
Thedemodulatedwaveisperfectsinewave.Thisis oversampling.

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PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

SAMPLING THEOREM

RESULT:
The wave forms for PAM have been observed and sampling theorem has been verified.

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PULSE AND FLAT TOP SAMPLING

AIM:
Design and Demonstrate Pulse sampling, flat top sampling and reconstruction.

COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:
Signal generator, Op-amp µA 741, Transistor(NPN)SL100, (PNP)SK 100, Resistors,
Capacitors, RPS, CRO and Connecting Wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig a) Pulse Sampling and Flat Top Sampling

Fig b) Reconstruction of message signal

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DESIGN
For RC low Pass Filter

Let fm=1Khz, let C = 0.1 µ F

1
fm = , R= 1.6KΩ use 10KΩ potentiometer.
2 πRC

THEORY:
Flat top sampling is the process in which samples have constant amplitude and equal to
the instantaneous value of base band signal at the time sampling. Normally the width of
the pulse in flat top the width of the pulse in flat top sampling and natural sampling is to
reduce transmission bandwidth. The flat top pulses of δ(f) is mathematically equal to
convolution of instantaneous sample and pulse m(f) we use sample and hold circuit.
WAVEFORMS:

DEMODULATED WAVEFORM:

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PROCEDURE:
 Verify the circuit components and connections are made as per the circuit
diagram.
 Apply the message m(t) amplitude peak to peak 2V at 1KHz and carrier signal
c(t) >10V peak to peak amplitude at around 10KHz
 Observe the output at the emitter of p-n-p transistor
 Apply this signal to RL low pass filter to get back the original message signal.
 Plot the wave forms of m(t), c(t), Vc(t), S(t), S 1(t) and m’(t)(reconstruction
of m(t).

RESULT:
Pulse and Flat top sampling is performed successfully and reconstruction is done.

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EXPERIMENT - 6
BJT TRANSISTOR MIXER

AIM:
To realise BJT transistor mixer and to study the up-conversion and down- conversion
of transistor mixer.
COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:
TransistorBF194,Intermediate Frequency Transformer(IFT), Resistors,Capacitors,
CRO, CRO probe and RPS, Board, Signal generators.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WAVEFORMS:

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DESIGN:
VCC=10V, hfe=115(for BF194),ICmax=200mA,

hie= 2K, RE = VCC/ICmax=50 , RB>>hie+hfeRE

Let RBCB >>T, i.eRBCB = 50Ti.e T = 1/f , f is IFT frequency obtained.

Choose CB=2200pF, then calculate RB = ….. K  .

PROCEDURE:

Determination of IF(Intermediate Frequency) of given IFT

 Connect the input terminals (primary) of IFT to signal generator and output
terminals (secondary) to CRO.
 Set the amplitude on signal generator to a suitable value and vary the input
frequency from zero.
 Note down the frequency at which maximum amplitude is obtained. This
frequency is the Intermediate frequency (resonant frequency) of the
IFT.Determine Rb and Cb of the circuit for this intermediate frequency value.

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To verify class C operation

 Connect the collector modulate circuit w/o AFT,IFT.

 Connect the collector of the transistor directly to Vcc.
 Apply c(t) at predetermined intermediate frequency.
 Check half wave rectified o/p at emitter(emitter pulses)
 Determine the conduction angle (<180◦)
To obtain mixer output

 Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

 For up conversion, set the carrier frequency (VRF) to the 250Khz frequency and
local oscillator VLO to 200Khz frequency.
 Set the local oscillator signal amplitude and carrier frequency signal amplitude
(VRF) to zero. Slowly increase both the signal levels until mixing appears ( set

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time /division setting microseconds range and amplitude of RF signal

i.e ,should be greater than local oscillator signal amplitude).
 Note down the output signal at maximum amplitude also note down the
corresponding frequencies of RF ,local oscillator and the output.
 Repeat the above procedure for down conversion by setting the carrier
frequency(VRF) to the 650Khz frequency and local oscillator VLO to 150Khz
frequency.
NOTE:
CALCULATION

Up conversion:fRF+ fLO= IFT frequency

Down conversion :fRF - fLO= IFT frequency

RESULT:
Transistor mixer circuit was designed and tested.

