Ship Handling in Restricted Waters

2.1 General

Ship handling in confined waters, particularly in narrow waterways, has been receiving a great deal of
attention in recent years. With the ever-increasing size of ships, as exemplified in tankers and bulk car-
riers, potential hazards of collision and grounding attract attention, and control errors may results in
personal injury and costly damage to both the ship and the surrounding environment. An accident can
have far-reaching effects. In regard to maneuvering performance, shallow waters may be defined as
those in which the ratio of water depth to ship draft is three or less. At greater ratios, shallow-water ef-
fects on maneuvering performance become rapidly less significant as the water deepens. Restricted wa-
ters may be defined as narrow channels or canals, waterways with vertical or overhanging banks or
areas that include piers and breakwaters which introduce a substantial change in maneuvering charac-
teristics or requirements. Obviously, most restricted waters include shallow water, and many include
significant currents and tides. In restricted waters, areas available for navigation are limited, further
complicating the problems of maneuvering and control of the ship.

2.2 Parameters Related to Shallow Waters

1) Froude Number (Fn) U: Ship speed (m/sec)

The Froude Number is defined as Fn=U/-vQ[ g: Acceleration due to gravity (9.8ml see")
L: Ship length(m)

Reference Annex 1,Chart showing Froude Number from ship length and ship speed
The Froude Number is a dimensionless number and has been used for matching the similarity of mo-
tion between a model ship in tank tests and an actual ship under way. Hence, this number is used for
comparing and arranging the experimental results of ships with various sizes and speeds under the nor-
mative method.

2) Froude Depth Number (Fnh)

In a similar way to the Froude Number,
the following dimensionless number is defined as
Fnh=U/.yQH H:Depthofwater(m)

This number is called the Froude Depth Number and is used for comparing the experimental results of
ships with various speeds and water depths under normative method.

0281 A Guida to Ship Handling

 2.1 General I 2.2 Parameters Related to ConfinedWaters I 2.3 Shallow-Water Effects

2.3 Shallow- Water Effects

Effects on Hull Sinkage and Change of Trim (Squat)

When a ship is proceeding, surrounding water is displaced towards the sides and the bottom of the ship, exert-
ing the flow of water relative to the moving ship. The pressure distribution that develops around the ship mov-
ing through water distorts the water line by raising the level of the high pressure regions ahead of the bow and
aft of the stem, while, because of the relative velocity increase, lowering it along the length of the hull, partic-
ularly amidships. Fig.2-1 shows an illustration of pressure distribution of water flow around the hull.

+-- Streamlines,showingwater flowaround the hull o Stagnation points where flowvelocity is zero
- - -', - - - - ---,
: ---=-=' _ - - --,
===
~: ====--;:...=-
--
==- ~._+- -
-- ,---

1
-- -
:

1 ~
I I

~E~=g~~~~::::~~~~ ~
I ._m ,- r ._., I

.. ..
1 . -.., "( I
I 1 1 1

~ressure) 1I ~r:~ssure) 11 ~i~ssure)I

Pressure increasing <III!
Row decelerating <III!
Streamlines diverge Pressure decreasing <III!
Flow accelerating <III!
Streamlines converge
I I I I

1 1 1 I
1- _ _1_ - - 1- - - - I
1 I 1 I
I I I 1
~

Flow velocity increasing

Seabed

Fig.2-1
Pressure distribution of water flow around the hull

A Guide to Ship Handling I 029

 ~ Ship Handling in Restricted Waters

Consequently, the overall effect of the pressure distribution is to create a local depression of the mean
level that coincides with the ship and travels along with it. Furthermore, this drop in the water level is
concentrated amidships, where immersed hull volume is greatest, and the ship will also move bodily
downwards to maintain its full buoyancy, including a change of trim. This effect is imperceptible and
irrelevant in deep water, but it becomes significant when the ship moves into shallow water, where the
restriction of flow between the hull and the seabed weakens the three-dimensional flow towards the
keel and the two-dimensional flow parallel to the hull grows stronger. Therefore, the mean water level
around the hull is depressed further accompanied by the change of trim, which results in a significant
reduction of under keel clearance. This phenomenon is known as "squaf' Fig.2-2 shows the flow pat-
tern, pressure distribution and water level around the hull in shallow water.

Deep Water
Stern Bow

Shallow Water

Pressure

"I I I I
" I
,,;/

Water level

I I "
, \ , ~7- '" I ' I
I \ -6 / I I
\' ,-/ I I
o ~2 ...- 4
, '. ~... ,/ ,'
\ / I
I

Fig.2-2 Flow pattern, pressure distribution and change of water level in shallow water

_I 030 I A Guide to Ship Handling

 2.3 Shallow-Water Effects

Fig.2-3 shows the bow sinkage (F.P.) and stem sinkage (A.P.) when proceeding in deep water (solid
line) and in shallow water (chain line).
The squat is conspicuous in shallow water. Trim by the head is prominent in the low speed range, and
nim by the stem in the high-speed range. As the Froude Number approaches 0.25 (a ship of 300 m
length with its speed about 26 knots), the bow of the ship tends to float, and the stem tends to sink
abruptly. However, large-sized ships usually navigate shallow water at stand-by speed, and most ships
are considered to be proceeding with the trim by the head. Because the squat is mainly related to large-
sized ships with full-load condi-
tions, it is important to obtain %
the amount of bow sinkage, as +1.0
most of the ships tend to be
trimmed by the head. o

~
:; 1
-- -1.0 \ II
Q)
g>
\ i
-E -2.0 1\
U5 JI - - - - Hid= 1.813
\ - - Hid=37.5
L: ship length
-3.0 \ H: water depth
\ d: draft
\ Merchant ship: Fn < 0.22

-4.0 A.P. \
Fig.2-3 Bow and stem sinkage L

0.4 0.5 (Fn)

0.1 0.2 0.22 0.3
 J

I':'D!mE Ship Handling in Restricted Waters

Fig.2-4 shows the squat estimation chart for a ship in combination with its length (L), and speed (U).
Instructions: (plotted by broken line: bow sinkage of a 300 meter tanker with 17 meter draft proceeding at 12 knots in water of 22 meter depth.)

16 Fig.2-4
Squat estimation chart
15

14

13

en 12\ <D
(5
c:
e- II
"'0
Q)
Q)
a. 10
Cf)
9

0.1

0' 0.2

§: 0.3
....J
"-
Q) 0.4
0>
c: 0.5
'w
3 0.6
0
CD
H/d= Water depth (H)
0.7 Draft(d)

0.8
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 (Fn)

<D Enter ship speed in knots. (U : 12 knots)

@ Draw parallel line to intersect appropriate ship length. (L:300m)
@ Drop perpendicular lineto intersect abscissa of the upper diagram to obtain the corresponding Froude Number. (Fn:0.114)
@ Continue to draw perpendicular line to intersect appropriate water depth/ship draft. (H/d=1.3)
<ID Draw parallel line to intersect bow sinkage/ship length (%)to give bow sinkage as percent of ship length.
(Bow sinkage/ship length (Lpp)=0.32%, i.e., amount of bow sinkage =300 X 0.32%=0.96 m)

I. 0321 A Guide to Ship Handling

 2.3 Shallow-Water Effects

Effect on Hull Resistance and Ship Speed

When a ship moves into shallow water, ship speed is reduced due to increased wave making resistance
and the deterioration of propulsive efficiency.

From the results of speed trials, the following formula is

proposed for the critical water depth affecting hull resistance:
H: Water depth (m)
H<3-vBd B: Ship breadth (m)
d: Ship draft (m)

Effect on Turning Capability

When a ship is turning in shallow water, the turning diameter increases considerably due to the blunt-
ness of hull response at the initial stage of the turn and the increase of the turning moment of resistance.
Fig.2-5 shows the results of 280,OOO-DWT,ship length 320 meter VLCC tanker simulations in water
depth1.5 times ship draft (H/d=1.5), ship speed 15.7 knots, full-loaded condition.
In shallow water, the maximum advance increases up to approximately 1.4 times, and the tactical diam-
eter increases up to about 1.3 times as compared to turning in deep water, respectively.

Simulations
(m)
280,OOO-DWT VLCC
Lpp: 320m
@ Hid = 00 Abproach speed: 15.7kt
Full-loaded
1200
@ Hid = 1.5

800

400

o
Rudder angle 35'
L
o 400 800 1200 1600 -(m)
*' Ship speed=Approach speed

Fig.2-5 Turningcircle (comparisonbetweendeep and shallowwater areas)

A Guide to Ship Handling I 033

 ~ Ship Handling in Restricted Waters

Fig.2-6 summarizes experimental data on turning rate.

(m)
280,OOO-DWT VLCC
@Hld=4.2 Lpp: 320m
Approach speed: 7kt
@ HId = 1.5 Full-loaded
1200 @ HId = 1.2

800

400

Rudder angle 35. I

a 400 800 1200
l
1600 (m)

Fig.2-6 Effect of water depth on turning performance (280,OOO-DWT VLCC)

-
Hid TO
4.2 2.8L Deep water
1.5 3.3L Shallow water
1.2 4.9L Shallow water (TD=Tacticai diameter)

A substantial increase in tactical diameter (turning diameter) is shown in shallow water (HId=1.2).
In the figure, about 75% increase in tactical diameter (turning diameter) is observed as compared to the
tactical diameter (turning diameter) in deep water.
Turning circle in shallow water gets bigger in the direction of vessel side than advance.
And the same effect on wake is observed in coasting turn and acceleration turn in shallow water.
This change in maneuvering characteristics is very important ITomthe viewpoint of maneuvering-safe-
ty, due to increasing importance of maneuvering ability in shallow water, such as in harbors and other
restricted waterways.

0341 A Guide to Ship Handling

 2.3 Shallow-Water Effects

Recognizing the Signs of Squat

A ship's officer on watch will notice the following tendencies in the ship's behavior when the ship
comes into shallow water:

1. Hull resistance is increased and the ship begins to slow down as it becomes affected by squat.
2. As shown in Fig.2-7, the diverging wave pattern appears to widen as the Froude Depth Number
(Fob)is increased.
3. The close proximity of the propeller to the seabed tends to create greater hull vibration.
Speed is the most influential factor governing squat, so slowing the ship will have the most immedi-
ate effect in reducing squat and improving control over the ship, provided that steerage way is main-
tained.

Fig.2.-7 Waterdepth and wave pattern

Wave Fnh SignofSquat Remarks
&Actiontobetaken

Deep
, ~JIfI!l
U/v'9H=O Nil . No action to be taken

. Rather shallow water

. Pay attention to UKC
U/v'9H= 0.7 Slight and speed.
. Reduce speed if
necessary.

. Reduce speed to
regain control of ship.
----------- U/v'9H= 0.99 Serious . Abnormal hull
vibration is observed.

Shallow

A Guide to Ship Handling I 035 _

 Ii1Imm Ship Handling in Restricted Waters

Required Under Keel Clearance

For safe navigation in shallow water, it is essential to keep sufficient clearance between the ship's bot-
tom and the seabed depending on the conditions of the ship, the ship's maneuverability and the condi-
tions of the sea area. This margin, known as "Under Keel Clearance (UKC)," is defined as shown in
Fig.2-8.

.--
........................:

Height of tide

I
(jj

-
ro
05:
ro
3:
-
Iii 0.
Iii '0 0 (I)
-0
0 0. -0
(I): (I)
0' t
1- (\j
" ./
Sinkage . ---_....----.. ..-.. ()
UKC

- - -t -. .
L - - -
.. .

Under Keel Clearance (UKC) =(Charted water depth) + (Height of tide)-{Shlp draft at rest)

Fig2-8 Definitionof underkeelclearance(UKC)

The following factors should be taken into account when detennining UKC:

1. Hullsinkage and change of trim

When navigating shallow water, the amount of bow sinkage should be kept in mind as ships tend to
be trimmed by the head.
2. Sinkage of the fore and aft perpendiculars, and bottom bilges due to ship oscillation
When the encountered wave period synchronizes with a ship's natural period of pitch or roll, the
amount of sinkage should be taken into consideration for fore and aft perpendiculars or the bottom
bilges,
3. Accuracy of charted depth
The following is the international standard for permissible error in surveying:
··
Permissibleerror of 0.3 m for water depth of 20 m or less
Permissibleerror of 1.0 m for water depth between 20 m and 100 m

Therefore, the above errors in charted depths should be taken into consideration.

I , 0361 A Guide to Ship Handling

 2.3 Shallow-Water Effects

4. Meteorological and oceanographic conditions

· One hPa (one mili-bar)rise in atmospheric pressure depresses water level by approximately one centimeter
· When the ship comes into a sea area of seawater density P2 from an area of seawater density P1
the amount of the change in draft Ad is expressed by:

d1: initial ship's draft at sea water density, p,

Cb: ship's block coefficient
Cw: ship's water plane area coefficient

or
w: Displacement (T)
TPC: Tons per centimeter
Navigators should remember the following formula and value. r
The formula gives approximate sinkage (cm) per 0.001 of change of density.

Adp..O.001.W/TPC i:>dp: Sinkage per 0.001 change of density

In the case of VLCC,

Ad P ·. 1.5 em (full-load condition)

Draft 20.01m at density 1.025 ·. Draft 20.04 at density 1.023 (Ad '. Adp X 2)
· Surplus margins should be taken for the character of the sea bottom, which is considered to be 60 cm
for rocky bottom, 30 cm for sand bottom.

5. Examples of regulation and criteria for standards

The European Marine Pilot Association (EMPA) has laid down the following criteria to be complied
with regarding under keel clearance (UKC):

Condition UKC
Open sea ~ 20% draft
Outer harbor ~ 15% draft
Inner harbor ~ 10% draft

The IMO stipulates the following rule for a deep draft ship (having a draft of 15 meters) and a VLCC
(a tanker of 150,OOO-DWT or more) passing Malacca and Singapore Straits:

· VLCCs and deep water vessels require an under keel clearance (UKC) of at least 3.5 meters at all
times during the entire passage through the Straits of Malacca and Singapore.

UKC>3.5m

A Guide to Ship Handling I 037 i. _

 ~ Ship Handling in Restricted Waters

2.4 Effects of Narrow Channels

Bank effect
If a ship is proceeding along the centerline of a canal whose cross section is constant and symmetrical
about its vertical center plane, then there is flow symmetry port and starboard and the ship is subjected
to no yaw moment or side force.
However, when the ship is proceeding close to one side of the canal as shown in Fig.2-9, the increase
in the velocity of flow between the hull and the near wall coupled with decreased velocity of flow be-
tween the hull and the far wall creates a force that draws the ship towardsthe near wall (suctionforce).
Meanwhile, displaced water mass is accumulated between the bow of the ship and the near wall, gener-
ating a high water region. This high water region (i.e. high pressure region) creates a repulsive force to-
wards the far wall at the
bow, setting up a moment

~
>O
that tends to swing the M : bow out moment
bow towards the far wall
-f1J :. --- ~;O F : suction force
1] : deviation from centerline
(a bow out moment).
- - _l_ - - -Centerlineofchannel
-T------------
1J ~ M>O
_t

Fig.2-9 Bank effect

Channel wall

With a small amount of drift angle, the ship will run obliquely on the ship's path parallel to the center-
line of the canal, maintaining the equilibrium of the side forces and moments created by the drift mo-
tion, bank effect and rudder deflection, as shown in Fig.2-10.

~ ~ dueto rudder =... /T'. dueto driftangle ~ ~ dueto bankeffect (3: driftangle

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Running straight Starboard rudder Start of Bank effect Drift motion
Equilibrium condition

Channel wall
Fig.2-10 Equilibriumconditionwhilepassinga canal

0381 A Guide to Ship Handling

r
!
! 2.4 Effects of Narrow Channels

Therefore, the check helm should be deflected towards the near wall to control the turning moment gen-
erated by the drift angle. However, a ship navigating a channel is in a situation of unstable equilibrium,
and off-center course maintenance cannot be realized merely by deflecting constant rudder angles and
holding it fixed. For this purpose, when a difference is detected for the anticipated equilibrium condi-
tion, the rudder should be deflected to correct the difference. By continuing such steering, the ship's path
may be kept parallel to the centerline of the canal. The mean deflection of the rudder may be regarded as
the check helm. Fig.2-11 shows experimental results of required check helm to maintain off-centerline
course under equilibrium conditions with changes in water depth. The abscissa shows the ratio of dis-
tance off-centerline to ship breadth. In all cases, equilibrium drift angle was relatively small. It is said
that, with a maximum rudder angle of :t35°, a reserved rudder angle of20 degrees or so is required for
the safe ship handling in confined waters. Accordingly,the allowable check helm is limited to :t 15°for
a ship with a maximum designed rudder angle of :t35°. For this reason, it is dangerous for a ship to
proceed through a path excessivelyremote ITomthe centerline of the canal.

Hid
8 (Rudder angle) I 30
1.2

'0
~~ 20
o
..c
~
Ci5
1.5
70
1.9

-7.0 -0.5
0.5 7.0

----

-30

Fig.2-11 Requiredcheckhelm to maintainoff-centerlinecourse

When navigating shallow water with an inclined seabed athwart the ship's beam, and for the same rea-
son as proceeding close to one side of a channel, a suction force is created that draws the ship towards
the shallower side, and a bow-out moment swings the bow towards the deeper side.
It is reported that the effect of seabed inclination on course keeping is surprisingly great, and that a sig-
nificant amount of rudder deflection is required to maintain course.
There exist not a few harbor-approach channels with seabed inclinations, where care should be taken
during transit.

A Guide to Ship Handling I 039

 I:D!mm Ship Handling in Restricted Waters

Interaction Between Two Ships

Close passage of two ships and the resulting hydrodynamic interactions be-
tween the two are operationally important for situations such as overtaking
or meeting in a restricted channel, maneuvering to avoid collision, and
passing a ship moored adjacent to a narrow channel. Interaction in the case
of meeting (ships moving in opposite directions head on or nearly so) rare-
ly causes problems as the ships usually pass each other relatively quickly
and there is insufficient time for the pressure systems to change in any sig-
nificant way. Most critical situations arise when one ship is overtaking the
other and the period of close proximity is relatively long. According to the
results of model tests, touching and collision accidents are caused by the 4
superposition of the following factors:

1. 80th ships are making high speed and the speed difference between the
ships is small.
r
2. 80th ships are in an overtaking situation and have sufficient time to interact; '\

this differs from a meeting situation.

3. 80th ships are running parallel with close passage.
..
4. 80th ships are navigating shallow waters or restricted waters that are sus- 31J1r ~

ceptible to interaction. .
rT~
.

D Interactions between two similar-sized ships in an overtaking situation

2
Fig.2-12 shows a diagram of forces and moments with the relative position
of the two ships when ship B is overtaking ship A in a narrow channel.
The following two regions may cause a dangerous situation:

. When the bow of overtaking ship B overlaps 1/4 to 1/3 of its length with the
stem of ship A, dangerous force moments towards the other ship are cre-
ated. (When abreast, the ships are drawn together by bodily suction amid-
ships while bow-out moments and repulsive moments arise in both ships.)

