OCR (A) Biology GCSE

Topic 1: Cell Level Systems

Notes
(Content in bold is for higher tier only)

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 Cell structures
Microscopes (1.1a and c)
Light (optical) microscopes
The specimen is placed onto a ​slide​, which is a thin piece of glass. Sometimes if the specimen is
colourless then a ​stain ​is needed to identify the organelles. Another small piece of glass called a​ cover
slip ​is placed on top to protect the lens. It is mounted onto the ​stage​ of the microscope and the ​lamp​ at
the bottom of the microscope shines constant light on the slide so that the specimen can be viewed.
The​ objective lens​ is found closest to the specimen and magnifies the image, which is then further
magnified by the​ eyepiece lens.

Definitions:
● Magnification = the degree to which the size of an image is larger than the real object
○ Magnification of an object = ​image size/object size
○ Magnification of microscope = ​magnification of the eyepiece lens x magnification of the
objective lens
● Resolution = the ability to distinguish between to 2 points that are close to each other

When working with calculations in microscopy, it is common to come across very large or
small numbers. ​Standard form​ can be useful when working with these numbers. To be able to
compare the size of numbers while using standard form, the ‘number’ which being multiplied
by a power of 10 needs to be between 1 and 10.
Examples:
● 1.5 x 10​-5​ = 0.000015
● 3.4 x 10​3​ = 3400

Advantages of light microscopes:

● Relatively cheap
● Can be used in the field
● Does not require specialist training
● Can look at living specimens

Disadvantages of light microscopes:

● Low resolution (200nm) as limited by the wavelength of visible light
● Low magnification strength (x1500)
● Staining is required for some organelles to present

Electron microscope
The ​electron microscope​ uses electrons, instead of light, to form images. Electrons have a much
smaller wavelength than that of light waves and so allows scientists to view smaller subcellular
structures, such as mitochondria and ribosomes. There are 2 types:
● SEM = Scanning Electron Microscope
○ Creates 3D images at a lower resolution
○ 10nm resolution and x100,000 magnification

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 ● TEM = Transmission Electron Microscope
○ Creates 2D images detailing organelles at a much higher resolution
○ 0.2nm resolution and x500,000 magnification

Advantages:
● Can see very small organelles
● Can produce 3D images (SEM)

Disadvantages:
● Samples need to be placed in a special vacuum so cannot look at living specimens
● Extremely expensive
● Very large so cannot be moved easily
● Requires specialist training and skill

Subcellular structures (1.1b)

In animal and plant cells...

Structure Function

Nucleus ● Contains the genetic material, which codes for a particular protein
● Enclosed in a nuclear membrane.

Cytoplasm ● Liquid substance in which chemical reactions occur.

● Contains enzymes (biological catalysts, i.e. proteins that speed up the
rate of reaction).
● Organelles are found in it

Cell membrane ● Contain receptor molecules to identify and selectively control what enters
and leaves the cell

Mitochondria ● Where aerobic respiration reactions occur, providing energy for the cell

Ribosomes ● Where protein synthesis occurs.

● Found on a structure called the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Only ​in plant cells…

Structure Function

Chloroplasts ● Where photosynthesis takes place, providing food for the plant
● Contains chlorophyll pigment (which makes it green) which harvests the
light needed for photosynthesis.

Permanent vacuole ● Contains cell sap

● Found within the cytoplasm
● Improves cell’s rigidity

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 Cell wall ​(also ● Made from cellulose
present in algal ● Provides strength to the cell
cells)

In prokaryotic cells (e.g. bacteria)...

Structure Function

Cytoplasm Above

Cell membrane Above

Cell wall Made of a different compound (peptidogylcan)

Single circular As they have no nucleus, this floats in the cytoplasm

strand of DNA

Plasmids Small rings of DNA

What happens in cells and (what do cells need)?

DNA (1.2a-c)

● DNA stands for ​deoxyribonucleic acid

● It is a ​double helix ​made from 2 strands that have twisted around each other.
● It is a​ polymer​, meaning that it is made of many different molecules that join up to make a long
strand: in the case of DNA these molecules are called​ nucleotides.
● Each nucleotide is made from one sugar molecule, one phosphate group (which forms the
backbone) and one of the four different organic bases
○ The 4 bases are ​A, C, G, T​.
○ These nucleotides pair by ​complementary base pairing​, meaning that only certain
bases can join together: C joins to G and A joins to T
● Each group of ​three bases​ codes for an ​amino acid​ and these then join together to make a
protein
● Chromosomes​ are structures made up of long molecules of DNA.