EXPERIMENT -7
PULSE CODE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

AIM:
To realize the pulse code modulation and demodulation using IC 44233

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COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:
IC44233, 1C7493, Resistor, Function generator 2MHz TTL Clock, Power supply, CRO

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply TTL clock of 2MHz from function generator to pin 14 of IC 7493 and sine
wave of 1 KHz/2v from function generator to pinl of IC 44233.
3. Check the output at pin 11 of first IC7493. That should be 125 KHz i.e.2MHz/16
4. Check the output at pin 11 of second IC7493. That should be approximately 8 KHz
i.e.2MHz/256.
5. Observe the PCM output at pin 8 of IC44233.
6. Observe the demodulated output at pin 5 of IC44233 and compare with original
analog message.

WAVEFORM

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EXPERIMENT -8
PHASE LOCKED LOOP SYNTHESIS

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AIM:
TosynthesizeafrequencyusingPLLandhencetofinditscapturerangeandlockinrange

COMPONENTS& EQUIPMENTS:
PLL(NE 565).divide by 5 n/w (7490), transistor (Q2N2222) resistors, capacitors, DC
supply, IC Trainer kit, signal generator, CRO
THEORY:

The phase detector, or comparator compares the i/p frequency f in with the frequency
fout..The o/p of phase detector is proportional to the phase difference b/w fin and fout.
The o/p of a phase detector is a dc voltage and therefore it is often referred to as the
error voltage .The o/p of phase detector is then applied to the low pass filter .which
removes the high frequency noise and produces a dc voltage ,this dc level is the i/p to
VCO whose o/p frequency is directly proportional to the dc level .the VCO frequency
is compared with the i/p frequency and adjusted until it is equal to the i/p
frequency .In short the PLL goes through 3stagesfree-running,captureand phase lock.
The output of VCO is fed back with the help of modulo-n counter, which is a divide
by ckt. hence the output frequency will be in times the input frequency.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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IC 7490 as a mode 2 counter

DESIGN:
R1 variesb/w therange2Kand 20K
C1=0.01µf
For R1=2k fout=1.2/(4R1C1) =15Khz
ForR1=20K fout=1.5Khz
If(a ÷ 5) counter is used, the i/p frequency range has to be 300hz to 3Khz
Sayfout=2.5Khz
Then,fl=±8fout/v=±1Khz

fc=± =±66.49Hz

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Input and output waveforms

PROCEDURE:
1. Rigup the circuit as shown.
2. Applyani/psquaresignal ofsay1Khz=fin.
3. Notefoutwhich is5fin.
4. Togetoutput 2finConnectthemode2 counterasshownandverifytheoutput.
To find lock range and capture range
1. Applyasquarewaveof2Vp-p topin no.2.
2. With i/pofffindthe freerunningfrequencyf0.
3. Increasethe i/p frequencyand find thefirstcapturepoint(f1)at which fout=fin.
4. Increasethe i/p frequencyfurther andfind thesecond lockout point f2.
5. Now decreasethefrequencyand findsecond capturepointf3wherefout=fin.
6. Decrease further toobtain second lockoutpoint f4.
RESULT:
Theoperation ofaPLLas a frequencysynthesizerhasbeen verifiedLockin

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range=Capturerange=
SOFTWARE PROGRAM
a. AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
close all;
clear all;
clc;
fs=8000; %SAMPLE FREQUENCY
fm=20; %THREE MESSAGE SIGNAL FREQUENCY
fc=500; %CARRIER FREQUENCY
Am=1; %MESSAGE AMPLITUDE
Ac=1; %CARRIER AMPLITUDE
t=[0:0.1*fs]/fs; %TIME DURATION
m=Am*cos(2*pi*fm*t);
c=Ac*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
ka=0.5;
u=ka*Am;
s1=Ac*(1+u*cos(2*pi*fm*t)).*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
subplot(4,3,1:3);
plot(t,m);
title('Modulating or Message signal(fm=20Hz)');
subplot(4,3,4:6);
plot(t,c);
title('Carrier signal(fc=500Hz)');
subplot(4,3,7);
plot(t,s1);
title('Under Mod signal');
Am=2;
ka=0.5;
u=ka*Am;
s2=Ac*(1+u*cos(2*pi*fm*t)).*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
subplot(4,3,8);
plot(t,s2);
title('Exact Mod signal');