. As ship 8 moves further ahead of A, ship A abruptly changes the direction

of moment from "bow-out" to "bow-in", and, with a drawing force to ship
8, the vessls are at risk of touching.

To prevent the danger induced by ship interactions, it is necessary to reduce

speed (less than 10 knots), and to keep a sufficient lateral separation dis-
tance of at least
~r",
one ship length in the parallel run.
~ Turningmoment
~ Bodilysuction
'-_ Change in resistance
Fig2-12 Interactions between two ships of similar size

_I 040 I A Guide to Ship Handling

 2.4 Effects of Narrow Channels

FJInteraction between a tug (or a small craft) and a large ship

When the tug is overtaking the large ship to change station from the stem to the bow, the tug is affected
by interaction considerably more than the large ship. The tug is moving in water flow that is dominated
by the streamlines of the pressure field surrounding the large ship.
Fig.2-13 shows the illustration of the forces and moments working on the tug when the tug is changing
station from the stem to the bow.
From the figures, the following is known:

.
The tug approaching the stern of the large ship willexperience suction force and bow-in (towards the
large ship) moment.
The rudder is to be deflected outwards. (Fig.2-13, 0 and 8)
·
When the tug is approaching abreast of the large ship, the tug will experience suction force and bow-
out moment, and the rudder is to be deflected inwards. However, the suction force and bow-out
(against the large ship) moment are relatively weak. (Fig.2-13, 8)

.
When the tug is approaching the bow of the large ship, the tug will encounter increasing pressure and
an increase of engine output is required to overcome the resistance barrier. Due to the greatly increased
suction force and bow-out moment, enhanced inward rudder deflection is required. (Fig.2-13,e)

.
At the moment the tug moves ahead of the large ship, suction force changes rapidly into repulsive
force and bow-out moment into bow-in moment. To cope with the bow-in moment, the rudder is to
be deflected outward. In case of untimely switching of rudder deflection, the tug's bow will be turned
to the bow of the large ship, which may result in collision. (Fig.2-13, 0)

~ Turningmoment *' Bodilysuction 4:J Change inresistance

Fig2-13 Interaction between a tug and a large ship

A Guide to Ship Handling I 041

 2.4 Effects of Narrow Channels

~ Ship Handling in Restricted Waters

II Interactionbetween moored and passing ships

As shown in Fig.2-14, the characteristic features of the interactions on the moored ship are summarized
as follows:

·The longitudinal force has two peaks in opposite direction -the first forward,the second afterward.
· The lateral force is characterized by initial repulsion, followed by attraction between the ships and re-
pulsion again at the end of the passage.

· The yawing moment goes through four phases-bow

attraction.
repulsion, bow attraction, bow repulsion and bow

200 ,.. 8000

..
..
... .. ..~{
... .. \......
100 .. " 4000
. a;
Qj
E
E
E .' ~
~ 0 o E
o
u.
..................... CD

. E
o
~
' I',
-100 .. . nn

-
M
Fx
. -4000
\ ,: Fy
'\~ ',:
-200 - .:..- -8000
o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 Time (sec)

.....

Fig2-14
Forces and moments worked on
a moored ship

The forces and yaw moment on the moored ship are directly proportional to the size and square of the
speed of the passing ship, and inversely proportional to the water depth and lateral separation distance.
Besides the hydrodynamic interaction between two ships, the motion of the moored ship is influenced
by the wave generated by the passing ship. Particularly, the effect is conspicuous in surge motion, and
involves the danger of rending mooring rope and of damage to the ship's side due to contact with the
wharf. As described above, the effect grows stronger as the surrounding water depth becomes shallow-_
er, the ship passes at a faster speed and with a smaller lateral separation distance.
Therefore, particularly in shallow waters, the passing ship should keep the lateral separation distance as
broad as possible, and keep its speed as slow as possible while maintaining steerage way.

0421 A Guide to Ship Handling

 L

r
~I

3.1 Anchoring

General
Recently, there has been an increase in the following type of accident: the anchor and anchor cable run
out to the bitter end when the anchor is let go from the hawse in a deep water anchorage; the accident
occurs because the weight of the anchor and cable and the momentum developed by the free-fall exceed
the capacity of the brake. Furthermore, accidents involving vessels lying at anchor continue to occur.
Most of these are the result of dragging anchor, and concern drifting, collision or grounding.
Anchoring safely to prevent the above-mentioned accidents is discussed in this section.

Preparation for Anchoring

When anchoring, prior investigation of the following conditiQns for anchorage is required:

1. Direction and strength of wind and current

2. Depth of water
3. Type of seabed (Select a type of seabed with good anchor holding characteristics)
4. Location of lee-shore, shoals, or hazards such as submarine cables and other obstacles
5. Maneuvering room for approach
6. Swinging room after anchoring
7. Conditions affecting visibility, weather and
currents

Routing and speed reduction plans on the

way to the anchorage are to be made, and the
anchoring method and approximate lengths
of cable to be paid out should be decided in
advance. Ridingto Ridingto Mooring
a singleanchor two anchors
The following are types of anchoring method,
as shown in Fig.3-1. Fig.3-1 Anchoring methods

0441 A Guide to Ship Handling

 3.1 Anchoring

The riding to a single anchor is the most common method, but the other two acceptable methods --
mooring or riding to two anchors -- should be used when weather and current conditions demand.
Once the method has been chosen, the next decision involves whether to anchor to starboard or port.
Finally, preparations are made for letting go anchor. When riding to a single anchor, the following
empirical standards are given for the required lengths of cable to be paid out:

100
o Japanese standard:
. Normal anchoring
80 Lc = 3xH +90(m)
! . Heavy weather anchoring
~
1a 60 Lc = 4xH + 145 (m)
3'
'0
.c
a.
Q)
40
e U.K. standard (Admiralty Manual of
c Seamanship,London):
Lc = 27.5 X 1.5.vH or Ns = 1.5.vH
20
Lc: length of cable to be paid out (m)
H : water depth (m)
o Ns: shackles of cable to be paid out
4 5 6 7 8 9 70 71 12 13 Shackles

700 750 200 250 300 350 cable of chain

Length(m) Fig.3-2
Length of cable to be paid out
(U.K & Japanese standard)

Preparations for letting go anchor.

After the trial run of the windlass, the following procedures are required for making the anchor ready for let-
ting go: (see Fig.3-3)

.·Engage the cable holder and the pin for firmly securing lever.

.Remove the anchor lashings.

Remove the chain stopper upon confuming it is free from any load, a con-

·dition that requires the stopper to be secured at rest by the securing pin.
Release the brake and walk back (out) the cable. ("Walk-back"

·means letting out cable using a geared windlass.)

Walk back the anchor to the "cock-bill" condition or into the water
depending on state of anchorage. When walking back the anchor
into the water, ship speed should be reduced to a range considered

. safe for lowering the anchor into the water. Fig. 3-3
Set the brake firmly, disengage the cable holder and set the pin for the securing lever to the disengage position.
Windlass

.·The windlass is ready for letting go anchor by free-fall, when the anchor is held solely by the windlass' braking force.
The opposite anchor should be readied and set on standby in preparation for an emergency.
If the ship is loaded with inflammable liquid or gas, a water-flushing system for the haw.!'eshould be pre-

.pared. The water will be used to prevent sparks caused by anchoring operations.
In addition to anchoring preparations on the forecastle, persOtlllel on the navigation bridge are required to
make preparations for use of the echo-sounder and the speed meter for the purpose of measuring water depth
and ship's headway, respectively.

A Guide to Ship Handling I 045

 I:D!mE In-Harbor Ship Handling

Anchor and Anchor Cable

The specifications of anchor and anchor cable to be equipped are detenmned with the Equipment Num-
ber of the ship stipulated in the Regulations for Equipment of Ships.
Each classification society lays down its own requirements in compliance with the above standard.

Anchor capability
It is desirable that an anchor exhibits overall capability covering the following properties:

1. The anchor flukes bite into the seabed without fail after the anchor is let go.
2. The anchor possesses sufficient holding power (resistance) to cope with the force dragging the anchor.
3. The anchor maintains postural stability without turning over when it is pulled through the seabed.

Types of anchor
The major anchors commonly used in merchant ships and naval vessels are shown in Fig.3-4.
In merchant ships, the AC 14 type anchor appears to be the most widely used, because of its high holding power
and postural stability.

Fig.3-4 Major anchors

JIS anchor AC14 anchor Danforth

Holding power of anchor

The holdingpowerof the anchoris normallyexpressedas a factorof its ownweight.

Hp = A a . Wa or A a = Hp
Wa
Hp : holding power of anchor (ton)
Wa : weight of the anchor (ton)
Aa : coefficient of the holding power

- 0461 A Guide to Ship Handling

 3.1 Anchoring

For example, the AC14 anchor will hold more than 10 times its own weight if the seabed is good;
in poor seabed of soft, silty mud, the holding power will drop to about 3 times anchor weight.
However, the holding power of the TIS type anchor is, at best, half that of an AC14 anchor of equal
weight under normal seabed conditions.
Fig.3-5 shows the AC14 anchor under pulling test.
The figure shows that the anchor bites well into the seabed and maintains stable posture without turn-
ing over.
On the other hand, Fig.3-6 indicates that the JIS anchor tends to turn over when dragged, and subse-
quently breaks out with flukes up.

Fig.3-S AC 14 anchor biting into the bottom Fig.3-6 115 anchor turned over

Fig.3-7 Holding power characteristics curve

Q)
Fig.3-7 illustrates the characteristic hold- U

ing power curves of the AC14 and JIS -

c::
CU
(/)
AC14 anchor

anchors. The AC14 anchor exhibits high 'w

Q)
....
and stable holding power, whereas the OJ
c::
holding power of the JIS anchor declines '5
(5
drastically after it turns over and loses I
the ability to grip the seabed.
JIS anchor

Pulling distance

A Guide to Ship Handling I 047 '_

~ In-Harbor Ship Handling

Besides the holding power of the anchor itself, the contribution of the anchor cable cannot be ignored.
Moreover, the anchor cable plays the important role of absorbing some of the energy acting on the an-
chor by changing the shape of its catenary.
Fig.3-8 shows the anchoring system when riding to a single anchor.
=
Total mooring power P is the sum of the holding power of the anchor (Hp Aa.Wa) and the frictional
resistance of the cable laid over the seabed (Ac.Wc.'l that is,

External force ~

:. i
I I
I . I I
'--- Holdingpart ~ Catenary part~
I I I

Fig3-8 Anchoring system

p= Aa . Wa + Ac . Wc .fl P : mooring power (holding power of anchor and cable) (ton)

Aa: coefficient of holding power
Wa:anchor weight (ton)
Ae: coefficient of cable resistance per unit length (Ae=O.75)
We: cable weight per unit length (ton/m)
i : holding length of cable (m)
 3.1 Anchoring

Anchoring Operations
Approach to an anchor berth
Anchoring method varies according to water depth, current and wind conditions at the anchorage.
Riding to a single anchor by dropping anchor (letting go the anchor under sternway) is normally used
because of its handling simplicity when letting go or weighing anchor. The ship proceeds in accordance
with the speed reduction plan, and the engine is stopped before arriving at the anchor berth, advancing
solely by inertia. The engine is put astern just before the intended location so that the ship may come to
a stop in the anchor berth. The anchor is let go and the cable is paid out under sternway.
Personnel on the navigation bridge record the ship's heading when the anchor is let go, and plot the
position of the bridge (anchor position) on the chart.

Anchoring in water of 20 meters or less depth

When anchoring in water of 20 meters or less depth, the anchor may be let go freely by releasing the
brake from the cock-bill position, and an amount of cable approximately equal to twice the depth of
water should first be allowed to run out freely to enable the anchor to embed itself. Thereafter, the
windlass brake should be applied so that the cable is kept growing at an angle of about 30 degrees to
the vertical. The brake should not be applied forcefully. A free-falling anchoring can cause parting of
the cable and damage to the windlass.
In large ships, sternway after letting go the anchor should be adjusted within 0.5 to 1.0 knot to prevent
an excessive strain on the cable. When the intended shackles of the cable are paid out, sufficient brake
should be applied to cause the flukes of the anchor bite into the seabed.
When the cable tautens and then slackens, it is a sign that the ship is brought up. At the same time, the
ship begins to turn towards the weather.

Anchoring in water of 20 to 50 meters depth

When anchoring in water of 20 to 50 meters
depth, the free-fall anchoring from the cock-bill
position may cause the cable to attain a danger-
ous speed as it runs out, the result being a parting
of the entire cable.
There is also risk that the anchor may fracture on
striking the bottom at high speed.
To prevent such hazards, walk back the anchor
into the water until it reaches about 5 meters
above the bottom, then let go the anchor.
Afterwards, the proper brake should be applied to
control cable running out speed, and sternway of
the ship should be maintained within the permis-
sible range. (Fig.3-9) Fig3-9
Anchoring in water of 20 to 50 meters depth

A Guide to Ship Handling I 049

r
I

E1!mE In-Harbor Ship Handling

Anchoring in water of 50 meters or greater depth (Deep anchoring)

When anchoring in water of 50 meters or greater depth, the anchor and the amount of cable intended
for use are paid out by the walk-back method.
In large ships, stemway over the ground should not exceed 0.5 knot after the anchor has been embed-
ded in the bottom.
This is because if the ship's stemway is greater than the walk out speed of the cable, parting the cable
or damage to the windlass may occur due to excessive strain on the cable. (Fig.3-10)

a.G. Speed (Stern way) :;; ~1Jm:(!

./..

... ..

Fig3-10 Anchoring in water of 50 meters or greater depth (Deep anchoring)

Anchor position
When anchoring is completed, the precise anchor position should be plotted on the chart taking into
account the distance from the bow to the navigation bridge and the amount of cable paid out.

Permissible water depth for anchoring

Permissible water depth for anchoring is not determined by the total length of equipped cable, but by
the capacity of the windlass.
Generally, a windlass has a lift capacity of 3 to 4 shackles with an anchor. Accordingly, permissible
water depth will be in the range between 82 to 110 meters.
The rated capacity of a windlass must be sufficient to hoist two shackles of cable at an average rate of
9 meters/min, with the anchor and 3 shackles of cable suspended in water without touching the bottom.
(The rough calculation at this rated capacity is that 3 minutes is needed to hoist one shackle of cable.)

050 I A Guide to Ship Handling

 3.1 Anchoring

Anchoring Under Wind and Current Effects

In an anchorage where the effects of wind and/or current are strong, there is risk of dragging anchor
due to excessive strain on the cable.
There also is risk of holding failure of the anchor, as the cable is often laid out meanderingly along the
bottom, which hinders the anchor's ability to embed and hold.
When approaching the anchorage, well-chosen landmarks, beam references and the ship's speed meter
are to be used to reckon the ship's movement, as the precise speed over the ground is difficult to
confirm.

Approaching with head-to-wind/stream

When riding to a single anchor, the approach is made head-to-wind or head-to-stream, and then the anchor is
let go.
To allow the anchor to embed and hold, a length of cable more than twice the depth of the water should be al-
lowed at first to run out freely, after which a sufficient length of cable should be paid out under brake to prevent
the anchor from being dragged.

Approaching with wind or current on the beam

When approaching with wind or current on the beam, sufficient speed is required to maintain the vessel's
predetermined track because leeway or current set increases drastically as the ship's speed decreases.
The ship should stem the wind or current just before letting go the anchor, at which time preparation
for making bold alteration of course is necessary since the vessel rapidly loses way.
The weather anchor should be let go with the ship stopped, and as the ship drifts downstream the cable
should be paid out gradually (if necessary, the astern engine may be used) in such a way as to keep the
ship head-to-wind or head-to-stream.

Approaching with wind or current on the stern

Anchoring with wind or current on the stem should be avoided because control of headway is difficult
and the cable may be subjected to an excessive strain.
If there is no other alternative, then make the approach with headway as slow as possible, and let go the
turning side anchor just before the location of the anchorage.

A Guido to Ship Handling I 051

 ~ In-Harbor Ship Handling

Swing Motions and Dragging Anchor

A ship at anchor will swing around the anchored position in the wind, drawing a figure-eight, as shown
in Fig.3-11.

Subsequent to head-to-wind position at the extreme end of the

windward (Fig.3-11 0,0), the ship begins to be swept away
backward. When the ship's fore-and-aft line is in line with Wind
the cable direction or a little after (Fig.3-llfj,0), maxi-
mum tension is exerted on the cable.
Dragging anchor will occur when the anchor loses its grip on
!
the bottom and starts sliding over the bottom, a result of im-
pulse force exceeding the anchor's holding power.

To control swing motion, the following measures are taken:

1. Deepen ship's draftby ballastingto reduce wind-affectedarea
2. Adjust ship's trim by-the-head while keeping the propeller
under water
3. Use a swing-check anchor with another anchor, loweringit
to one-and-half depths of water on its cable

For PCCs or LNG carriers with large wind-affected areas,

risk of dragging anchor is said to be high at the following
wind speeds:
15 m/s when lying at a single anchor, 20 m/s when a swing-
check anchor is dropped, and 25 m/s even when the ship is
lying at two anchors.
Fig.3-11 Swingmotionin wind

Anchor Watch

Personnel on anchor watch should pay strict attention to sudden changes of weather, signs of dragging
anchor, signs of cable fouling and dangerous behavior of other ships in the vicinity, and the master
should immediately be infonned when anything unusual is observed.
When the master detects signs of dragging anchor, the following counter measures are taken (depend-
ing on the situation):

·· Letting go the swing-check anchor

Paying out an extra length of the cable
·Keeping the ship's head to the wind and easing 'cable tension using the main engine and rudder, or bow
thruster.

0521 A Guide to Ship Handling

 3.1 Anchoring

Other measures, such as shifting anchorage or drifting offshore also should be considered.
Methods of detecting anchor dragging are as follows:

·· Checking the ship's positionby radar or other instruments

Checking the course recorder
·· Checking the ship's swing behavior
Checking tightening sequences of the cable
· Checking the indicator of the Doppler log

The following phenomena can be regarded as early signs of the anchor being dragged:

. the course recorder indicates a distorted curve

Wind

. instead of a regular sine curve

the periodical swing motion of the hull is stopped,
~
and the ship is gradually swept down with wind
on one side of the hull (Fig.3-12)
. the Doppler log indicates the ship is moving in a
certain direction at a rate of one knot or more
0>
c:
""'0
c:

.. over the ground .§

en
the cable remains taut at all times
abnormal vibration is felt on the hull
.the relative positions of other ships in the vicinity
change markedly
B

As stated above, the most important thing is early

detection of dragging anchor when lying at anchor
in a gale.