Protein synthesis (1.2d and e)

*Biology only*
DNA is too large to leave the nucleus in order to make the proteins and therefore a series of
steps must be taken to copy and transport the genetic information.

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Steps of protein synthesis:
1) DNA helix is untwisted and unzipped
2) mRNA nucleotides​ (messenger RNA: a different type of nucleotide) match to their
complementary base on the strand.
3) The mRNA nucleotides themselves are then joined together, creating a new strand
called a ​template strand​ of the original DNA. This process is called ​transcription​.
4) The template strand of mRNA then moves out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm and onto
structures called ​ribosomes​.
5) At the ribosomes, the bases on the mRNA are read in threes to code for an amino acid
(the first three bases code for one amino acid, the second three bases code for another
etc). This is called ​translation​.
6) The corresponding amino acids are brought to the ribosomes by ​carrier molecules​.
7) These amino acids connect together to form a protein. It is therefore the triplet code of
bases that determines which protein is produced and therefore expressed.
8) When the chain is complete the protein folds to form a unique 3D structure.

Enzymes (1.2f and g)

What are enzymes?
Enzymes​ are biological ​catalysts​ (a substance that increases the rate of reaction without being used
up). They are protein molecules and the shape of the enzyme is vital to its function. This is because
each enzyme has its own uniquely shaped ​active site​ where the ​substrate​ binds.
A simplified way to look at how they work is the ​Lock and Key Hypothesis​:
○ The shape of the substrate is complementary to the shape of the active site ​(enzyme
specificity)​, so when they bond it forms an enzyme-substrate complex.
○ Once bound, the reaction the reaction takes place and the products are released from
the surface of the enzyme

Factors affecting the rate of enzyme controlled reactions:

Rate = change in concentration/time
Temperature
● The optimum is around 37 degrees celsius (body temperature)
● The rate of reaction increases with an increase in temperature up to this optimum, but above
this temperature it rapidly decreases and eventually the reaction stops.
● When the temperature becomes too hot, the bonds in the structure will break
● This changes the shape of the active site, so the substrate can no longer fit in
● The enzyme is said to be ​denatured​ and can no longer work

pH
● The optimum pH for most enzymes is 7, but some that are produced in acidic conditions, such
as the stomach, have a lower optimum pH
● If the pH is too high or too low, the forces that hold the amino acid chains that make up the
protein will be affected

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 ● This will change the shape of the active site, so the substrate can no longer fit in
● The enzyme is said to be denatured and can no longer work
Substrate concentration:
● A higher concentration generally means an increased rate of reaction as the enzymes are
more likely to bump into and therefore react with the substrate
● However, after a while increasing the substrate concentration has no effect as the active sites
of all of the enzymes present are full

Enzyme concentration:
● This is the same as substrate concentration - initially it increases the rate of reaction but after a
while the reaction stops.
● This is because there are not enough substrate molecules to react with all of the enzymes.

Respiration (1.3a-c)
Respiration occurs in every cell in the body of all living things to supply ATP to cells. Cellular
respiration is an exothermic reaction.
There are 2 types of respiration: aerobic and anaerobic.

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

This uses oxygen. Occurs when there is not enough oxygen.

It yields the most energy. It does not yield as much energy as aerobic
Most of the reactions that make up aerobic respiration.
respiration occur in the mitochondria. It is only used as a last resort, for example
during a sprint where it is difficult to breathe
C​6 H​
​ 12​O​6​ + O​2​ ---> CO​2​ + H​2​O in enough oxygen.
The oxidation of glucose is complete.

C​6 H​
​ 12​O​6​ = glucose In animals:
O​2​ = oxygen Glucose (C​6 H​
​ 12​O​6​) ---> Lactic acid
CO​2​ = carbon dioide In plant and yeast cells it is called
H​2​O = water fermentation):
Glucose (C​6 H​
​ 12​O​6​) ---> Ethanol + Carbon
dioxide (CO​2​)
This reaction is used to make bread and
alcoholic drinks.

Breakdown and synthesis of substances (1.3d-f)

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates, such as as starch, are polymers made from simple sugars (monomers)
Example of breakdown
● Broken down by carbohydrase enzymes, such as amylase

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 ● Starch → maltose by ​amylase enzyme
● Maltose is an example of a simple sugar that can go into the blood to provide energy
Example of synthesis
● Glucose → glycogen by​ glycogen synthase enzyme
● Glycogen is an energy store

Proteins
Proteins are polymers made of amino acids (monomers)
Proteins are broken down by ​protease enzymes​ in the stomach and small intestine.
Amino acids can be built up into proteins by protein synthesis.