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Am=5;
ka=0.5;
u=ka*Am;
s3=Ac*(1+u*cos(2*pi*fm*t)).*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
subplot(4,3,9);
plot(t,s3);
title('Over Mod signal');
r1=s1.*c;
[b a]=butter(1,0.01); %BUTTERWORTH FILTER
mr1=filter(b,a,r1); %DEPTH OF MODULATION
subplot(4,3,10);
plot(t,mr1);
title('DeModulated signal');
r2=s2.*c;
[b a]=butter(1,0.01);
mr2=filter(b,a,r2);
subplot(4,3,11);
plot(t,mr2);
title('DeModulated signal');
r3=s3.*c;
[b a]=butter(1,0.01);
mr3=filter(b,a,r3);
subplot(4,3,12);
plot(t,mr3);
title('DeModulated signal');
WAVEFORM

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DSBSC MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

clc;
clear all;
close all;
t=[0:0.001:1];
% set the parameters of message signal
fm=5;
Am=1;
m=Am*sin(2*pi*fm*t);
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,m);
title('Message Signal');
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
% Set the parameters of carrier signal
fc=80;
Ac=1;
c=Ac*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,c);
title('Carrier Signal');
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
% Generate DSBSC Modulated Signal
s=m.*c;
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t,s);
title(' DSBSC Signal');
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
% Perform Synchronous Demodulation
s1=s.*c;
[b,a]=butter(5,0.1);

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%[B,A] = butter(N,Wn) design an Nth order lawpass digital

%Butterworth filter and returns the filter coefficients in length
%N+1 vectors B (numerator) and A (denominator).
%The cutoff frequency Wn must be 0.0 < Wn < 1.0,
%with 1.0 corresponding to half the simple rate.
s2=filter(b,a,s1);
%s2 = filter(B,A,s1) filters the data in vector s1 with the
%filter described by vectors A and B to create the filtered
%data s2.
subplot(4,1,4);
plot(t,s2);
title('Demodulated Signal');
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');

WAVEFORM

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FM MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

clear all;
close all;
clc;
% set the parameters
fs=10000;
Ac=1;
Am=1;
fm=35;
fc=500;
B=10;
t=(0:.1*fs)/fs;
wc=2*pi*fc;
wm=2*pi*fm;
m_t=Am*cos(wm*t);
subplot(4,1,1);
plot(t,m_t);
title('Message Signal');
c_t=Ac*cos(wc*t);
subplot(4,1,2);
plot(t,c_t);
title('Carrier Signal');
s_t= Ac*cos((wc*t)+ B*sin(wm*t));
subplot(4,1,3);
plot(t,s_t);
title('Frequency Modulated Signal');
d=demod(s_t,fc,fs,'fm');
%demod Signal demodulation for communications simulations.
%d = demod(s_t,Fc,Fs,METHOD,OPT) demodulates the signl s_t with a
%carrier frequency Fc and sampling frequency Fs, using the demodulation
%scheme in METHD. OPT is optional, parameter whose purpose depeds on
%the demodulation scheme that we choose
subplot(4,1,4);

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plot(t,d);
title('Demodulated Signal');
WAVEFORM

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SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION OF LOW PASS SIGNALS. DISPLAY

THE SIGNALSAND ITS SPECTRUMS OF BOTH ANALOG AND SAMPLED
SIGNALS.