..

Trajectory of anchQr
Trajectory of the ship's
center of gravity
Fig.3-12 Dragging anchor

A Guide to Ship Handling I 053

 ~ In-Harbor Ship Handling

Sighting anchor
In a river or an estuary, the bottom is usually covered with a thick layer of silt or soft mud, and some-
times it may be difficult to weigh anchor after it has been buried deep in mud for an extended period.
When a ship is obliged to lay at anchor in such an anchorage for a long period, the anchor should be
hove up and let go again everyday or couple of days to prevent it from getting stuck.

Slipping anchor
In an emergency, the ship may be obliged to slip the cable or cables and proceed to sea.
When slipping a cable, the end should be buoyed to enable it and the anchor to be recovered, and the
wire rope buoy pendant used should be of sufficient strength to recover the cable.

Weighing Anchor

Preparations for weighing anchor are the same procedures for anchoring.

·· Preparation of pumping is required for washing the anchor and cable.

Heaving in the cable is commenced by the master's order.
· When the cable is taut due to wind and current, or when an excessive strain is exerted on the cable,
main engine or bow thruster is used to ease tension on the cable.
·The brake is applied when the anchor is finally hove up into the hawse pipe, and the cable holder is
disengaged. The stopper is set after confirming it is no longer bearing the anchor's load.
· After the forecastle-station is dismissed, anchor lashings should be secured firmly as these are very
important in preventing the anchor and cable from runoing out to the bitter end in stormy seas.

0541 A Guide to Ship Handling

 3.1 Anchoring I 3.2 Berthing

3.2 Berthing

General
In harbors and ports where maneuvering areas are confined and shallow, there are many navigational
restrictions. Therefore, ship operators are required to maneuver their vessels in accordance with pre-
vailing envirorunental conditions. Additionally, when entering and leaving port also involves berthing
and unberthing operations, ship handling is not easy.This difficulty is due to the problem of directional
control and course-keeping, a direct result of poor steerability at low speed and the influence of wind
and current. Under such circumstances, ship operators are required to use assistance in ship handling,
assistance such as the use of tugs when necessary, in conjunction with their own full understanding of
ship maneuverability, including use of rudder deflection to check yaw at low speed, and the stopping
power of various reverse engine settings.

Assistance by Tugs
1. Types of tug
Tugs are classified by propulsion type as follows:

··· Voith-Schneider Propeller (VSP type)

Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP type)
Azimuthing Drive Propeller (Z type)

Fig.3-13 VSP type propulsion

Fig.3-14 CPP type propulsion Fig.3-15 Z typepropulsion

In Japan, the Azimuthing Drive Propeller Type (Z type) is the predominant tug.
Such tugs are equipped with two steerable propulsion units that revolve 360 degrees.
By controlling both the direction and revolutions of the propellers, tug assistance for ship handling is
available in all directions and with varying thrust.

A Guide to Ship Handling I 055

E::I!m:!II
In-Harbor Ship Handling

2. Towing force of a tug

When a tug is built, its towing force is measured
---
by a pulling test as shown in Fig.3-16, where the
tug's strength of pull on the bollard is determined.
The value for bollard pull (towing force) varies Measurement
Tugboat
~
with the type of main engine and propulsion sys-
tem. The bollard pull of a Z type tug is said to be e=--
_'f-jl- ~.".~
.
~
approximately 1.5 tons ahead and 1.4 tons astern
per 100 BlIP of the tug. " ~ 100m ~ Bollard
The bollard pull of a VSP type tug is said to be
approximately 1.0 ton ahead and 0.7 ton astern
per 100 BlIP of the tug. Fig.3-16 Measurement of towing force (bollard pull)

However, the towing force of a tug will decrease when: 50

· the ship being assisted is making headway en

c
40
· the tug's discharge current impacts against _ g
::J
30
the ship's underwater hull a.
"0 20
· the tug and the ship are being oscillated by ~....
seas and swells <5 70
CIJ
~

o 7000 2000 3000

BHP of tug (PS)

Fig.3-17 Bollard pull versus BHP of tugs

Particularly, when the ship assisted is making headway, the increase in the tug's power consumption
for lateral motion means that effective towing force is reduced sharply as ship speed increases (See
Fig.3-18). As the ship gains headway and its speed increases, it will increasingly drag the tug, even
to the point where the tug, because of its posture, is in danger of heeling over.

700
::J ~ I
a. 80
"E
60
<5
.D
-
'0 40
c:
Q) 20
E
en
en
Q)
en 0
en
2 3 4 5 6 Fig.3-18
« Towing force reduction with a ship getting underway
Ship speed (knot) (one-knotheadway 100) =
 3.2 Berthing

3. Use of tugs
The use of tugs is decided in accordance with ship han-
dling requirements, such as controlling a towed ship's
speed, lateral motion and yaw-rate.

(1) Lateral motion control

In pulling-out operations, the tug's paid-out rope length
is reckoned ranging from 2.0 to 2.5 times the tug's 2.0L -2.5L L

length (L). (Fig.3-19)

As the towed ship's size increases, the length of rope ---
I-I
increases.

Fig.3-19 Standard length of towing line

Fig.3-20 shows the arrangement for assistance in lateral motion control by one tug.
It is common to use this arrangement in combination with a bow thruster or with an anchor.
Fig.3-21 shows the arrangement for assistance in lateral motion control by two tugs.

Anchor I :rl Lateral motion

M'

Fig.3-20 Assistance in lateral motion Fig.3-21 Assistance in lateral motion

control by one tug control by two tugs

(2) Pivoting motion control Pivoting motion

Fig.3-22 shows the arrangement for assistance in
pivoting motion control.
Regarding tug operations, either the pushing or
pulling method is used.

The pulling method is needed for broad sea room;

this method suffers from a decrease in towing
force due to the impact of discharge current, but
allows flexible use of tug.
Fig.3-22 Assistancein pivotingmotioncontrolby one or two tugs

A Guide to Ship Handling I 057

 ~ In-Harbor Ship Handling

When a tug tows or pushes the stem of a ship, the ship's pivot point will be aft of the bow, about one-
third the ship length. (Fig.3-23, Fig.3-24) When the bow is towed or pushed, the pivot point will be for-
ward of the stem about one-third the ship length.

Pivot point
I
(/
,,';

..

Fig.3-23 Fig.3-24
Point of action of tug and pivot point of ship Ship under pivoting motion

As the point of action C exerted by the P: Pivot point

tug shifts closer to the ship's center of G: Center of gravity
C: Point of action
gravity G, the pivot point P will shift
farther from the center of gravity G.
(Fig.3-25)

Fig.3-25
Change of pivot point with change in point of action

Consequently, turning in a short round

requires a circular maneuvering area with
a radius greater than GP + 1/2 L, with the
turning center at the pivot point P.
As shown in Fig.3-26, the farther the
point of action from the center of gravi-
ty, the smaller the turning radius.

Fig.3-26
Comparison of turning radius with change in point of action

0581 A Guide to Ship Handling

 3.2 Berthing

Fig.3-27 shows the trajectories of a ship under one- knot headway making a 90- degree turn with the as-
sistance of a tug pushing abeam either the bow or the stem of the ship.
As shown in the figure, it is known that pushing abeam of the ship causes a relatively large kick-out.
At the same time, however, it enables the ship to turn in a smaller maneuvering area than if the ship
were pushed abeam the bow.

"I
.1
I

~ ~ ~I

.. I .
_ __ ___ _ _J _ _ _ _
Maneuvering area I
I Maneuveringarea
h _ _ _ FIg.3-27
Comparison of 90-degree turning trajectories when bow or stem being pushed

When a tug assists the pivoting of a ship in conditions of strong wind and current, towing the bow in
the direction of the wind and current requires a broad maneuvering area due to the ship's increased
range of motion. On the other hand, towing the stem against the wind and current is effective for pivot-
ing in a smaller area. The ship will be in motion close to turning in a short round. (Fig.3-28)

Current: 1.5 knots

.. p

/~<z
"is:.

V~
~p

. .
~
" ..i.
,

't
Fig.3-28
Tug assistance in pivoting motion under wind and current

Therefore, close attention should be paid to ship handling in maneuvering areas with strong winds and
currents.

A Guide to Ship Handling I 059

 Emm!EI In-Harbor Ship Handling

HId
(3) Required towing force in berthing operations 240
Against wind: 10m Isee
Fig.3-29 shows the required towing force on ~ 200 Against current: 0.1 mlsee

berthing operation relative to ship size, para- g Lateral velocity: 150m/see

Q) 160
metrizing water depth (H) to draft (d) ratios, e
(Hid). In the figure, the required towing force
.E 120
0'>
is shown vertically, and vessel displacement .!: 80
~
tonnage horizontally. ~ 40
It should be noted that the required towing
force increases as displacement tonnage grows
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
D.W. ton (unit 10,000 tons)
larger and water depth to draft ratio (Hid) be-
comes smaller. Fig.3-29
Required tug towing force when berthing

~ IH/d3.0
~ IH/d6.0 Seabed
Seabed
Seabed

Seabed I
~ Currentforce =:> Current 1 knot Fig.3-30 Effect of under keel clearance on current force

The number of tugs and the power necessary for berthing operations are dependent on the following
conditions:

. condition ofthe berth

Tokyo Bay Pilot Association (for reference)

..ship size

.shiphandlingmethod
weather conditions
.most importantly, wind velocity and current set, as
well as water depth to ship's draft ratio (Hid).

In some harbor areas, the criteria for using tugs are

laid down as shown in Table 3-1.

Number of tugs required when entering or leaving

060 1 A Guide to Ship Handling

 3.2 Berthing

(4) Safe handling of towropes

Slipping off or parting oftowropes will result in serious accidents.
In some cases, ship bitts to which towropes are made fast lack sufficient strength; it is necessary to check the
safe working load ofbitts.
To prevent damage to a towrope, it should be made fast to the inner bitts as far as conditions permit, as
shown in Fig.3-31.
Synthetic fiber rope has high resistance to chafing over flat surfaces, but poor resistance against sharp edges
and sideslips.
Due to malfunctions and rusty, rough surfaces of rollers and fairleads, chafing can cause ropes to part.
For this reason, it is essential to maintain ship-mooring equipment in good condition.
For example, the rusty surfaces of fairleads must be scraped and smoothed, shafts must be re-adjusted, and
rollers greased.
If ropes are bent or stretched over sharp angles or comers, or if they come into contact with the ship's hand-
rails, chafing against sharp edges or comers may cause the rope to part, as shown in Fig.3-32.

Fig.3-31 Takingtow rope to bitts Fig.3-32 Rope in contact with sharp edge

For operational safety, a heaving line should be used with the correct type of monkey fist.
Never substitute a shackle for a monkey fist.
It is an unfortunate fact that towropes or mooring lines in use will sometimes part for unforeseen
reasons.
Parted lines can easily cause injuries and fatalities.
Therefore, keep personnel from working or standing by on the extension lines of tensioned ropes.

A Guide to Ship Handling I 061

 ~ In-Harbor Ship Handling

Berthing and Mooring

Berthing alongside a wharf
1. Speed of approach
In the handling of berthing ships, it is very important to control the ship's approach speed, as well as directional
control. As a ship approaches its objective location, its headway should gradually be reduced, and hull inertia
should be stopped at the predetermined point. On the assumption that the ship can employ breaking power
through the use of Dead Slow Astern engine, guidelines for speed reduction schemes for LNG carriers, PCCs
and container ships are shown in Fig.3-33. The same guidelines for VLCCs are also shown in Fig.3-34.

10

~8
$
o
~6
"C
:&4
a.
00
2

o 500 7000 7500 2000 2500 3000 0 7500 3000 4500 6000 7500 9000
Distance (m) Distance (m)
Fig.3-33 Speed reduction schemes for LNGs, PCCs, Fig.3-34 Speedreductionschemesfor VLCCs
and Container ships

2. Approaching a wharf
To preventdamageto the wharf andfenders,a large-sizeship should reduceits headwayto zero somewhereat
a distance of one ship length or ship breadth from the wharf, andthen move laterally, berthing with the ship's
heading kept parallel to the wharf. Wharfs and shore-based moor-
ing facilitiesare usuallydesignedassuminga berthingvelocity of 300

t 5 cm/sec. Actual berthing velocities are much lower, however, ~

and should not exceed to cm/sec for ordinary-size ships, and 5 iJ;200
CD
c:
cm/sec for large-size ships. Fenders absorb the berthing energy of Q)

the ship. Their purpose is to prevent damage to hull and wharf. g> 700
:c
When berthing with a ship's heading nearly parallel to the wharf, 1:
Q)
aI
the energy of the ship against the mooring facilities will increase
o 2 4 6 8 70 72 74
in proportion to displacement tonnage and the square of the ship's
Berthing velocity (em/see)
approach velocity, which can be written as:
Fig.3-35 Berthing energy versus berthing velocity

The value of coefficient C changes considerably with the type of

E : Berthing energy (ton .m) ship, water depth and other factors. Fig.3-35 shows the calcula-
W: Displacement tonnage (ton)
V : Berthing velocity (m/sec)
ted results of berthing energy on each ship type, where it is
g : 9.8m/sec2 C: Coefficient known that the berthing energy of a VLCC increases sharply
Berthing speed < 8~1 Oem/see (generally) when the berthing velocity exceeds 6 cm/sec.

062 I A Guide to Ship Handling

 3.2 Berthing

3. Positioning of ship on berthing operations

When a PCC with a short parallel body is berthing as shown in Fig.3-36, the ship's bow or stem has occasion-
ally come in contact with comers of the wharf, car-stoppers or bitts.
This contact is due to a directional difference between fore-and-aft line of the ship and the face line of the wharf.
The range of critical positioning, wherein a part of the hull is not in contact with the wharf, is determined by
the wharf face line and the angular deviation of the ship's heading from that wharf line. (Fig.3-37 right)
The left side of Fig.3-37 shows the
Overhang (R)
permissible amount of overhang R
. : ) I
versus the angular deviation from the I I
wharf line a on a PCC. I I
I
From the figure, the critical angular I
I
deviation corresponding to the amount J
J
of overhang can be found. I /
/
In the plotted case, when the permissi-
ble amount of overhang is 3 meters,
the critical angular deviation of the
stem is 2.3 degrees.

Waterlevel ,

Fig.3-36
Critical positioning of a PCC

I
\
\ cx. I
RI
5 \~_I
Stern

II: 4 Permissible
OJ
i:: amount
~....
3
Q)

<3 2

Fig.3-37
Angular deviation, a. Permissible angular deviation versus amount of overhang

A Guide to Ship Handling I 063

 ~ In-Harbor Ship Handling

Mooring
1. Mooring arrangement
Mooring lines control a ship's motion and make the ship fast to a fixed position.
Fig.3-38 shows a fundamental mooring arrangement. Headlines and stem lines are used to control surge, sway
and yaw. Spring lines control drift.
Moreover, since it is desirable that each line be extended as far as possible, it is necessary that attention be paid
during berthing operations to insure these maximum lengths.
In a wharf where arrangement of longer mooring lines is not possible, additional lines should be deployed as
necessary.

o Head line
o Stern line
oe Spring line
f} 0 Breast line

Fig.3-38
Basic mooring arrangement

2. Mooring force of mooring lines

As shown in Fig.3-39, mooring force is the horizontal component, T.cosO, of tension needed to withstand the
motion of a ship exerted by external forces on the hull. Accordingly, as shown in Fig.3-40, the horizontal
mooring force is resolved as follows:

.mooring force on the fore-and-aft direction Tx: Tx=T. cose . cos;

.mooring force on the transverse direction Ty: Ty= T . cos e . sin;
8 : angle of elevation of the mooring line
; : horizontal angle to the face line of wharf

-I

Fig.3-39 Definition of mooring force Fig.3-40 Horizontal mooring force vector

0641 A Guide to Ship Handling

 3.2 Berthing

The sum of each mooring force, on the fore-and-aft and transverse direction, is the resultant mooring
force.
Critical mooring force to cope with all external forces is determined by the condition that each compo-
nent of external force should not exceed the corresponding component of the sum of each mooring
force.
On the other hand, critical mooring force is determined in relation to the strength of mooring rope or
the breaking power of the mooring winch.
That is, the load of each mooring line to withstand the external force on the hull should always be
within the range of the safe working load of the line or breaking power of each mooring winch:

External force on hull ~ 60 % of Minimum Breaking Load (11BL)of mooring line

or
External force on hull ~ Breaking power of mooring winch

The smaller value of either of the above opposing forces becomes the critical mooring force.
Assuming a ship free from external forces such as wind and current, as moored shown in Fig.3-38, a
calculated example of mooring force on the transverse direction is shown in Table 3-2.
The line pull of winches is assumed to be 25 tons, and all mooring lines, 14 lines in this case, are
equally pre-tensioned.
The total mooring force on the traverse direction is approximately 128 tons, and the mooring force of
each line is within the range of the settled line pull of the mooring winch.

:.=
Line

o -HeadI~
-
@ Breast line -II
---
~I
"'i:--=
3 II

2 ~~~!
II
Angle

26

40 0 32
II
14 :f
= Ifl
II
Mooring

11
14
--
Total
force per line mooring force

8 sprin;-line '1o 2 II
I 6 ,;II ~; _ ___~_2 -
e ~pring line 2 J~ ii 261i~~ ~ 2
ir -
o Breast Iin:JG If ~0--.J~C1-;-

Table 3-2
(3 Stern line -;~
II _

___I
ii 26 II
!'-- II _16_..Jl 11 ii

128 (ton)

Calculatedexampleof numberof mooringlines and mooringforce on transversedirection

A Guide to Ship Handling I 065

 ~ In-Harbor Ship Handling

3. Shift of a ship under wind effects

When a wind of 10 mls is blowing off the wharf, the amount of shift of a PCC is simulated under vari-
ous mooring conditions:
(I) The ship has been shifted laterally 1.6 meters under the mooring condition shown in Fig.3-38 with each
mooring line of 70 mm 4>arranged in pairs, 12 lines in total.
(2) When one additional line is deployed on each mooring point, except on the forward and aft spring lines, the
ship has been shifted laterally 1.2 meters, the restraining effect of the additional lines being only 40 cm.
(3) When wire ropes of 40 mm 4>are made fast to storm bitts as additional lines as shown in Fig.3-41, the ship
has been shifted laterally only 5 cm, and the effectiveness of storm bitts mooring is clearly demonstrated.

In this case, each additional line should be as perpendicular as possible to the ship's fore-and-aft line, and
the lines be extended as far as possible from the edge of the wharf.
However, when wind velocity exceeds 15 mis, additional lines made of synthetic materials will lose their
restraining power, and the ship will suffer a large lateral shift.

Storm bitts o Head line

Lateral shift 5 cm
o Stern line
o e Spring line
8 0 Breast line

Fig.3-41 Stormbins

Some Tanker terminals under strong wind and/or current equip storm wire and winch as shown in Fig 3-42.