Lipids
Lipids are broken down by ​lipase enzymes
Lipids → glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Bile made in the liver emulsifies fat (makes large fat molecules into small droplets) that make it easier
for lipase enzymes to work on lipids.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthetic Reaction (1.4a-c)
Photosynthesis​ is the process of making glucose from sunlight in the leaves of the plant. It is an
endothermic reaction​ in which energy is transferred from the environment to the chloroplasts by light.

The equation for photosynthesis is:

light
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen

Carbon dioxide = CO​2, Water

​ = H​2​O, Oxygen = O​2 Glucose
​ = C​6​H​12​O​6

Investigating photosynthesis (1.4d)

Calculating rate of photosynthesis
By carrying out an experiment measuring​ ​the ​oxygen production ​of a plant, you can calculate the rate
of photosynthesis.
● Pondweed is placed in a test tube full with water. The top is sealed with a bung. A ​capillary
tube​ also containing water leads into the test tube, and it is attached to a syringe.
● A lamp is placed at a measured distance from the test tube.
● As it photosynthesises, oxygen is produced, forming a gas tube in the capillary tube
● The distance the bubble has moved is measured using a ruler to calculate the volume of
oxygen produced.
● Many variables can be changed to observe their effect on photosynthesis: the temperature
(using a ​water bath​), time the pondweed is left, the light intensity (varied by the distance the
lamp is from the plant).

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 ● It is important to control all factors that may affect photosynthesis except your ​independent
variable​ (the one you want to observe), so it is a valid experiment.

Factors affecting photosynthesis (1.4e-f)

Temperature
With an increase in temperature, the rate of photosynthesis ​increases​.
However, as the reaction is controlled by ​enzymes​, this trend only continues up to a certain
temperature until the enzymes begin to ​denature​ and the rate of reaction decreases.

Light intensity
For most plants, the higher the light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis ​increases​.

Experiment proving photosynthesis requires light

1) Cover half of a small leaf with foil
2) Place the plant on a windowsill for 48 hours so that light can reach it
3) Put the leaf into boiling water to kill and preserve it.
4) Put the leaf in a boiling tube containing hot ethanol for 10 minutes (this removes the chlorophyll
pigment).
5) Dip the leaf in boiling water to soften it.
6) Put leaf in a Petri dish and cover with iodine solution.
7) The covered half of the leaf will remain brown, whereas the exposed half will change to
blue/black (as iodine solution changes colour in the presence of starch, as photosynthesis
turned the glucose into starch for storage)

Inverse proportion​ describes a relationship between two factors which involves one increasing
whilst one decreasing. As the distance between the light source and the plant increases, the
light intensity decreases. The light intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance- called the ​inverse square law​.

Light intensity ​∝​1/distance​ 2

This means that if a lamp is 2 metres away from a plant, then then light intensity of the lamp is
a ¼ of its original value.
1/2​2 ​= ¼

Carbon dioxide concentration

Carbon dioxide is also needed to make glucose (see equation). As the concentration of carbon dioxide
increases, the rate of reaction ​increases​.

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Any of the factors above may become a ​limiting factor​. This is an environmental condition
(such as light intensity) which, in low levels, restricts any increase in the rate of
photosynthesis. Despite increases in other factors (such as temperature or carbon dioxide
concentration), the rate of photosynthesis will not increase any more. This can be seen on a
graph as the curve levelling off.
● A graph involves one limiting factor if it has one line which levels off, with the factor on
the horizontal axis and rate of photosynthesis on the vertical axis.

● A graph with two lines represents two limiting factors in two experiments. The
investigation involves increasing the factor on the horizontal axis, and is carried out at
two different other environmental conditions, such as two different temperatures.

Light intensity is measured in lux and in this graph we can see that the limiting factor is
light intensity. This is because the 50 lux levels limits the rate of photosynthesis
compared to the 100 lux experiment, showing that at 50 lux light intensity was the
limiting factor - it had the potential to increase the rate of photosynthesis further if it
were increased.
● A graph involves three limiting factors is similar to the one above, but another factor is
stated on each line, which is the same in each

The limiting factor is temperature as light intensity is the same in each and carbon
dioxide is increasing.

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Farmers can use the knowledge of limiting factors to enhance the conditions in the
greenhouse for a greater rate of photosynthesis. This will increase growth leading to increased
profits.

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