% Generate low pass signal

fs = 500; % Sampling frequency
T = 1/fs; % Sampling period
t = 0:T:1-T; % Time vector
fc = 20; % Cutoff frequency
x = sin(2*pi*fc*t); % Low pass signal

% Plot low pass signal and its spectrum

subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Low Pass Signal');

X = fft(x)/length(x);
f = linspace(0,fs,length(x));
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(f,20*log10(abs(X)));
xlim([0 fs/2]);
xlabel('Frequency (Hz)');
ylabel('Magnitude (dB)');
title('Spectrum of Low Pass Signal');

% Sample low pass signal

fs2 = 200; % Sampling frequency
T2 = 1/fs2; % Sampling period
t2 = 0:T2:1-T2; % Time vector
x2 = sin(2*pi*fc*t2); % Sampled signal

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% Plot sampled signal and its spectrum

figure;
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(t2,x2);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Sampled Signal');

X2 = fft(x2)/length(x2);
f2 = linspace(0,fs2,length(x2));
subplot(2,1,2);
plot(f2,20*log10(abs(X2)));
xlim([0 fs2/2]);
xlabel('Frequency (Hz)');
ylabel('Magnitude (dB)');
title('Spectrum of Sampled Signal');

% Reconstruct sampled signal

fc3 = 50; % Cutoff frequency
Wn3 = fc3/(fs2/2); % Normalized cutoff frequency
b3 = fir1(30,Wn3); % Filter coefficients
x3 = filter(b3,1,x2); % Reconstructed signal

% Plot reconstructed signal and its spectrum

figure;
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t2,x3);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Reconstructed Signal');
X3 = fft(x3)/length(x3);
f3 = linspace(0,fs2,length(x3));

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subplot(2,1,2);
plot(f3,20*log10(abs(X3)));
xlim([0 fs2/2]);
xlabel('Frequency (Hz)');
ylabel('Magnitude (dB)');
title('Spectrum of Reconstructed Signal');
1. Original signal
Low pass signal

Spectrum of low pass signal

2. Sampled Signal
Sampled Signal

Spectrum of Sampled Signal

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COMMUNICATION LABORATORY - 21ECL46

3.Reconstructed Signal
Reconstructed Signal

Spectrum of Reconstructed Signal

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DELTA MODULATION AND THE EFFECTS OF STEP SIZE SELECTION IN

THE DESIGN OF DMENCODER.

% Generate a test signal

fs = 10000; % Sampling frequency
T = 1/fs; % Sampling period
t = 0:T:1-T; % Time vector
f1 = 100; % Signal frequency
f2 = 200; % Signal frequency
x = sin(2*pi*f1*t) + 0.5*sin(2*pi*f2*t); % Test signal

% Delta modulation parameters

step_sizes = [0.1 0.5 1 5]; % Different step sizes to be tested
n_bits = 1; % Number of bits per sample
n_samples = length(x); % Number of samples

% Perform delta modulation for each step size

for i = 1:length(step_sizes)
step_size = step_sizes(i);
n_levels = 2^n_bits; % Number of quantization levels
delta = step_size*n_levels/2; % Step size in volts
x_dm = zeros(1,n_samples); % Delta modulated signal
x_rec = zeros(1,n_samples); % Reconstructed signal

% Delta modulation loop

for n = 1:n_samples-1
x_delta = x(n+1) - x_rec(n); % Calculate the difference
if x_delta>= delta
x_dm(n+1) = 1; % Output a 1 if the difference is positive
elseif x_delta<= -delta
x_dm(n+1) = 0; % Output a 0 if the difference is negative
else

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x_dm(n+1) = x_dm(n); % Output the same as the previous sample if the difference is
small
end
x_rec(n+1) = x_rec(n) + (2*x_dm(n+1)-1)*delta; % Reconstruct the signal
end

% Plot the results

figure;
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x);
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Original Signal');

subplot(2,1,2);
plot(t,x_rec);
hold on;
stem(t,x_dm,'r');
hold off;
xlabel('Time (s)');
ylabel('Amplitude');
title(sprintf('Step Size = %.1f, SNR = %.1f dB', step_size, snr(x,x_rec)));
legend('Reconstructed Signal','Delta Modulated Signal');
end

Fig-1
Original signal

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Step size=0.1 ,SNR=0.1dB

Fig-2

Original signal

Step size=0.5 ,SNR=-1.6dB

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Fig-3
Original signal

Step size=1 ,SNR=-4.7dB

Fig-4
Original signal

Step size=5 ,SNR=-16.6dB

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