Fig.3-42
Storm wire such as
Keiyo Sea berth and Muroran

0661 A Guide to Ship Handling j

 3.2 Berthing

4. Mooring lines
The numbers, types, lengths, diameters, and breaking loads of mooring lines with which a ship should
be equipped are stipulated in the Equipment Number.
Commonly,ships are equipped with more mooring lines than the Equipment Number requires.
Synthetic fiber ropes are made of various materials, such as nylon, polyester and polypropylene.
High performance fiber ropes are now sometimes used for mooring lines. The fiber materials used in
these ropes are much stronger and also stiffer than conventionalrope-making fibers.
Because they are much stiffer, ropes made of this new class of fibers are called high-modulus fiber
ropes. These high-modulus fiber ropes are almost as strong as wire ropes of the same size, and they are
also almost as stiff. While the properties of synthetic fiber rope make it highly resistant to chafing over
flat surfaces, it has poor resistance to chafing over sharp edges and sideslips.
It also deteriorates under exposure to ultra-violet rays.
Because the extent of deterioration in strength of mooring lines varies with cycles and duration of use,
it is necessary to check the condition of mooring lines daily. Wire ropes (or high-modulus fiber ropes)
are used to moor tankers and LNG carriers in order to avoid damage to loading arms; synthetic fiber
ropes are used to moor ships of other types.
Deploying additional lines for mixed mooring, the combination of full-length synthetic ropes and wires
should be avoided.

5. Operational precaution of mooring

Mixed mooring (Fig.3-43)

Steel wire rope

Load of rope Polypropylene rope
47T Nylonrope
2T
H_

1001_

H
2T
47T

Fig.3-43 Effectof mooringmaterial

Hence, Two or more lines leading in the same direction should always be of the same material.
Never mix wire and synthetic fiber ropes leading in the same direction.

A Guide to Ship Handling I 067

 3.2 Berthing

~ In-Harbor Ship Handling

Mixed mooring (Fig.3-44)

Load of rope

2STO 100m
SOTIJ--SOm

150T~
(load of short rope> load of long rope)
~11

SOTIJ--SOm
25TU 100m
Fig.3-44
Effect of length of moorings
(same size/same materials)

Therefore two or more lines leading in the same direction should, as far as possible, be of the same length.

Key numbers for mooring lines

11m: length oftail rope (Fig.3-45)

Wire rope Tail rope (Synthetic rope)

11m
Mandale shackle
Fig.3-45 Length of tail rope

125%: MBlof Tail rope + MBl of Mooring wire>125%

(MBl means MBl of each material before making eyes and splices.)
MBl: Minimum Breaking load

60%: Brake capacity of Winch + MBl of Mooring Jines =::60%

18 months: Tail rope should be renewed every 18 months.

Otherwise every tail rope should be inspected and certified by manufacturer regularly.

12 wires: Ras Tanurah port regulations require more than 12 wire moorings for mooring at the sea berth.

4-4-2: 4 head/stern Iines-4 breast Iines-2 spring lines

068\ A Guide to Ship Handling

 -~ -
General
When navigating in severe following and quartering seas, a ship is likely to encounter various kinds of
dangerous phenomena, which may lead to capsizing. We should, therefore, possess the fundamental
skills for safe ship handling in following and quartering seas to avoid such danger.
With the same objective, the IMO has released Guidance to the Master for Avoiding Dangerous Situa-
tions in Following and Quartering Seas. In this section, we begin with a basic study of vessel stability
and the fundamental properties of waves, and then move on to describe phenomena that pose a danger
to ships and provide operational guidance for dealing with them.

Stability of Ships
Transverse Stability

I) Righting moment
A ship floating at rest is in a state of static equilibrium; that is, the gravitational forces acting on the
center of gravity G, and the buoyancy acting on the center of buoyancy 8 being equal and acting in
line with one another. The position of center of gravity G will remain fixed when the ship is heeled.
The center of buoyancy 8 is the geometric center of the underwater part of the ship in still water.
When the ship is heeled by some external force, it will move to a position 81 in the center of the
submerged volume of the ship. The forces of weight and buoyancy are each equal to the ship's dis-
placement W, and act vertically in opposite directions. As shown in Fig.4-1, the force of buoyancy
acting upwards through 81 when the ship is heeled will produce a moment tending to right the ship,
and this moment is calculated by multiplying the displacement W by the righting lever GZ, which
is the horizontal distance between the forces of weight and buoyancy.

070 I A Guide to Ship Handling

 4.1 Ship Handling in Following and Quartering Seas

2) Transversemetacenterandtransversemetacentricheight
In most ships, for small angles of heel of up to about 10 degrees, the line of action of the force of
buoyancy 81 will intersect the middle line of the ship at a fixed point M (Fig.4-1). The point M is
called the transverse metacenter. The span between the metacenter M and the center of gravity G,
GM, is called the metacentric height; it gives a measure of the initial stability of the ship, i.e. its sta-
bility at small angles of heel. The greater the metacentric height, (i.e. the lower the position of G),
the greater the stability. In Fig.4-1, the angle8 is equal to the angle of heel, and the righting lever
GZ is equal to GM .sin8 (provided that 8 is small and GM is positive [G is below M]). If the met-
acentric height is known, the righting moment can be found by multiplying the righting lever GZ by
the ship's displacement W:

Righting moment = W. GZ = W. GM . sintJ

w...',
,
M
B: Center of buyancy
G: Center of gravity
M: Metacenter (Transverse)

L Transverse metacenter
Fig.4-1
and metacentric height

The height of the transverse metacenter above the center of buoyancy 8M is indicated by the fol-
lowing formula:
B: breadth d: draft k: coefficient

A ship with a large transverse metacentric height will roll with a short, rapid motion; such a ship is
said to be stiff. A ship with a small transverse metacentric height will roll with a long, slow motion;
such a ship is said to be tender. Transverse
Status Roiling
Transverse stability is a very important factor Metacenter

when it comes to safe navigation in heavy Stiff Rapid

seas; we refer to it often in this chapter. Tender Short SloW

A Guide to Ship Handling I 071

 ~ Ship Handling in Waves

Longitudinal Stability
B: Center of buoyancy ML
The longitudinal metacenter ML of a ship is I]
G: Center of gravity I
found in a manner similar to that used to find the ML:Metacenter (Longnudinal) I
transverse metacenter. I
I
Fig.4-2 shows a ship tipped forward by some ex- I
I
ternal force; the longitudinal center of buoyancy I
I
B has moved forward to B1. Thus a longitudinal
.
righting moment W GZ is produced; where W is
the displacementof the ship and GZ is the length
of the longitudinalrighting lever. The longitudinal
metacentric height GML is given very roughly as
follows:
Fig.4-2 Longitudinal metacenter

GML .. L L: ship length

It is seen that the ship is far stiffer longitudinally than transversely. This relationship will be used when
considering the natural pitching period of a ship.

IJ I~nt'-~
~

-
..
1CII..i
Ej
...

0721 A Guide to Ship Handling

 4.1 Ship Handling in Following and Quartering Seas

Six Freedoms of Motion in a Seaway

The motions of a ship can be split into three mutually perpendicular translations of the center of gravity
G and three rotations around G:

Three translations of the ship's center of gravity G inthe directionofthe X-,Y- and Z-axes:
..
surge in the longitudinal X-direction, positive forward
sway in the lateral Y-direction, positive to starboard side
.
heave in the vertical Z-direction, positive downward
Three rotations about these axes:
. roll about the X -axis, positive right turning
..
pitch about the Y-axis, positive bow up motion
yaw about the Z-axis, positive right turning
z,

These definitions are shown in Fig.4-3.

v, z
xx,: Fore and after rolling axis
YV,: Athwartships pitching axis
+ ~: "&
ZZ,: Vertical yawing axis +

Fig.4-3 Sixfreedomsofmotion

,, ,,
,,
,, ,,
..

-tn___;'nn l-f~~_m_-7n _n_:===in I

! !,

,n~~I__?m_1 m[~'

A Guide to Ship Handling I 073

 IiD!m1ZI
Ship Handling in Waves

Basic Elements of Regular Waves

1) Defining a harmonic wave
Fig.4-4 (a) and Fig.4-4 (b) depict harmonic waves, ~, from two different perspectives:

· Fig.4-4 (a) shows the wave profile (with wave amplitude, a, and
wave length, A) as a function of distance at a fixed instant in time.
H
A
:
Wave height
:
Wavelength

· Fig.4-4 (b) shows time record of the wave profile (with wave ampli-
Tw
Cw
:
Wave period
:
Wave propagation speed
(Phase velocity)
tude, a, and wave frequency,Q))observed at one location. a : Wave amplitude (H=2a)
Crest : Highest point of wave
Trough: Lowest point of wave
t : Shape of wave
Cw - - - - - - -,.-- _____
;;::---+
H
x
Fig.4-4(a)
Hannonic wave definitions

Fig.4-4 (b)
Hannonic wave definitions

From the above, basic definitions of a harmonic wave can be given:

·. A wave's highest point is the crest and lowest surface point is the trough
a : Wave amplitude (the distance from the still water level to the crest, or to the trough)

··· H : Wave height (H=2a; twice amplitude)

A : Wavelength(horizontal distance between any two successive wave crests)
Tw: Wave period (the same distance as wavelength along the time axis) (see Fig.4-4-b)
· Cw: Wave propagation speed or phase velocity (A IT w; velocity at which the wave profile
undergoes a complete 360-degree cycle or phase change)
·· k : Wave number (k=21t1 A (rad./s))
: Circular wave frequency (c.o=21tlTw (rad./s))
·
c.o

0 : Wave steepness (0 =HI A ; ratio of wave height to wavelength. When waves become too high,
crests break at the upper limit of HI A = 1110.)

For phase velocity, Cw, it is important to understand that water particles do not move at this speed; only
the waveform moves with this phase velocity.
If the waveform moves in the positive X direction, the wave profile (the shape of the water surface) can

be expressed as follows: r = a . cos (kx-ClJt)

.
LI 0741
A Guide to Ship Handling
 4.1 Ship Handling in Following and Quartering Seas

2) Basic elements of regular deep waves

By applying the obtained relations to regular deep waves (longer deep-water gravity waves), simple
and very practical relations between the wave-
Wave velocity (Cw) Cw= 1.25.JI"(m/s)
length (m) and phase velocity (mIs), or wave
(Phase velocity)
period (s) can be expressed as follows:
Wave period (Tw) Tw = 0.80.JI"(s)
Wavelength (A) A = 1.56. Tw2(m)

Miscellaneous items related to waves

I) Group velocity and wave energy
When superposing propagating waves with slightly different wavelengths, group waves
(the envelope of the wave packet) are created as shown in Fig.4-5.

Phase velocity
~I

;
...
,
,
,

Groupvel~cll}i
t,
.: '
" ""A ,\,"',-'\'\,
W'~gm"p
\"
(/,,, :" \ I. \ I \f 'I \ I ':, \ ::\\
"\
'f' 1\\
,
1'\ I,,'
I,,, 'ft'
I
:, " :" \ ' I~'I
~
,,',"t""" ,-,,'\
""
~.
, ""1\ f\t\t ' 'I"
,'y,; ::\\
~ \ : :': ". "II :
..
n if n ::: \ ; :i \; : i: \; ~ \ ;fi L:L\: __ JJl :1-~\-L~ULl+J.q~~4-{~+H-1-i--
--f-:-H-ti-frnrftlL-r:-t-}-!rrrrnf;
": :\::
\~, \\
'...~,' \J...' \'...'~
II ".: \,' \...,'"'...1
I I''...1"
, \.).:\, ..~ tA ; \:1; \ v! \ I!\ :\
,...'' \f / ~I,' ;\ i j \V;
... \,I.} ',I,,' ,j \1}.\1 " " , ,I \!
"
Wave-R=Wave-1 + Wave-2
---

-- ~ -- -- ~
~ Wave group .
Fig.4-S
Wave groups and group velocity

The envelope of the wave packet propagates at the group velocity, Cg. The group velocity for deep wa-
ter waves is expressed as: C 1 C
9 ="2 W
Cw:phase velocityof the wave
The wave energy is also conveyed along a group velocity (the propagation of swell).

A Guide to Ship Handling I 075

 EmmmII
Ship Handling in Waves

2) Significant wave height (HlI3)

Significant wave height is defined as the average
height of the highest one third (1/3)of all waves re-
Significant wave height
corded over a particular time period. There is a fair =(0+0+0+0+0+0)/6
correlation between significant wave height and vis-
ually estimated wave height. Significant wave height
is used as a general measure of sea roughness.
( )

Highest 1/3 of waves

3) Natural rolling/pitching periods and encowter wave period
· Natural rolling period (TR).
Fig.4-6 Significant

Natural rolling period is to be measured when the ship is in calm seas. The value is roughly esti-
wave height

mated by the following equation:

0.88 B: ship's breadth
TR ".vGM GM: ship's metacentric height

· Natural pitching period (Tp).

The value of natural piching period is roughly estimated by the following equation:

Tp '. 0.5.vL L: ship length (m)

. Encounter wave period (TE).As shown in Fig.4-7, a ship making Vs (m/sec) is assumed to be run-
ning obliquely in regular waves with the encowter angle of the ship to waves, fXdegrees off the
bow, waves of true period, Tw (=0.8.4\ length, A,and phase velocity, Cw(= 1.2S.v)).
As previously mentioned, encounter wave period is expressed as:

Encowter wave period = wavelength/relativevelocity to wave

Ship speed perpendicular to the wave is expressed as VS' cos fX. Therefore, the encounter wave per-
iod is expressed by the following equation:

+ ,\
Ship's speed (Vs)
TE=
CW+VS cas . Ot

or, referring to the previous relationship,

,\
TE = 1.25-vX +Vs . cas Ot

Fig.4-7 Encounterwave period (TE)

0761 A Guide to Ship Handling

 4.1 Ship Handling in Following and Quartering Seas

Based on the above equation, a diagram is prepared as shown in Fig.4-8, and encounter wave peri-
od (TE) is obtained using the encounter angle of the ship to wave (a), ship speed (Vs) and wave
period (Tw).
A synchronous roIling motion will occur when the encounter wave period TE is nearly equal to the
natural roIling period of the
ship, TR, and this will cause
large rolling motions. This phe-
nomenon will be explained in
~'4'
~ ~..~ ..,
-..
-.:.::-
the subsequent section.

Example Vs: 14 Knots (Ship speed)

tX : 3D. (Enoounter angle)

Tw: 11 see (Wave period)

T E: 8 see (Enoounter period)

~II

~ 55

:65 ,

32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 180'

Encounter period TE (5)

Fig.4-8 Determination of encounter wave period (TE)

A Guide to Ship Handling I 077

 ~ Ship Handling in Waves

Dangerous Encounter with High Wave Group

The envelope of wave packet propagates at the
group velocity, Cg, in deep water;
Cg= 1/2. Cw (See page 075). When the above wave
group velocity is nearly equal to the speed component
of a ship to the wind direction, dangerous encounter
with high wave group occurs; this is a phenomenon
whereby the ship is attacked by a succession of high
waves.As mentioned above, the maximum wave height
of the successivewaves can reach almost twice the ob-
served wave height of the sea state concerned. This sit-
./
_Encounter angle
uation can result in the reduction of synchronousrolling
x < 4S"{degree)
motion, parametric rolling motion, or the occurrence of
several dangerous phenomena, heightening the risk of Ship course
capsize.
Fig.4-9 shows the definition of encounter angle Fig.4-9 Definitionof encounterangle, X

x,measured from the stern of a ship.

Fig.4-10 shows a diagram indicating the dangerous zone for encountering a high wave group; it is
used to determine dangerous conditions. In the figure, each ratio of ship speed V (knots) to wave per-
iod T(s), VIT, is shown as a
concentric circle, and encoun-
ter angle X as a radial line.
When a ship is in the dangerous
zone, ship speed should be re-
duced to prevent attack by a
vrr
successionof high waves. Course 3.02.82.62.4 22 2.01.81.61.4111.00.8 o 2.0 22 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
0.81.0111.41.61.8

change may provide another

method for escaping the danger- pj)' pj)'
ous zone, but significant course
changes are not advisable since
they will bring the ship to beam,
which puts transverse stability
at risk. The combinationof speed
reduction with a slight course
change is another possible tactic 0' 10'
for escaping the dangerous zone.
Care should be taken to main- Fig.4-10
Diagram indicating dangerous zone of
tain ship speed for steerability encountering to high wave group
in wind and waves.

07~ I A Guide to Ship Handling

 4.1 Ship Handling in Following and Quartering Seas

Reduction of Intact Stability Caused by Riding on Wave Crest at Midship

When a ship is navigating in following and quartering seas, the effective beam of a ship-shaped hull
can change considerably with changes in a ship's waterline profile, particularly when the ship has fine
lines and a large flare (container ships and fishing vessels).
The metacentric radius, BM, and consequently, transverse stability will increase or decrease as a wave
passes along the length of the hull. As shown in Fig.4-11, when a ship is riding on the wave crest, intact
stability will be reduced considerably as the loss of waterplane area at the fore and aft ends reduces the
ship's GM and transverse stability. On the other hand, when the wave trough is amidships, stability is in-
creased as the extra waterplane area at the fore and aft ends increases the ship's GM and transverse stability.

Wave crest amidships Still waterline Wave trough amidships

- Wave crest amidships waterplane area

- .
Still waterline waterplane area

Wave trough amidships waterplane area

Fig.4-11 Change in ship's waterplane area with wave profile

The amount of stability reduction is nearly proportional to

Nc: Number of capsized vessels
wave height and the ship may lose stability when the wave- VI
Q)
N : Number of trial runs
N
length is one to two times ship length and wave height is
.~I-
co
60%
large. This situation is especially dangerous in following and o
15 40% 46
quartering seas, because the time spent riding the wave crest o 35 92 ~ ..L
becomes longer (more time is spent in a state of reduced sta- 80 40
& ~ 20% 4~ 190 Nc
bility). Fig.4-12 shows the frequency of capsizing due to re- N
10°1 20°1 °)0°' 40° I 50°1
duced stability as revealed by experiments with ship models.
Encounter wave angle
Please note that the most dangerous capsizing zone relates to
Fig.4-12
a direction of encounter wave angle ranging from 20 to 40 Number of capsized vessels to number of
degrees from the stem. trial runs (model ship experiments)

A Guide to Ship Hllndling I 079

 IiD!mmII Ship Handling in Waves

Reduction of stability tends to be more significant when a ship is fine-lined with a large flare (contain-
er ships and fishing vessels) and less significant in full-hull ships (tankers and bulk carriers).
The faster the ship runs, the greater the risk of capsizing; reduction of stability is greatly increased be-
cause the ship is riding on a crest of a larger wavelength, i.e. larger wave height. To avoid the risk of
capsizing due to reduced stability, ship speed should be reduced or course altered, or both, in order to
change the encounter wave angle and period. When executing the above procedures, care should be
taken not to induce other risks, such as beam seas that may place the deck under water or cause syn-
chronous rolling motion.

Synchronous Rolling Motion

Large rolling motions may be excited when the natural rolling period (TR) coincides with the encoun-
ter wave period (TE) (Fig.4-13). When navigating in following and quartering seas, this may happen if
the transverse stability of the ship is small and, therefore, the natural roll period becomes longer.

o -8

o Listing.
e Return roll is accelerated and reinforced by the next wave.
e The limits of ship's roll coincide with the wave crest (or trough).
. The rolling angle increases with each successive wave.
. This is known as "synchronous rolling'~ (Causing dangerous heavy rolling.)

Fig.4-13 Synchronous rolling

08~.I A Guide to Ship Handling

 4.1 Ship Handling in Following and Quartering Seas

Fig.4-14 shows the zones of heavy rolling of ships with 8- and 24-second roll periods among waves of
60 to 180 meters in length. As seen in the figure, the zone of heavy rolling shifts from the beam to the
quarter ofthe ship as the natural roll period becomes longer (i.e. the ship becomes tender.)
Course change or speed reduction is required to prevent synchronous rolling motion, i.e. avoiding syn-
chronous roll, TRI TE = 1. The course or speed leading to synchronous roll can be obtained using the
equation described on page 076 or by the diagram in Fig.4-8 under the condition TRITE = 1.

· Ship's relative course to wave ( ex) from the bow

leading to synchronous rolling:
COSot= A-TR' 1.25-vT
TR'VS

· Ship speed (Vs m/s) leading to synchronous Vs= A-TR' 1.25-vT

TR . COSa
rolling motion:

Example Howto avoid synchronous rolling

1. Natural rolling period (TA) = 24sec (Container and PCe)
2. Wave encounter period (Te)=24sec Changespeed (Vs) 0 -+ @
3. TA=Te -Synchronous rolling Changecourse (a) 0 -+ @)
OTA=24. Vs=15 knots and a=159 deg from bow-Synchronous rolling
(Beware quartering seas when changing course.)

oCD
(/)
25, <t
C\I
.11'
a:
C
(/)
a.
:2
(/)

Q;
.c:
'(ij
'E
o
u
..,
(/)
u.
u
c..

5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 20 24
30' Natural period (sec.)
(TR)
35~ ~
Following seas
Fig.4-14
Zone of heavy rolling of ships with S- and 24-second roll periods among waves of 60- to ISO-m length

A Guide to Ship Handling I 081

 ~ Ship Handling in Waves

Parametric Rolling
Parametric rolling is an unstable phenomenon that rapidly generates large roll angles coupled with sig-
nificant pitching. As explained on page 078 the transverse stability of a ship changes considerably with
changes in its waterline profile. This can trigger roll if it occurs with a particular period.
Transverse stability is the product of the ship's weight CVV)andrightinglever(GZ)(GZ=GM.sine ); i.e.
W. GM. sin e. Changes in transverse stability vary with the periodic changes of righting lever GZ. This
is the predominant cause of possible roll excitation, that is, parametric rolling.
Development of container ships requiring large deck cargo capacities and fast service speeds has raised
the risk of parametric rolling. These ships have hull-forms with fine-lined, generously flared bows and
a wide stem. Asymmetry between bow and stem hull lines tends to induce parametric motion.
As shown in Fig.4-15, when the ship is pitched stem down, GM increases due to the increase in effec-
tive water plane width, and the small angle of heel creates a large righting moment. On the other hand,
when the ship is pitched bow down, GM decreases due to a decrease in effective water plane width,
and the ship is obliged to heel over further to produce the same righting moment. This is the cause of
parametric rolling.

Vessel pitched stern down with a slight heeling moment

Vessel pitched bow down with a slight heeling moment

_ Waterplane ~Righting moment ~1r Pitchingmotion

Fig.4-15
Parametric excitation of fine-lined
hull with a wide stem

In longitudinal seas, parametric rolling will take place when the encounter wave period (TE) is approxi-
mately equal to half of the natural roll period of the ship (TR) (i.e. TE = 1/2. TR).The reason for this is
as follows:

0821 A Guide to Ship Handling

,-

4.1 Ship Handling in Following and Quartering Seas

1 rolling cycle is completed every 2 wave cycles.

Consequenty, the amplitude of the ship's roll is gradually magnified.

oe
C£I~
1--0
We
Q)
U5

e
~
o
-0
t ~
o 0
!l.w

Fig.4-16 Parametric rolling condition (ship pitching at a period half its natural roll period)

As shown in Fig.4-16, transverse stability-declines during the outward roll (Otofj) to reach a mini-
mum at the end of roll (8) and then increases (8 toG) to give the return roll extra momentum.
Stability starts to decrease again as the ship passes through upright (0), and each successive outward
roll is greater than the previous one. This type of rolling can occur in head and bow seas where the en-
counter wave period becomes short. In following and quartering seas, this can occur particularly when
the initial metacentric height is small and the natural roll period is very long. (Large container ships
tend to have long natural roll periods, ranging from 20 to 30 seconds.) Also, as exemplified by contain-
er ships, a ship with an extensive bow flare and a long, flat stem is susceptible to parametric rolling
given the right combination of wave height, wave period, natural rolling period and ship speed.
To avoid parametric rolling, it is necessary to prevent conditions leading to parametric rolling, i.e. a
ship pitching twice while rolling once under significant pitching. Ship speed should be reduced sub-
stantially or course altered to change the encounter wave period (TE). Ship speed should be maintained
to ensure steerability, and care should be taken that the course change or speed reduction does not in-
duce other risks, such as synchronous rolling. Reports have been heard of parametric rolling in extreme
head or near head seas when container ships and PCCs were subject to speed reduction. Accordingly,
care should be taken to prevent parametric rolling not only in following and quartering seas, but also in
head and bow seas.

A Guide to Ship Handling I 083

 ~ Ship Handling in Waves

Surf-riding and Broaching-to

When a ship is situated on the
steep forefront of a wave in fol-
lowing and quartering sea con-
ditions, the orbital velocity of
water particles can cause the
ship can to ride the wave, a Fig.4-17 Travelling down-slope
phenomenon known as surf- Wind & Wave
riding. In such a situation (i.e.
ship travelling down-slope),two
opposing drift forces will cre-
ate a turning moment as shown
in Fig.4-17.
"

The ship is turned forcibly because of the lack of steerability, and is twisted beam-on to the advancing
crest of the wave, as shown in Fig.4-18.

~ Forceof waterparticlemotion
,..
Water particle orbitals

Yawing moment

- -.. Momentum

~ Wave direction

---- - -, y.

~ .. ~
"." ~u~
~...
-=""" 0'"
..
~~ ;"
=t ==""" .'~

~ .
.. _ __""- iii!!I!i u~tf~u~ !

"non """"~"~ "

"n""~~ "
..
.
",U$.
----
Fig.4-18 Illustration of broaching-to

0841 A Guide to Ship Handling

 4.1 Ship Handling in FolIowing and Quartering Seas

This is known as broaching-to, and the ship is at risk of capsizing due to the sudden change of heading
and unexpectedly large heeling. Broaching-to can happen to small as well as large ships. Broaching-to
more commonly occurs when waves arrive ftom behind with a small angle, say 10-30 deg., to the fore-
and-aft axis of the ship. In moderate sea states, a ship is more likely to broach-to if it is running at a
high speed and is slowly overtaken by the waves. Broaching-to may also occur at lower speeds if the
waves are very steep. As mentioned above, when ship speed is so high that its component in the wave
direction approaches the phase velocity of the wave, 35
the ship will be accelerated, will begin surf-riding
30
and then broach-to. The critical speed for the occur-
rence of surf-riding is considered to be 1.8./[ ~ 25
(knots), where L is ship length. It should be noted 20
~
~

that there is a marginal zone (l.4./[-1.8./[) below -g (])

critical speed where a large surge may occur. This g. 15

event is almost equivalent to surf-riding in terms of % (/)
10
danger. Fig.4-19 shows the critical speed (knots) for
5
the occurrence of surf-riding in relation to ship
length. Fig.4-20 shows the diagram indicating surf- o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
riding dangerous zones.
Ship length (m) Fig.4-19
To avoid surf-riding and broach- Critical speed for surf-riding and ship length

ing-to, ship speed should be re-

duced to the marginal speed
zone or below. After reducing
speed, if the ship is in the mar-
ginal zone and a large surge is
. V/,j[
felt, speed should be reduced 3.0282.624212.01.81.6 1.4 111.00.8 o 0.8 1.0 111.4 1.6 1.8 20 2124 26 28 3.0

further. Surf-riding can occur

when a ship is running in shal-
low waters, even when the ship
is making a relatively low
speed. This is because the phase
velocity of waves is slower in
shallow waters, and the critical
speed may be attainable at a rel-
atively low ship speed.

It is important that seafarers

operating high-speed pleas-
V: Ships speed (knot)L: Ship length (m)
ure boats and fishing ves-
sels in shallow waters bear Fig.4-20
Diagram indicating dangerous zone due to surf-riding
this phenomenon in mind.

A Guide to Ship Handling I 085

~ Ship Handling in Waves

4.2 Ship Handling in Head and Bow Seas

Ship Motion in Head and Bow Seas

A ship among waves is repeatedly subjected to heaving, pitching and rolling as shown in Fig.4-3.
Hogging, sagging and twisting (torsional moment) can also be generated depending on the ship's rela-
tive position to the waves; i.e. whether the waves crest or trough amidships, or the ship is among obli-
que waves as shown in Fig.4-21 and Fig.4-22.

Hull hogged by wave crest amidships Hull sagged by wave trough amidships
r
I

Buoyancy 'I
I Buoyancy;

~
'- - - - - - - - - - -~
Tension
-
- - -:;.:.:.: - - - - - - - - - - - - <
Compression

~ ~---------
--

Compression Tension

Fig.4-21 Hoggingand sagging

Hull twisting

Torsional Torsional

Fig.4-22 1\visting(torsionalmoment)
 4.2 Ship Handling in Head and Bow Seas

Compounding the above, ship speed is reduced due to added resistance from wind and waves.
This phenomenon is especially likely in head and bow seas.
A ship's pitching response to any wave is determined by the wave's encounter length relative to the
ship's length, as well as the period of encounter:

·The ship's pitching motion is less significant when wavelength is shorter than ship length because the
influence wave is small. Pitching is restrained; the bottom of the bow does not emerge from the wa-
ter, and the bow does not dip severely enough to take green water. (Fig.4-23)
· When wavelength is longer than ship length, the ship pitches and heaves easily following the fore and
aft wave profile. (Fig.4-24)
·When wavelength is equal to ship length pitching motion is at its most intense. Heaving of the ship
on a crest and plunging of the bow into the next wave will accelerate. Fluctuations of water levels rel-
ative to waves at the bow and stem grow greater, leading to phenomena such as propeller racing,
shipping water and slamming. (Fig.4-25)

for _ LL

Fig.4-23 Pitching motion when encounter wavelength is shorter than ship length

Fig.4-24 Pitching motion when encounter wavelength is longer than ship length

r "?~.

Fig.4-25 Pitching motion when encounter wavelength is equal to ship length

A Guide to Ship Handling I 087

 ~ Ship Handling in Waves

Fig.4-26 shows the calculated fluctuations of

water level relative to waves at the bow.
From the figure, it is known that the fluctuat-
ing water level at the bow attains its greatest - -- -- - -- -- Draft at bow

level when wavelength is equal to ship length;

shipping of water can occur because the rela-
tive water level exceeds the bow freeboard;
slamming can occur when the relative water
level drops far enough below forward draft to
expose the bottom plates at the bow. 0.5 1.0 2.5
Wavelength I Ship length

Fig.4-26 Fluctuations of relative water level at bow

Propeller Racing and Reduction of Ship Speed

Whenever a ship is pitching and heaving heavily at the bow, similar heaving motion is generated at
the stem. As the relative motion between water level and the stem increases, the stem lifts out of the
water and exposes part of the propeller, causing it to race. This great and abrupt reduction of propel-
ler load results in a sudden increase in propeller revolutions, generating intense vibration. Known as
propeller racing, this phenomenon can damage the propeller, the propeller shaft and the main engine.
Accordingly, when a ship in ballast is navigating head and bow seas in still waters, aft draft should be
deepened so that the ratio of propeller immersion to propeller diameter may be kept at 20 percent or
more. (Fig.4-27)

Water level,

II dt [--1
, !
~-

Immersed depth of propellerr upper tip ratio

diD ~ 0.2 (20%)
Propeller immersion ratio -~Im::'::::::::~-:-: L::~
J
liD ~ 0.7(70%)
I: propeller immersion D: propeller diameter Fig.4-27
Required ratio of propeller immersion to propeller diameter

0881 A Guide to Ship Handling

 4.2 Ship Handling in Head and Bow Seas

Please also note that nominal speed will be reduced due to added resistance, reduced propulsive effi-
ciency and increased propeller load. Fig.4-28 shows the nominal speed reduction in irregular waves
when a 250-m-Iong container ship heads into a seaway. The figure makes it clear that the degree of
nominal speed reduction increases significantly when wave height exceeds 6 meters.

o
~c: 1.0
.2
U::>
~
"C
0.6
CD
CD
a.
en
0.2
Fig.4-28
o 2 4 6 8 10 Nominal speed reduction in head seas
Wave height (m) (full-loaded container ship)

When the main engine is subject to excessive torque brought about by added resistance to the hull, the
result can be what is known as a torque rich condition, which can lead to engine trouble caused by
overheating, or in abnormal consumption of fuel oil. In such an event, ship speed must be reduced.

Ship heading to high waves

AGuideto ShipHandlingU
~ Ship Handling in Waves

Shipping Water Forward

Shipping water refers to green water sweeping down the upper decks beyond the forecastle bulwark.
The impact force of green water can cause severe damage. Occasionally, deck machinery, deck cargo
and hatch covers are damaged. Hatch cover damage may allow water to enter into the holds.
The impact force of shipping water has two effects: direct dynamic pressure created by the shipped
green water; and impact force caused by the sweep of green water against deck machinery and other
appliances. Dynamic pressure created by shipped green water pounding onto the deck can reach ap-
proximately twice the static pressure equivalent to height of shipped green water above deck. The dy-
namic stress of shipped green water sweeping over the decks is proportional to the square of ship
speed; impact force is similar to that caused by green water pounding the deck.

Fig.4-29 shows the results of a tank test on

shipping water. Assumed are an actual ship of
78.5-m length and regular waves of 3-m height
(corresponding to Beaufort scale 3). The ex-
periments were executed in combination with
various ship speeds, wave encounter angles and
ratios of wavelength to ship length.
From the figure, it is found that shipping water
increases when ship length is equal to wave-
length in head seas, and that the frequency of
shipping water may be decreased by reducing
speed and/or altering course.
Fig.4-29 Frequencyof shippingwaterin regular waves

As shown in Fig.4-30, ocean waves can be seen as a superpo-

sition of many, simple, regular harmonic wave components,
each with its own amplitude, length or frequency and direc-
tion of propagation.
The interaction of these components can lead to irregularity.
Needless to say, it is important to investigate shipping water
phenomenon in irregular waves.

II

Fig.4-30
Concept of irregular wave
 4.2 Ship Handling in Head and Bow Seas

Fig.4-31 shows the result of shipping water

tests. Assumed are a ship of 78.5-m length -'-
o(])
>.15
and irregular waves. From the figure, it can
g:!:
(])O">
be seen that the frequency of shipping water ::Je:
c-'c.
increases proportionally with an increase in (])Q.
U:::E
en
ship speed and decreases as the encounter
wave angle (measuredfrom the bow) increases.

When considering shipping water phenomen- Fig.4-31

Frequency of shipping water in irregular waves
on in head and bow seas, first check the I

Beaufort scale number, which relates to the

height of corresponding waves, to calculate
Beaufort 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
the frequency of shipping water, as shown in scale
Table 4-1. (The Beaufort scale will be ex- Wave
3.0 4.0 5.5 7.0 9.0 11.5 14.0
plained in Chapter 5.) Next, using probability height (m) <1.0 2.0

theory, a critical operation diagram for the oc-

currence of shipping water can be obtained. Table 4-1 Beaufort scale and wave height

Fig.4-32and Fig.4-33 show critical operation diagrams for the occurrence of shipping water for a full-
loaded container ship of 40,000 gross tons. Ship speeds are drawn in concentric circles and encounter
wave angles in radial lines. Critical lines cQrrespondingto the Beaufort scale (wave height) are shown
as colored curves.

Container ship Container ship

0' ~ Frequency of shipping water 0' ~ Frequencyof shippingwater
30' qv& . =10 times/hour 30' qv& . =5 times/hour
OIl'"&. OIl'"&.
C'~. C'~.
,0.., 45,0.., -:;,
.45 -:;,
%6 %6
9z. 9z.
60' 60'

20 25 (knots) 20 25 (knots)
Fig.4-32 Fig.4-33
Critical operation diagram for the occurrence of Critical operation diagram for the occurrence of
shipping water on a container ship (10 times/hour) shipping water on a container ship (5 times/hour)

A Guide to Ship Handling I 091

 ~ Ship Handling in Waves

These figures show that a container ship heading into a seaway with Beaufort scale 10 waves will ship
water 10 times per hour at a vessel speed of 19 knots (Fig.4-32), and that the frequency of shipping wa-
ter can be cut in half, i.e. to 5 times per hour, if ship speed is reduced to 17 knots. (Fig.4-33)
By the same token, a full-loaded ore carrier of 110,000 gross tons heading into a seaway of Beaufort
scale 5 can reduce the frequency of shipping water by half, from 10 times per hour to 5 times per hour,
if ship speed is reduced from 13.5 knots to 12.5 knots. (Fig.4-34, Fig.4-35)

Ore carrier Ore carrier

O' ~ Frequency
ofshipping
water . Frequency
ofshipping
water
.92
<t! 30' qV$~. =10 times/hour .92 0 30,WqV$ =5 times/hour
<t! ~.
U 5 ~ U
S ~
5
_
(f)

15
6 45 .~~
C'~.

%($
-6
(f)
5
15
~~
C'~.

~
%6
CD CD
mom 0
7 ~
'Z.

~
'Z.

15(knots) 15(knots)
Fig.4-34 Fig.4-35
Critical operation diagram for the OCCUITenceof Critical operation diagram for the OCCUITenceof
shipping water on an ore carrier (10 times/hour) shipping water on an ore carrier (5 times/hour)

The occurrence of shipping water as it re- Coastal ship Container Ore carrier
lates to ship type and speed is summarized Bf.5 Bf.10 Bf. 5
Frequency of shipping water
in Table 4-2. It is shown that a reduction 13.5 knots
10 times/hour 12 knots 19 knots
of speed will considerably lessen shipping 5 times/hour 11 knots 17 knots 12.5 knots
water.
*Bf = Beaufort scale
Table 4-2
Ship types and speeds for the OCCUITenceof shipping water

Slamming
When a ship proceeds at a relatively high speed in head seas, slamming may occur. Slamming may be
classified into the following three types:

· Bottom slamming occurs when, due

to heavy bow motion relative to waves,
the forward part of a ship's bottom
emerges from the water and then slams
down heavily into the rising water of the
next oncoming wave. (Fig.4-36)
Fig.4-36 Bottom slamming

0921 A Guide to Ship Handling

 4.2 Ship Handling in Head and Bow Seas

· Bow flare slamming occurs in a large flared ship when a high relative speed exists between water
level and the flare. (Fig.4-37)

eIr-

Fig.4-37 Bow flare slamming

·Breaking wave impact is caused by the build-up

of breaking waves resulting from a superposition of
bow waves and head seas. Large, fat ships are sus- .~.._..
ceptible to this phenomenon. (Fig.4-38)

Fig.4-38 Breakingwater (wave)impact

Heavy slanuning will not only damage the ship's bow, forward bottom plating and bow flare, but the
cargo as well. Inunediately after slamming, high-frequency vibratory stresses, called whipping, will
take place elsewhere in the hull, causing damage to the hull and various appliances.
Furthermore, as the frequency of slamming increases, cracks can develop in the hull structure and met-
al fatigue, caused by repeated stresses and strains, occasionally results in fatal hull collapse.

Whipping ': High~frequency

. _. Vibratory' stresses

A Guide to Ship Handling I 093

 4.2 Ship Handling in Head and Bow Seas

~ Ship Handling in Waves

Fig.4-39 shows model experiments concerning a

78.5-m-Iong vessel experiencing slamming.
The following important findings have been ob-
tained:

. Appropriate reduction of speed is effective in

reducing slamming.
· Altering course to change encounter angle is
also effective in reducing slamming.
· A ship in light condition with trim-by-the-stern
is more susceptible to slamming compared to a
ship in full-load condition.
· Slamming is likely when the ship is close to
Fig.4-39
resonant pitching in head waves slightly longer
Frequency of slamming on a coastal ship
than its own length. in light condition

Care should be taken when reducing speed or

changing course as these measures may have Container ship
consequences with regard to parametric rolling, Frequency of slamming
0' =2 times/hour
Q)
synchronous rolling or course control. C6

Fig.4-40 shows a critical operation diagram for ~

t:: 9
o
slamming on a full-loaded container ship of '5
ttS
40,000 gross tons. The figure shows that a con- ~ 10
tainer ship heading into a seaway of Beaufort 11
scale 10 (average wave height 9 meters) will suf- 12

fer slamming 2 times per hour if the ship is mak-

ing 13 knots. (When course is altered to 45 de-
20 25(knots)
grees starboard or port, the ship can make 19
knots.) Fig.4-40
Critical operation diagram for the occurrence of
Occurrence of slamming relative to ship type and slamming on a container ship (2 times/hour)
speed is examined in Table 4-3.

In this chapter, you have been shown many tables and diagrams for avoiding navigational risks in
heavy seas and found these references to be Ore carrier
Coastal ship Container
simple and convenient measures. Moreover,
Frequency of slamming BI.6 BI.10 Bf.11
reference data are now available for naviga-
5 times/hour 5 knots 17 knots 8 knots
tional risk phenomena as they relate to ship
2 times/hour 4 knots 13 knots 5 knots
types and conditions. It is hoped that you are
encouraged to achieve safe navigation in *Bf= Beaufortscale Table 4-3
heavy seas by using these reference data. Ship types and speeds for the occurrence of slamming

0941 A Guide to Ship Handling

..,

Meteorology for Safe Navigation in

Extratropical and
Tropical Cyclones (Storms)
 5.1 Meteorological Phenomena in Waters Neighboring Japan

Beaufort Scale (Preliminary Guidance)

The Beaufort scale is an empirical measure describing wind intensity based mainly on observed sea con-
ditions. It is used by countless weather stations and seafarers. A definition of the Beaufort scale is shown
in Table 5-1, while Fig.5-1 provides a visual impression of the sea states relative to the Beaufort scale.

..Beaufort Probable mean Sea condition

, number .Wind speed (m/s) Description
wave height (m)
0 0-0.2 Calm 0 Calm (Glassy)

1 0.3-1.5 Light air 0.1 Ripplewithoutcrests

2 1.6-3.3 Light breeze 0.2 Small wavelets. Crests of glassy appearance

3 3.4-5.4 Gentle breeze 0.6 Large wavelets. Crests begins to break

4 5.5-7.9 Moderate breeze 1 Small waves, becoming longer

5 8.0-10.7 Fresh breeze 2 Moderatewaves, takinga more pronouncedlongform

6 10.8-13.8 Strong breeze 3 Large waves withfoam and spray

7 13.9-17.1 Near gale 4 Sea heaps up and foam begins to streak

8 17.2-20.7 Gale 5.5 Moderate high waves with breaking crests forming
spindrift. Streaks of foam

9 20.8-24.4 7 High waves with dense foam.

Strong gale Wave crests start to roll over.

10 24.5-28.4 Storm 9 Very high waves withlong overhanging crests

11 28.5-32.6 Violent storm 11.5 Exceptionally high waves: visibility affected

12 32.70ver Hurricane 14+ The air is filled with foam and spray:
visibility seriously affected

Table 5-1 Beaufortwind scale

0961 A Guide to Ship Handling

 Fig.5-1 Sea state vs beau fort scale

Photos courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency

A Guide to Ship Handling I 097

 Fig.5-l Sea state vs beaufort scale
Photos courtesy of Japan MeteorologicalAgency

0981 A Guide to Ship Handling

 5.1 Meteorological Phenomena in Waters Neighboring Japan

Formation and Development of Extratropical Cyclones and Typhoons

1. Formation and development of extratropical cyclones in waters neighboring Japan

The fonnation and development of extratropical cyclones are greatly affected by air masses in waters
neighboring Japan. When an area of high atmospheric pressure remains over a continent or the ocean
for an extended period of time, a large homogeneous air concentration may build up. This is called
an air mass. There are two major air masses affecting meteorological conditions in waters neighbor-
ing Japan: one is the Siberian Air Mass, a cold air mass; and the other is the Ogasawara (North Pacif-
ic) Air Mass, a wann air mass. Depending on the season, the Okhotsk Air Mass and the Yangtze-Riv-
er Air Mass will also influence meteorological conditions in waters neighboring Japan (Fig.5-2).

Fig.5-2 Air masses aroundJapan

A Guide to Ship Handling I 099

 ~ Meteorology for Safe Navigation in Extratropical and Tropical Cyclones (Storms)

The fonnation and development of extratropical cyclones are explained as follows: When two air
masses with physically different characteristics come into contact with each other, fronts are fonned
in the boundary zone between the two air masses.

When the cold air mass is larger, it moves When warm air predominates, the warm
towards the wann air mass, the cold air air moves towards the cold air mass and
moving the frontal boundary forward and pushes the front forward with the lighter
raising the lighter wann air. A front wann air creeping up the frontal boundary
fonned in this manner is called a "cold of the cold air mass. A front fonned in this
front" (Fig.5-3). manner is called a "wann front" (Fig.5-4).

CB: cumulonimbus NS: nimbostratus

Cold front Warm front

CB

~!g.5~~_ Cold front Fig.5-4

€old air mass

Warm air mass

Fig.5-5 Formationof extratropicalcyclone

An extratropical cyclone fonns where these fronts meet. When a southern wann air mass moves north-
ward and a northern cold air mass moves southward, an updraft: is created by the contact between the
two air masses (Fig.5-5).

100 I A Guide to Ship Handling

 5.1 Meteorological Phenomena in Waters Neighboring Japan

As shown in Fig.5-6, this fonns the counter-clockwise spiral flow of air that can develop into an extra-
tropical cyclone.

Cold polar air

..
A AA AA C . AC = Stationary surface boundary

Warm tropical air

.. or front

Coolair _ .". path 01wave

~~ B--('r . Small wave developing at B

A :/
Warm
air./
C

. Circulation around
AB = Cold front
BC = Warm front

A
Fig.5-6
Formation of fronts in Northern hemisphere

The larger the difference in temperature between the two converging masses, the greater the potential
strength of the extratropical cyclone. For this reason, strong extratropical cyclones are more frequent
in winter than in summer.
Extratropical cyclones in the Northern hemisphere generally move northeastward at an approximate
speed of 40 lan/h or daily 10 degrees of longitude. Approximate maximum wind speed may be calcu-
lated using .the following fonnula:
V: maximum wind speed (m/s)
V (m/s) = SJ1 01 O-P
P: atmospheric minimum pressure (hPa)

Extratropical cyclones may be classified into the following two classes:

· Wind rain class: core atmospheric pressure is 1,000 hPa or less and maximum wind speed is 15 m/s
or greater.
· Stonny wind and rain class: core atmospheric pressure is 980 hPa or less and maximum wind speed
is 25 m/ s or greater.

A developing extratropical cyclone is characterized by the following indications:

. core atmospheric pressure falls below 1,000 hPa
. rate of daily pressure decrease exceeds 10 hPa
· moving velocity exceeds 50 lan/h

A Guide to Ship Handling 1101

 ~ Meteorology for Safe Navigation in Extratropical and Tropical Cyclones (Storms)

2. Surface and upper air weather charts

The well-known surface weather charts are used to
find the location and strength of low and high pres-
sure systems as well as wann, cold and stationary
fronts. The highs and lows can be located with H
and L symbols on the map. Isolines represent the
isobars of surface atmospheric pressure (Fig.5-7).

H: High pressure L: Low pressure

~~
f _-=-" _ -11
Fig.5-7 Surfaceweatherchart

To understand meteorological phenomena caused by extratropical cyclones, it is necessary to grasp

the three-dimensional structures of atmospheric air movement within the troposphere, the lowest re-
gion of the atmosphere, which extends from the planet's surface to a height of about 12 kIn. Upper air
weather charts are produced for the portion of the atmosphere above the lower troposphere; pressure
surface height, air temperature and wind speed are plotted on these isobaric maps. They are classified
into the following levels of the atmosphere (See Fig.5-8):

Jet stream
300 hPa
(9,000m)

500 hPa General stream Driving typhoon

~
..
(5,500m)

Mt.Fuji
700 hPa Judgement of rain area
(3,000m)

850 hPa ~ Judgement of air mass

(1,500m)

Fig.5-8 Upper air charts VS.altitudes

1021 A Guide to Ship Handling

 5.1 Meteorological Phenomena in Waters Neighboring Japan

The charts represent height contours

(lines connecting all points on the sur-
face having the same altitude) as solid
lines; and isothenns (lines connecting
all points having the same tempera-
ture) as dotted lines (Fig.5-9 and
Fig.5-10).
300 hPa charts may have "isotaches",
which are lines connecting all points
having equal wind speed. Ships mainly
concern themselves with 500 hPa up-
per air charts representing weather
conditions in the mid-troposphere;half
the mass of the atmosphere lies below
this level. Since many weather systems
follow the wind flow at this level, this Upper air charts (500 hPa)
level is often considered to symbolize Solid line:
Isobaric surface / Height (m)
the steering level of these systems. Dotted line: Temperature
Isotherms (500/700/850 hPa chart) \L.:37.5
Isotaches (300 hPa) 4.6
W: Core of warm air Dewpoint depression
C: Core of cold air (;Air temp - Dew point temp)
ANALYSIS 500 hPa: HEIGHT(M), TEMP("C)

Courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency Fig.5-10 Upper air charts (500 hPa; isobaric surface and isotherms)

A Guide to Ship Handling 1103

 ~ Meteorology for Safe Navigation in Extratropical and Tropical Cyclones (Storms)

As shown in Fig.S-ll, extratropical cyclones tend to develop in front of an upper-level trough.

When the upper-level trough deepens relative to the previous day, the low on the surface will
strengthen.
Attention should also be given to the movement of upper-level isotherms, because the flow of cold air
towards the south may cause extratropical cyclones to develop accompanied with gusting winds.
Particular care should be paid to the movements of isotherms on 500 hPa upper-air charts at _30°C and
-36°C in winter, and at _24°C in spring and autumn (Fig.S-12).
It is hoped that navigators will make optimum use of upper-air charts in combination with surface
weather charts.

Fig.5-11 Upper-leveltroughair vs. low on surface Fig.5-12 Developmentof extratropicalcyclone

and upper cold air influx

3. Typhoons
Lows formed in a tropical zone are called tropical depressions. In Japan, a tropical depression with a
maximum wind speed of 17.2m/s or more is called a typhoon (Fig.S-13).

Photos courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency

1041 A Guide to Ship Handling

 5.1 Meteorological Phenomena in Waters Neighboring Japan

Fig.5-14 shows areas of typhoon for-

mation. The most typhoons form in the
eastern sea area off the Philippine Is-
lands.
As shown in Fig.5-15, typhoons gener-
ally follow one of two paths: some
move northwesterly after birth; while
others veer to the right along the west-
ern fiinge of the North Pacific Ocean
High, then move northeasterly under
the impact of the Westerlies. The path
of the latter type is largely dependent
on the strength of the Westerliesand the
Frequent region . Most frequent region
Fig.5-14 Areas of typhoon formation
North Pacific Ocean High.
Most typhoons tend to advance toward
the right, along 500 hPa upper-air chart
contours 5,820 m to 5,860 m for the
North Pacific Ocean High. Points of
veer tend to correspond to the height
ridges for the North Pacific High ex-
tending east to west on the same air
chart (Fig.5-16).

Fig.5-15 Paths of typhoons

Fig.5-16 Advancing course and recurvature point of typhoon

A Guida to Ship Handling 1105

 ~ Meteorology for Safe Navigation in Extratropical and Tropical Cyclones (Storms)

Typical Extratropical Cyclones Developing in Waters Neighboring Japan

In waters neighboring Japan, many extratropi-

cal cyclones form from autumn to spring, and
occasionally grow to typhoon-strength levels.
As shown in Fig.5-17, they are categorized
into the following three patterns based on ori-
gin and path:

· East China Sea Lows

. Japan Sea Lows

· Twin Lows
Courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency

Fig.5-17 Paths of lows

1061 A Guide to Ship Handling

 5.1 Meteorological Phenomena in Waters Neighboring Japan

East China Sea Lows

The East China Sea Lows originate in the East China Sea or near Taiwan when the rigid winter atmos-
pheric pattern of high pressure in the west and low pressure in the east abates in the season ftom winter
to early spring. Because a continental high extends to the southeast, a prominent trough is fonned and
ftontal wave stimulated. Due to the above, the low develops rapidly and powerfully while proceeding
along the southern coast of the Japanese archipelago. Particularly,the lows swell significantly accompa-
nied by very heavy seas as they proceed northeastward along the southern coast of Japan at a speed
ranging 50 km/h to 80 km/h. Fig.5-18 shows the development sequence of an East China Sea Low.
The development of the low is enonnous.

Mar 2005

Courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency

Fig.5-18 EastChina SeaLows

A Guide to Ship Handling 1107

 ~ Meteorology for Safe Navigation in Extratropical and Tropical Cyclones (Storms)

Japan Sea Lows

The Japan Sea Lows originate in the same season and under the same atmospheric conditions as the East
China Sea Lows, i.e. between winter and early spring in conditions of high pressure in the west and low
pressure in the east. The Japan Sea Lows will develop rapidly as prominent troughs are formed in the Japan
Sea when the winter atmospheric pressure pattern abates. Southerly winds blow towards the low and most
areas of Japan are covered with warm air (Fig.5-19). If a high is present to the south of the Japanese coast,
atmospheric temperature will rise, causing strong gusts with very high seas. This phenomenon is lmown as
the vernal storm. However, the supply of warm air is temporary, and temperature drops abruptly once the
winter atmospheric pattern accompanied by the cold north wind returns in the wake of the passing cold ITont.

Jan. 2003

Courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency

Fig.5-19 Japan Sea Lows

1081 A Guide to Ship Handling

 5.1 Meteorological Phenomena in Waters Neighboring Japan

Twin Lows
The Twin Lows appear in the season ITom November to March, one in the north, and the other in the
south of the Japanese archipelago (Fig.5-20). After proceeding to the east side by side, they develop fur-
ther and are joined to one low off the Sanriku coast. A strong monsoon nearly equivalent to a typhoon
will follow behind this low accompanied by very high seas.

Mar. 2005

Courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency

Fig.5-20 Twin Lows

A Guide to Ship Handling 1109

'i
I

~ Meteorology for Safe Navigation in Extratropical and Tropical Cyclones (Storms)

Types of twin low

A. Another low is generated B. Another low is generated C. Two independent lows are
on the occluded front. topographically. proceeding together.

Winter atmospheric pressure configuration

The typical winter atmospheric pressure configuration of high pressure in the west and low pressure in
the east appears from November to March.
When a continental high extends to cover Japan and a developed low exists in the northeast area off Ja-
pan, the winter monsoon grows stronger and blows longer.
The winter monsoon blows strong because the pressure gradient becomes sharper when the high in the
west and the low in the east develop simultaneously (Fig.5-21).

Jan. 2003

t-<'o::-f' I / I }
Courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency

Fig.5-21 Winter atmospheric pressure configuration

110 I A Guide to Ship Handling

 5.1 Meteorological Phenomena in Waters Neighboring Japan

High-wavezone (off NojimaSaki)

In the sea area east of Japan (off Noji-
ma Saki), marine casualties are frequent
due to high waves caused by the winter
monsoon, which prevails in vast sea
area and can last a long time.
As the southern tip of the upper cold air
passes over this sea area (See Fig.5-22),
the turbulent air flow caused by convec-
tion currents becomes predominant due
to the large difference in temperature
between the warm sea surface in the
Kuroshio Current and the cold air of the Fig.5-22 Southerntip of upper cold air

upper layer. This will further increase

wave height.
As shown in Fig.5-23, this high-wave
area extends 30 to 37 degrees north in
latitude and 140 to 160 degrees east in
longitude. Occasionally, this high-wave
area appears in the southwest quadrant
at a considerable distance from the cen-
ter of a low (Fig.5-24).
This fact indicates that, to detect a
high-wave area, the movement of up-
per-layer cold air should be checked on
the isotherms of the 500 hPa upper-air
Fig.5-23 High-wave zone in the sea area east of Japan
chart.

Fig.5-24 High-wave sector in the southwest quadrant of a low

A Guide to Ship Handling I 111

 ~ Meteorology for Safe Navigation in Extratropical and Tropical Cyclones (Storms)

5.2 AvoidingTropical Storms (Typhoons)

Meteorological Information
When navigating under threat of a tropical depression or typhoon, a ship must collect information ITom
meteorological organizations and then utilize these data. A rough method of detecting the center of a
storm is known as Buys Ballot's Law: stand with your back to the wind; the center of low pressure will
be ITom 15 to 30 degrees forward ITomyour left hand (Fig.5-31) in the Northern hemisphere, and on
your right hand in the Southern hemisphere. This law is also applicable to extratropical cyclones.
It is necessary to know the relative position of the ship to the target tropical depression or typhoon to
minimize its effects. When a typhoon is moving northward and observed wind direction on board chan-
ges to clockwise, the ship is in the right-hand semicircle. If the wind direction changes to counter-
clockwise, the ship is in the left-hand semicircle of a typhoon (Fig.5-25 and Fig.5-26).

Fig.5-25 Wind direction of typhoon (in the forward part) Fig.5-26 Change of wind direction

The rate of change in wind direction becomes

greater when the distance between the ship and
the center of the typhoon is smaller. Conversely,
its rate of change becomes smaller when the dis-
tance between the ship and the center of typhoon
grows larger.A large rate of change in wind direc-
tion also foretells abrupt and drastic directional
change in wind direction (Fig.5-27).
With few exceptions, most ports and harbors
along the southern coast of Japan are exposed to
i
danger due to strong winds blowing towards the
shore when a typhoon, directing northerly or Fig.5-27 Rateof winddirectionchange I

northeasterly, is passing to the west of port.

1121 A Guide to Ship Handling I

 5.2 Avoiding Tropical Storms (Typhoons)

Avoiding Tropical Storms (Typhoons)

1. Dangerous and navigable semicircles

The right-hand semicircle to the path of a typhoon (facing the direction toward which the typhoon is
moving) is known as the dangerous semicircle; here, wind speed increases because wind direction and
direction of typhoon movement are the same, and the ship may be blown towards the center of the ty-
phoon (Fig.5-28). When a typhoon is located in the southern ocean, at a distance from Japan, its storm
area has a circular form. As the typhoon approaches waters neighboring Japan, the storm area expands
significantly, and tends to expand prominently in the eastern semicircle. Strong winds and high waves
are formed in the typhoon's southeast quadrant.
Fig.5-30 shows that the high-wave area prevails in the southeastern quadrant. The left-hand semicircle
to the path of a typhoon is called the navigable semicircle because wind decreases due to the forward
motion of the typhoon (adverse to wind direction), and the wind blows the ship away from the ty-
phoon path (See Fig.5-29). Even though it is called the navigable semicircle, it nevertheless accompa-
nies the storm area, and sufficient care should be taken.

1M"

Fig.5-28 Dangeroussemicircle Fig.5-29 Navigablesemicircle

o
Wind
Buys Ballot Law
Northern Hemisphere Fig.5-31

A Guide to Ship Handling 1113

 5.2 Avoiding Tropical Storms (Typhoons)

~ Meteorology
for SafeNavigation
in Extratropical
andTropicalCyclones
(Storms)

2. General rules for avoiding tropical storms (typhoons)

The general rules for avoiding tropical cyclones or typhoons are summarized as follows:
(As typhoonsare mainlydiscussedin this chapter,the followingrulesapply onlyto shipsin the Northernhemisphere.)

(a) If the wind changes to clockwise, the ship must be in the dangerous semicircle. If possible, the
ship should place the wind on the starboard bow (450relative), hold course and make as much
way as possible to get out of the dangerous zone.
(b) If the wind backs the ship, the ship is in the navigable semicircle. The ship should place the wind
on the starboard quarter (1350relative), hold course and make as much way as possible. (This
method of avoidance is called scudding.)
(c) If the wind remains steady or nearly steady in terms of direction, the ship should be in the path of
the typhoon, ahead of the storm's center. In this case, the master should decide in advance wheth-
er the ship is able to enter the navigable area of the typhoon safely or not. If this action is deemed
practicable, the ship should place the wind 2 points on the starboard quarter (about 1600relative),
hold course and make as much way as possible. When well within the navigable semicircle,
scudding is recommended.
(d) If the ship is in the center, or near the center of the typhoon, the ship should heave-to with the
wind on the starboard bow.

Heave-to:when the weather becomes so violent in

the open sea that continued navigation will lead JO

difficulty or danger. the ship can heave-to (Le. lie with
the wind on the starboard bow and run ahead at the
minimum possible speed for maintaining steerage
way). The method by which engines are stopped and
the ship is allowed to drift is known as lying-to.

Fig.5-32 shows the methods for avoiding typhoons

in the Northern hemisphere; alphabetical symbols
in the figure correspond with those above.

Fig.5-32 Howto avoidtyphoon

Today, the Meteorological Agency provides ships

with information on oceanic meteorological conditions, such as surface weather charts, upper-air
charts, ocean wave charts, photographs from weather satellites, and so on. All are easy to obtain.
It should be noted that much of the data from on-board weather observations are incorporated in the
Meteorological Agency's weather reports. Therefore, for the purpose of providing ships with more ac-
curate information on oceanic meteorological conditions, weather observations and reports will contin-
ue to be of vital importance. Seafarers are required not only to develop their meteorological knowl-
edge, but also to seek to realize safe ship operations by making practical use of this knowledge.

1141 A ~Ui~e to Ship Handling

... .
 6.1 Maneuverability of Very Large Ships

Introduction
In response to requests from the industrial world for rationalized transport and procurement expenses, vel)'
large ships have been designed and built in ever-greater numbers. These are primarily crude oil tankers and
bulk carriers. The maneuvering characteristics of these vel)' large ships include good turning ability but poor
course-keeping and stopping abilities. When it comes to the safe navigation of vel)' large ships, as typified by
VLCCs, it is essential that evel)' operator know the maneuvering characteristics of their ship, and that they
master ship-handling techniques, including speed control. Based on the maneuvering capabilities of ships
discussed in Chapter 1, this chapter examines the handling of vel)' large ships from a practical standpoint.

Turning Ability of (m)

Very Large Ships
1200
The turning ability of vel)' large
ships is summarized in the fol-
lowing figures:
800

400

@ 280,OOO-DWTVLCC (Lpp 320 m)

15.7knots
o I
Hid: 00 -
@ 6,200-TEU Container ship (Lpp 287 m)
24.0knots Lpp:320 m
Fullloaded
Rudder angle 35°
Fig.6-1 Comparison with containership
o 400 800 1200 (m)

1161 A Guide to Ship Handling

 6.1 Maneuverability of Very Large Ships

(m)

7200

800

@ Hid: 00 400
15.7 kts
@ Hid: 1.5
Lpp: 320 m
Full loaded -I
o
Fig.6-2 Rudder angle 35.
Influence of the ratio of water depth 280,000-DWT VLCC
"H" to ship draft "d", Hid I I
o 400 800 7200 (m)

(m)

7200

800

400

@ Full loaded
Hid: 00
@ Ballast o 15.7 kts
I
Lpp: 320 m
Rudder angle 35.
Fig.6-3 280,000-DWT VLCC
Influence of loading conditions
o 400 800 7200 (01)

A Guide to Ship Handling 1117

~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

Initial Turning Ability,Yaw-Checkingand Course-KeepingAbilitiesofVery Large Ships

In the past, ship maneuverability was expressed in terms of results gleaned from turning tests, such as
tactical diameter and advance. With the development of large-sized ships with large block coefficients,
however, it has been recognized that full spectrum of maneuvering characteristics cannot be expressed
by turning factors alone, but that other factors, such as initial turning ability and yaw-checking/
course-keeping abilities, should also be taken into consideration. The above maneuvering measures
were explained in general in Chapterl; their practical application will be explained in this section.
A schematic diagram of the 10°/10° zigzag test and related factors are described in Fig.I-22, Chapterl.
Initial turning ability is related to time to second execute, ta; course-keeping ability to time to check
yaw, ts; and yaw-checking and course-keeping abilities to overshoot angles 4"1,and 4"2.
Table 6-1 and Fig.6-4 - Fig.6-6 show the comparisons of 10°/10° zigzag test for a 278,000-DWT
VLCC under various conditions and for a container ship in full-load condition. In the table, tactical
diameter is shown as a multiple of ship length, L.

Table 6-1 Results zigzag 10°/10° test

Ship type!
condition 278,OGO-DWT VLCC 1.=320 m <15.7 Ids)

Items Full load Ballast Full load Full load

H/d=oo H/d=oo H/d=1.5 - Hld=oo
TImeto second
68 43 117 42
execute, ta, (see)
TImeto check
115 65 183 19
yaw, ts, (sec)
First overshoot
14 13 12 4
angle, 4'. (deg.)
Tacticaldiameter, 3.4 2.8 4.5
TD (multiple of L)
 6.1 Maneuverability of Very Large Ships

830 From the above table and figures, it

./ I ..........
10 /"
is mown that:
o ./
-10
-30 f-" I
,,-,
"\.
"\.
"-
I

/'
/'
"
"
\
.VLCCs have poor initial turning
and course-keeping abilities, but
-50 : lilt I IMf I has good turning ability, relative to
p 0 200 400 600 800 (see)
container ships.
830
10
o
·Turning ability and maneuvering
abilities deteriorate in full-load con-
-10
dition relative to ballast condition.
-30'-- -
-50I-~ ·Maneuvering abilities deteriorate
p 0 200 400 600 (see) in shallow water conditions (first
Fig.6-4 overshoot angle excepted).
Comparison
of 10'110' zigzag test between VLCCandContainership(full-loadcondition)
The control of a very large ship
will also become increasingly dif-
830 - -
- - -- +- ficult when the turning rate has
10 ./ ......... /"
'" /I
o ./\ I
1
" been fully developed using a large
-10 - - - "\. /
amount of rudder deflection. It is
....... /"
-30
-50
........ V
... ... . important to control the ship's
P 0
830
10 /I ./
o \
'"
200

"\.
400
-
1/\
./
- '"
600
-f-

'-I ,
800 (see)
+
"
"--
"
turning rate by putting over the
rudder gradually.

1 i
-10 .- - / "\. -
....... ./ ....... ./
-30 - Heading angle

-50 -- - Rudder angle

p 0 200 400 600 800 (see)
Fig.6-5
Comparisonof 10'110' zigzagtestbetweenVLCC in full-load andin ballastconditions

830
~-=;
10~
o
-10
-30,
-501-H/d=OO
p 0 200
-
~

400 600
~ .r:::r~.

800
--
-

(see)
830
10
- . I
o
-10 -----+-- - --+-
1
-30 1 ---I-
-50 -H/d=-1.5---1------ 1
p 0 200 400 600 800 (see)
Fig.6-6
Comparisonof 10°110°zigzag test betweenin deepwatersand in shallow waters

A Guide to Ship Handling 1119

 ~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

New Course Distance and Collision Avoidance Action

In respect to new course-keeping maneuvering, collision avoidance is simulated under

various conditions for two full-loaded 280,OOO-DWTtankers making 15.7 knots and
meeting on reciprocal courses. Applying requisite bridge-to-bridge distances, the re-
sults are summarized in the following figures:

ok:
iJ,.

'~l.t

'ii;.
" , 111!81....

(m)

280,OOO-DWT Tankers
Speed 15.7 Ids
HId: 00
400

Steer hard starboard Steer hard starboard

---------
o

-400

1.0 Nautical mile (132 sec)

-800 I I I
o 400 800 1200 1600 {m)

Fig.6-7 Keeping one ship length of closest point of approach (CPA)

120 1 A Guide to Ship Handling

 6.] Maneuverability of Very Large Ships

As shown in Fig.6-8, sufficient care should be taken for initial evasive distance when navigating in
shallow waters, such as the Malacca Strait.

280,OOO-DWT Tankers

(m) 1 I
400

Steerhardstar oard
------ --....
l( HId:Ids
Speed 15.7 00 t
o - I I
I 1"",- I
I I
I
I
\ ' '-':1L:320 m I
I
-400
I I
I I
I I
I I
1.6 Nautical miles (186 sec)
-800
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 (m

(m) I I
( Speed 15.7 Ids
400

Steer hard star board

l HId: 1.5

----- .. .......
o
I ---.. II
I
I , ,,\1 L: 320 m) I
I I
-400 I I
:
I
:
I
I I
I I
1.8 Nautical mi es (214 sec)
-800 . .
o
, , " ., , " "

400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 (mY

(m)

400

Steer hard starboard

SlowHId:1.5
S~eed }
0 ".. -I..
.....
I I
I I
I I
I KI"'~1L:320 m I
I I
-400 T
I I
I I
I I
I I
-800 I
2.1 Nautical miles (318 sec)
I I I

0 4M 800 12001'600 2000 2400 2800 J2~OO 3600'P (m

Fig.6-8 Keeping one ship length of closest point of approach (CPA) with hard over helm by own ship

A Guide to Ship Handling 1121

~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

Fig.6-9 shows a simulated result when passing each other by keeping one nautical mile of closest point
of approach in open sea.
Each evasive course-changing angle has changed to 20° to starboard with using 10° rudder to starboard
while controlling the turning rate.
Each should take the initial evasive action at the bridge-to-bridge distance of3.8 nautical miles.

(m)

1000 280,OOO-DWTTankers
Speed 15.7 Ids
HId: 00

-1000

3.8 Nautical miles (409 see)

-2000 1. 1 I I
-1000 if 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 (m)

Fig.6-9 Keeping one nautical mile of CPA each taking evasive course-changing angle of 20 degrees
 6.1 Maneuverability of Very Large Ships

Speed Control
Assuming that a ship is approaching its berth using a deceleration maneuver, speed and distance cov-
ered are described in Fig.6-10 after the main engine has been stopped and the ship is making 6 knots.
Approximate distance covered by the time ship speed is reduced to 2.5 knots, the critical speed at
which rudder effectiveness is nearly lost, (Kt)
can be obtained from the diagram (2,800 m ~6 - 280,000ton
for a 160,000-ton tanker; and 4,000 m for a 2i
(/)
5 -160,000ton
90,000ton
280,000-ton tanker). _(/)
Time required for speed reduction is also ~
CI)
4
shown as a function of displaced weight and 3
distance run. (For example, a 160,000-ton 2.~
10niln
tanker requires approximately 22 minutes
for its speed to decelerate to 2.5 knots;
while a 280,000-ton tanker takes approxi- o
1000 2000 3000 4000
mately 30 minutes.)
Distance run (m)
Fig.6-10 Deceleration diagram

In accordance with the Standards for Safety Management System (SMS), the following precautions are
required during deceleration maneuvers when a ship is approaching a berth in harbor or an anchorage
outside a harbor:

..Ship speed should be reduced gradually, adjusting to the remaining distance.

Ship should not overshoot the target destination.
. Ship should be brought to a stop with directional control being kept stable.

It should be noted that headway and directional control are difficult to maintain during such maneuv-
ers, a condition exacerbated by poor steering ability at low speed. The speed reduction scheme shown
in Fig.3-34 in Chapter 3 may prove helpful when it comes deceleration maneuvers.

The movement of very large ships cannot be controlled using conventional ship-handling techniques
alone. As such, attention should be paid to maintaining directional control using verified numerical
data and readings from a yaw rate meter.
Very large ships are characterized as "good turning ability, but extremely poor course-keeping and ini-
tial turning abilities."
It is hoped that you keep safe ship handling in mind, firmly grasping the above-mentioned maneuver-
ing characteristics of very large ships.

A Guide to Ship Handling 1123

 E:l!mDI Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

6.2 Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs) - Wind Effects

Introduction
~Ii
I Such ships, typified by Pure Car Carriers or Car-ferries, are characterized as a special design character-
ized by a high freeboard, with a significant area of the hull and superstructure above water as compared
to the underwater hull.
This means that wind has a significant impact on the hull and that the bow wave has a much greater ef-
fect on the large flared bow.
Particular attention should be paid to typhoons or approaching low fronts, as they can result in loss of
maneuverability due to the ship being buffeted by strong winds and waves; deterioration of rudder ef-
fectiveness as the result of heavy rolling and pitching; and greatly reduced speed caused by propeller
racing, which in turn may make it difficult to maintain control over the main engine. These vessels are
also susceptible to anchor dragging due to strong winds.
Therefore, it is important to grasp wind effects and understand the maneuverability limits they impose.

1J~ G~de to ShipHandling

 6.2 Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs) - Wind Effects

Hull Structure Properties of PCCs

To maximize vehicle-carrying capacity, 190m
Length over all (LOA)
a PCC is designed as a rectangular-type
Breadth extreme (B) 32.26 m
hull structure with high freeboard, with
an enormous area of hull and super- Depth moulded (D) 37.41m (cargo deck top)
structure above water as compared to Summer draft 10.325m
the underwater hull. Since the PCC hull
Draft Designed draft 8.325 m
form is distinct from those of tankers
and container ships, PCCs are always Ballast condition 7.50m
vulnerable to the effects of wind, re- 8,325 kg
Anchor weight (AC14 type)
gardless of their load condition.
Weight 143.7 kg/m
Principal particulars of the PCC are Cable
shown in Table 6-2. Length 687.5m (12/13 shackles)

Table 6-2 Principal particulars of the model PCC (6400-unit capacity)

Typical symbols, such as Aa and Sa are defined as shown in Fig.6-11.

As shown in Fig.6-11, the projection of a full-sized PCC's midship above-water section has an approxi-
mate value ranging from 950 m2 to 1,050 m2;the value for the lateral plane of symmetry ranges from
5,500 m2to 6,200 m2.

5,500 6;200m2 950 1,050m2

I
I L. , . 1
r · I --.1

Fig.6-11 Front and side projections of above-water and underwater portions of PCCs

A Guide to Ship Handling I 125

 ~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

Table 6-3 compares a PCC, a container ship and a tanker, each in loaded condition. The ratio of the
front projection of the above-water portion, Aa, is compared to that of the underwater portion, Aw, and
the ratio of side projection of the above-water portion, Ba, to that of the underwater portion, Bw. The
wind effect on a PCC is about 1.2 times (3.1/2.6' .1.2) on the front view and 1.5 times (2.9/1.9'=T1.5)
on the side view as compared to a container ship. The table also indicates that the wind effect on the
PCC is about 2.6 times on the
::
-
front view and 3.6 times on the Ship
:: --
- Item Front ratio (Aa/Aw) Side ratio (Ba/Bw)
side view as compared to a PCC (6,400-unit capacity) 3.1 2.9
tanker. So, a PCC is highly
Container ship (6,000-TEU) 2.6 1.9
susceptible to the effects of
wind. Tanker (230,000-DWT) 1.2 0.8

Table 6-3 Principalparticularsof the Model PCC (6,400-unitcapacity)

Wind Effects on PCC while Underway

1. Wind force (Resultant wind force) on pce
The wind force acting on each portion of the hull differs according to the shape of the hull and the rela-
tive wind direction. However, ship operators deal with each local wind force as an integrated value. This
unified force is termed the resultant wind force acting on the working point. The resultant wind force
acting on the hull is calculated by the formula devised by G. Hughes as shown in Fig.6-12. Ca in this
equation is the resultant wind force coefficient, jts values varying with the relative wind direction off
bow. The curve obtained by plotting these values shows the same trend depending on the type of ship.

Simplified formula of wind resultant force (F)

F = 1/2 . P . Ca . V2 (Aa . cos2 8 + Sa . sin2 8) Relative wind
; direction
P : Specific density of air (0.125)
Ca: Resultant wind force coefficient ! (8) I~
.~
a : Distance of the center of wind force from bow (m) OCi
q;
""
C : Center of the wind force I>
Aa & Sa: Projection of above-water portion (m2) .#

t '
-'. I.. ,_, '_, {,-
......... ...I>..~
_'
,'..
.-
'11
...,--- ...

~w

Fig.6-12 Simplifiedfonnulaof windresultantforceand relatedelements

1261 A Guide to Ship Handling

 6.2 Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs) -Wind Effects

The resultant wind force coefficient of PCCs can roughly be obtained from Fig.6-13. The working
point of wind force, located at a distance of a from the fore perpendicular (FP), moves with the wind
direction. When the relative wind direction is near the direction of the bow, the working point is at the
position near the bow, moving abaft as the angles of relative wind direction off bow increase.

~
--- 2.0
.....
c:
Q)
.0
:E
Q)
1.5
8
Q)
~ 1.0
.2
"0
c:
.~
.....
0.5
c:
ro
:!:
:J
83 0.0 600 900 1200 1500 1800
a: 00
Wind direction (8)
Fig.6-13 Resultantwind forcecoefficient(Ca) of PCCs

The resultant wind forge acting on the working point varies with wind speed and direction, reaching a
maximum when the beam wind is acting on the largest wind-affected area. In the case of the model
PCC, as shown in Fig.6-14, it can reach 290 tons under a wind speed of 25 mls and a relative wind di-
rection of 90 degrees.

..-...
c:
.s 400
---

-
Q)
(.)
....
o
"0
c:
.~
c: 200
ro
:!:
:J
en
Q) 100
a:
o
600 900 1200 1500 1800
Relativewind direction
Fig.6-14 Resultant wind force vs. wind speed and relative wind direction

A Guide to Ship Handling 1127

~
!i ~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships
i
I
2. Leewayand check helm for maintaining straight course
When the wind begins to blow from the starboard bow while underway, turning moment to port is exer-
ted due to the resultant wind force on the working point. However, when the wind shifts its direction
_ abaftthe beam,turningmomentto starboardis
exerted due to the backward shift of the work- Wind
ing point (Fig.6-15). When the wind from the
starboard bow continues blowing on the ship
underway, its bow is swept away downwind by I
I
the turning moment to port. Due to the drifting
of the hull to leeward, the fluid force from the Turing moment Turing moment
by wind by wind
port bow on the underwater hull causes the
turning moment to starboard. If the working
point of wind force is located abaft that of fluid
force, the ship's bow tends to turn into the wind.
Leeway is defined as the angle (P°) between
the line of the ship's apparent course (the bow Wind
heading) and the line that the ship actually
makes good through the water (Fig.6-16). Fig.6-15 Turning moment by wind

When navigating a width-confined channel

under the influence of wind and tidal current,
prudent ship handling is required in considera-
tion of leeway. For this purpose, the ship is re-
quired to take a little more windward course
than the planned course in order that the ship's
center of the gravity may remain on the plan-
ned course line.
Leeway will increase, as the wind speed grows
stronger or the ship is making less speed.
In this case, ship handling is required to adjust
Ship's heading
leeway by checking the ship's position fre-
Ship's path

II:
quently. However, when navigating a narrow
channel, the rudder angle to be deflected is
... Fluid force
... Windforce
limited to 15 degrees against the ship's maxi- . Centeroffluidforce
mum rudder angle of 35 degrees. Around 20 o Center of windforce
degrees of rudder angle must be reserved for -$- Center of gravity
safety reasons.
Fig.6-16 Definition ofleeway, 13'

1281 A Guide to Ship Handling

 6.2 Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs) - Wind Effects

3. Controllabilitylimits of PCC in wind

When the wind speed is increasingor the ship is making less speed on the beam wind, the outcome of the
magnitudeof leewaywith rudderheld amidshipsis shownin Fig.6-17.For example,when a wind of 15 mls
is blowing and the ship is making 12 knots, leeway will approximately be 7 degrees, but when the ship
speed decreases to 8 knots, leewayincreases to 15 degrees.

...
Wind
force

2 4 6 8 70 72
Ship speed (knot)
Fig.6-17 Leeway as functions of wind and ship speed (beam wind; rudder held amidships)

Table 6-4 shows the amount of check helm required to maintain a straight course. The ship will lose its
controllability on a beam wind of 10 mls with a ship speed of 4 knots. When making 6 knots, the ship is
controllable under the same wind condition, but the required rudder deflections of check helm can reach
21 degrees.

Ship speed (Ids)

4 6 8 10 12 15
Wid speed (mIsec)
10 00 21° 12° 8° 5° 3°

15 00 00 27° 17° 12° 8°

20 00 00 00 30° 21° 14°

25 00 00 00 00 33° 21°

30

00: Rudder angle>

00 00

35 deg. (It means beyond control) .

00 00

Under control .00 30°

Beyond control

Table 6-4 Requiredcheck helmfor keepingstraightcourse

A Guide to Ship Handling 1129

 ~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

Fig.6-18 (a) and Fig.6-18 (b) show the controllability limits of a PCC in strong wind conditions. In the
figures, the rudder deflections of check helm required to keep a straight course are shown as functions
of wind direction, and the wind speed Va to ship speed Vs ratio, i.e. Va/Vs, from one to five.
'Fig.6-18 (a) shows the controllability limit when the maximum rudder deflection is set to 35 degrees.
The ship will be uncontrollable in the region from 70 to 160 degrees where the Va to Vs ratio is 5, and
from 100 degrees to 135 degrees where the Va to Vs ratio is 4. In case of a 15-degree limitation on
maximum rudder deflection, as shown in Fig.6-18 (b), the region of controllability becomes much nar-
rower than in the case of a 35-degree limitation. For example, when the ship is making 10 knots under
a wind of30 knots, i.e. the Va to Vs ratio is 3, the ship will be uncontrollable in the region from 75 de-
grees to 150 degrees offbow in case ofa 15-degree limitation on maximum rudder deflection.

(a) Maximumrudderdeflection: 60° I I

35 degrees Uncontrollable region ,",- - j........
"Va/Vs=5 ....
50 ° _ with 35-degree
,, ,,
rudder angle
,, ,,
E I ,,
Q) 40°
.::t:. 35°
30°

() 20°

10°

Va: Wind speed 0°

Vs:Ship speed 1 0 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
Wind direction
Controllableregion
Uncontrollableregion I 60° I I
Uncontrollable region
,"--j......
,,'Va/Vs=5",
5 0 ° _with 15-degree , ,,
rudder angle
,,, ,,
,,
40° ,, ,..
, ,..
.::t:. ,, ," ;J' "
30° , ,..
,, ,, ,
,,
"

, , Va/Vs=3
--.,j-- 1\ ,,
() 20°
.,, ....1 "
.'
15°
10°

(b) Maximum rudder deflection: 0°

15degrees 0 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
Wind direction
Fig.6-18 Required check helm to keep straight course as functions of wind direction and wind speed ratio (Va/Vs)

130 I A Guide to Ship Handling

---

6.2 Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs) - Wind Effects

Fig.6-19 shows the controllability limits of various ship types when the maximum rudder deflection is
limited to 30 degrees. As we can see, the PCC has a narrower region of controllability than other types
of ship. For example, the critical wind speed on a tanker in ballast condition is 5.0 times as much as
ship speed, while that on a PCC is approximately 3.6 times as much as ship speed.

10
"0
Q)
Q)
a. 8
en Uncontrollableregion
a.
-
:E
en
"0
Q)
6
Q)
a.
en
5.0 _m__m
"0
c 4
~---~
~ 3.6 ------------

->>
en
Ct!
2 Controllableregion

o
o
Relative wind direction

-- VLCC (230,000-DWT) ballast

Container ship (1,800- TEU)
- PCC(6,400-unitcapacity)

Fig.6-19 Controllabilitylimits of varioustypes of ship (30-degreerudder deflection)

4. Maneuveringassistance for PCC

When the ship is swept away downwind by strong wind, a bow thruster may be used for hull control. In
such a case, it should be noted that the permissible maximum ship speed is limited to about 4 knots or
less. Moreover, under strong wind conditions where maneuverability is restricted in a harbor or fair-
way, assistance by tugs should be taken into consideration.

A Guide to Ship Handling 1131

 ~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

5. Turning of PCC under strong wind

With turning in calm conditions as reference, the turning of a PCC is investigatedwhen the wind increa-
ses speed to 2, 3 and 4 times as much as initial ship speed. Each initial speed is set as 11.6 mots (6 m/s).
Fig6-20 shows the turning tracks, including the turning track in calm conditions, under the above wind
.speed conditions when the wind is blowing 0°, 90°, 180°, 270° from the approach course.

Simulations
(m) I I
1200 -+ -+
f- -t- +-t +-I
.t -.
1()(}() f
BOO
t

! i I t- -I..
Ie .

I .-
600 ,-I 1-1..- -+- I I I I

400 i
I
I
tI
r.t1 1- ) l-r:--tl1 l
200

0 I i 1 --H --li I', I I . Va:Windspeed

-200 I Vs:Shipspeed
-400
! t:11- -4TIrtT1
I ___ -0 I . . I !.. I ..
-- =11.6kts(6m/sec)
Calmcondition
-600 -----j----t 1--1 i + j I .-1,
-- Va/Vs:2
Va/Vs:3
Va/Vs:4
t !
-BOO]-l-+--+-C-----+---+ +HHi I I r
-400 -200 '0 200 400 600 800 1()(}()1200 1400 1600 1800 (m)

(m)
I I
1600
I
I

.- i I I +-1-----+
i
I

I
.wmm_
1400 -I

. ----

.
1200
r !

1()(}() .................

BOO -}--
I,
600 --+I
400

200
-I-
Ii .. +-
I
'
1'.
-, .-
I
I
, ;"I

L 1./
.-/ Va:Wind speed
Vs:Ship speed
--+- !I
-- =11.6kts (6 m/sec)
I
1I

r¥
I ( -
o I Calm condition
[I
-200

-400 ---J
!
I
I
I
I
I
i -
-- Va/Vs:2
Va/Vs:3
Va/Vs:4
I
i I I i
-1600 -1400 -1200 -1()(}()-800 -600 -400 -200 '0' 200 400 6OO(m)

1321 A Guide to Ship Handling

 6.2 Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs) - Wind Effects

As shown in these figures, turning ability of a PCC is greatly influenced by wind. As the Va to Vs ratio
reaches 4, the ship can enter an uncontrollable region depending on relative wind direction, and some
PCCs have extreme difficulties for executing turning maneuvers. Due to the unique maneuvering char-
acteristics of the PCC as mentioned in this subsection, it is requested that PCCs be operated safely by
taking maneuverability limits into consideration.

(m) I
600 -1-

400

200

-200-

-400

-600 Va:Wind speed

-BOO Vs: Ship speed

-- =11.6kts (6 m/sec)
Calm condition

-- Va/Vs:2
Va/Vs:3
Va/Vs:4

-BOO -600 -400 -200 200 400 600 BOO 1000 1200 1400 (m)

(m)

1800

1600 ..

1400

1200

Va: Wind speed

Vs:Ship speed

- =11.6kts (6m/sec)
Calmcondition
-Va/Vs:2
- Va/Vs:3
-200 - Va/Vs:4
-600 -400 -200 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 (m)

Fig.6-20 Turningof PCC under strong wind

A Guide to Ship Handling 1133

 ~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

Wind Effects on PCC at Anchor

1. Introduction
Anchoring has already been discussed in Section 3.1. This section will present
concrete examples of the safe anchoring of wind-prone PCCs. A ship at anchor im-
pacted by the wind will periodically swing around the anchored position. However,
as the external forces exerted by the wind and/or tidal stream increase, the risk of
dragging anchor rises. A PCC at anchor is in great danger of dragging anchor due to
its very large wind-affected area. Sufficient care should be taken to avoid such an event.

2. Holdingpower of anchor and cable

The anchoring system and holding power of a ship riding to a single anchor are shown in Fig.3-8
in Section 3.1. The holding power coefficients of anchors (Aa) are generally taken as 3.5 for the
1IS type, and 7.0 for the AC14 type. However, experiments show that the coefficient of the AC14
type anchor may decrease its value between 2 and 3, depending on seabed conditions, especially a
seabed typified by the presence of sedimentary slime. Care should be taken to adjust to deteriora-
tion of the holding coefficient. The frictional coefficient of the cable is normally taken as 0.6.
According to the principal particulars of the model PCC in Table 6-2, the holding power of the AC
14 type anchor is estimated at about 58 tons, (h'Wa = 7.0x8,325:!:;:58'103 kg) and the cable's
holding power is expected to be about 12 tons when the laid down part (holding part) of the cable is
5 shackles(Ac'wc'l = 0.6xI43.7x27.5x5 :!:;: 12xl03 kg).

3. Length of cable to be paid out and catenary

Maximum anchor-holding power requires a sufficient length of cable be paid out to prevent the anchor
from being pulled upward by horizontal external force. The length of the cable forming a catenary
should be equal to that of the paid out cable, i.e. a minimum necessary length of cable to be paid out
(Fig.6-21). Excess paid out cable is laid down and serves as a holding part of the cable (see Fig.3-8).
Assuming equilibrium between the horizontal external force on the ship and the holding power of the
anchor (Fig.6-21), Fig.6-22 shows the relationship between the length of cable to be paid out as a cat-
enary and the depth of water. For example, assuming that the holding power of the ship's anchor is
equivalent to a 60-ton anchor, and water depth for anchoring is 30 m, the length of the cable to be paid
out is more than 190 m (about 7 shackles).

L,

i.~.,...".1II ...,..
 6.2 Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs) - Wind Effects

250

I
Q)
:c
--
~ 200
o
~
OJ
c: 150
.3

100
10 20 30 40 50
Depth of water (m)

Fig.6-21 Equilibrium condition between external force Fig.6-22 Water depth and length of cable to be paid out
and anchor-holding power

4. Ship's swing motion at anchor

Ship's swing motion at anchor and impulse force were explained together with a figure in Section 3.1,
Anchoring.

5. Danger of dragging anchor

Due to impulse force and/or subsequent strong wind stress, the ship may be at risk of dragging anchor.
The danger of dragging anchor for a PCC riding to a single anchor is investigated for a ship equipped
with the anchor offering 50 tons of holding power. In the case where cable tension reaches its maximum
limit due to swing motion, the impulse force on the cable can be estimated by multiplying the wind
force on the ITontview by the swing coefficient, n. The values for swing coefficient, n, are taken as 5
for PCCs, and between 2.5 and 3.5 for other ships. Given an average wind speed of 13 mis, critical and
the maximum wind speeds will statistically be about 16.2 mls and 18.2 mis, respectively. Calculations
indicate that the ITontview of a PCC will suffer a wind force of 9.8 tons. If the swing coefficient is
taken as 5, a maximum tension of 49 tons (5x9.8) will be exerted on the cable. Under these conditions,
an anchor with 50-ton holding power will be vulnerable to dragging. Accordingly, when a PCC is riding
to a single anchor of 50-ton holding power, precautionary measures should be taken to prevent anchor
dragging case when average and maximum wind speeds reach approximately 13 mls and 18 mls.
Table 6-5 shows average and maximum wind
.
- . I~ .
Swing coeffcient Av.wind speed I~ Max.wind speed
-.
speeds that can lead to anchor draggmg (cate- .<mIsec.) !~ (mIse«:>.= :;;,
gorized according to swing coefficient). n=3 16.9 23.6
When the wind is becoming stronger and n=4 14.6 20.5 -
:;.
wind speed reaches alert levels, measures for --~
. ' ., n=5 (PCC) 13.1 18.3
avOldmg d angerous sItuatIOnssh ouId b e tak - 11.9 16.7
n=6
en; these include increasing anchor-holding
power by paying out more cable or by taking Gustfactor:1.4
refuge offshore with the anchor hove up. Table 6-5 Dangerous wind speed of dragging anchor

A Guide to Ship Handling 1135

 ~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

6. Safe measures for preventing dragging anchor

Measures for avoiding dragging anchor refer to the means by which to control a ship's swing motion as
indicated in Section 3.1 of Chapter 3, while a full length of cable is paid out to increase an anchor's
holding power. In this section, these measures are shown with brief explanations and illustrations.

(a) Swing-check anchor

A swing-check anchor is used to-
gether with another anchor low-
ered to around one-and-half
depths of water on its cable. This
method can reduce the magnitude
of swing motion by about 50 per-
cent.

Fig.6-23 Swing-checkanchor

(b) 1\vo-anchor mooring

In strong wind conditions, swing
motion can also be controlled by
mooring to two anchors instead
of riding to a single anchor, a
measure that reinforces holding
power. The open angle between
the anchors should be greater
than 60 degrees. Two-anchor
mooring is effective when there
is little change in wind direction,
but abrupt directional change in
wind direction as in a typhoon
may put the ship at risk of foul-
ing its anchor.
Fig.6-24 Two-anchormooring

136 I A Guide to Ship Handling

 6.2 Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs) - Wind Effects

(c) Adjustingship'strim-by-the-head
Trinuning-by-the-head, a meas-
ure that shifts the center of gravi-
ty forward as far as possible, is
another means for reducing the
risk of anchor dragging.
h
,
..- I I
,1
. r

Fig.6-25 Trimming-by-the-head

(d) Using bow thruster

Use of a bow thruster can reduce
swing motion considerably; the
bow thruster is used to match the
ship's heading with wind direc-
tion as much as possible.

Fig.6-26 Usingbow thruster

A Guide to Ship Handling 1137

 6.2 Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs) - Wind Effects

~ Handling of Special-Purpose Ships

Summary for Maneuverability of Pure Car Carriers (PCCs)

Because the modem Pure Car Carrier (PCC) has the disproportionately large above-water hull and su-
perstructure compared to its underwater hull, wind force has a disproportionate impact on the ship,
leaving it in danger of losing maneuverability under its own power and equipment.
When such a ship is navigating stormy seas, ship operators should understand the limits on maneuver-
ability caused by the wind. It is also important that avoidance of danger be undertaken at the earliest
possible moment.
This is especially important when a ship is reducing speed to enter or leave port, when the effect of the
wind is magnified.
Depending on the situation, the ship operator is requested to place a priority on safe operation of the
ship, such as requesting tug assistance if necessary.

_:81A Guide to Ship Handling