Department of Mechanical Engineering

Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India

✓ …..

Welding and Allied Processes

Course Number: MCL135
Major Arc Welding Processes
Arc welding
(widely used)

Consumable electrodes Non-Consumable electrodes

Gas Tungsten Arc Plasma Arc Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Flux cored arc Welding (GTAW) (PAW)
Welding (SMAW) welding (FCAW)

Gas Metal Arc Submerged Arc

Welding (GMAW) Welding (SAW)

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

• GTAW is an AW process that uses a

non-consumable tungsten electrode and
an inert gas for arc shielding
• The term TIG welding (tungsten inert
gas welding) is often used
• The process can be implemented with
or without a filler
• When a filler metal is used, it is added
to the weld pool from a separate rod or • Shielding gases like argon, helium or a mixture of
wire being melted by the heat of the arc both gases are used
• Tungsten is used as the electrode that • It is commonly used for joining of aluminum and
has a melting point of 3410°C stainless steel
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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

• Advantages:
✓ high quality welds
✓ no weld spatter because no
filler metal is transferred
across the arc, and
✓ little post weld cleaning
because no flux is used

• Disadvantages:
✓ low deposition rate, i.e.,
slow process
✓ more costly than
consumable AW
YouTube Channel: TWI Ltd.

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

TIG welding system –

1. DC/AC power source to deliver the welding current as per needs
2. welding torch (air/water cooled) with tungsten electrode and gas nozzle
3. inert shielding gas (He, Ar or their mixture) for protecting the molten weld pool contamination from
atmospheric gases
4. controls for moving the welding torch as per mode of operation (manual, semi-automatic and automatic)
Power source –
▪ TIG welding normally uses constant current type of power source with welding current ranging from 3-200A or 5-
300A or higher and welding voltage ranging from 10-35V
▪ Pure tungsten electrode of ball tip shape with DCEN provides good arc stability
▪ Thorium, zirconium and lanthanum modified tungsten electrodes can be used with AC and DCEP as coating of
these elements on pure tungsten electrodes improves the electron emission capability and enhances the arc stability
▪ TIG welding with DCEP is preferred for welding of reactive metals like Al to take advantage of cleaning action

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Filler wire –
▪ Filler metal is generally not used for welding thin sheet by TIG welding
▪ However, welding of thick steel plates to produce high quality welds for critical applications such as
joining of nuclear and aero-space components, requires addition of filler metal to fill the groove
▪ selection of filler wire should be done considering mechanical property requirement, metallurgical
compatibility, cracking tendency of base metal under welding conditions, fabrication conditions etc.

Shielding gas –
▪ Helium, Argon and their mixtures are commonly used as inert shielding gas
▪ Helium or hydrogen is sometimes added (1-2%) in argon for specific purposes such as increasing the arc
voltage and arc stability which in turn helps to increase the heat of arc
▪ Carbon dioxide is not used with GTAW process

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• Argon and helium are the mostly commonly used shielding gases for developing high quality weld joints
of reactive and ferrous metals
• These two inert gases as shielding gas are different in many ways
• Heat of welding arc: The ionization potential of He (25eV) is higher than Ar (16eV). Therefore,
application of He as shielding gas results in higher arc voltage. This results in hotter helium arc than
argon arc. Hence, helium is preferred for the welding of thick plates at high speed especially metal
systems having high thermal conductivity and high melting point.
• Arc stability: He is found to offer more problems related with arc stability and arc initiation than Ar
as a shielding gas. This behaviour is primarily due to higher ionization potential of He than Ar.
• Flow rate of shielding gas: Argon (density 1.783g/l) is about 1.33 and 10 times heavier than the air
and the helium respectively. Helium being lighter than air tends to rise up immediately in turbulent
manner away from the weld pool after coming out of the nozzle. So, flow rate of helium (12-22 l/min)
must be 2-3 times higher than the argon (5-12 l/min).
• For general, purpose quality weld, argon offers many advantages over helium a) easy arc initiation,
b) cost effective and good availability, c) good cleaning action with (AC/DCEP in Al and Mg
welding), and d) shallow penetration for thin sheet welding of Al and Mg alloys.

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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) –A-TIG
• Activated flux assisted TIG welding processes are also being explored to take advantage of high
penetration
• The flux assisted processes use common fluxes like TiO2, SiO2, Cr2O3, ZrO2 halide fluxes
• The flux is usually applied in the form of paste on to the faying surfaces to
a) increase the arc voltage compared with conventional GTAW process under identical conditions of arc
length, welding current which in turn burns the arc hotter and increases the depth of penetration
b) increase the constriction of the arc which facilitates the development of weld of high depth to width ratio

Cross-sections of (a) Conventional TIG, (b) TiO2 flux A-TIG, (c) SiO2 flux
A-TIG obtained with same process parameters on steel plates of AISI 316L
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Major Arc Welding Processes
Arc welding
(widely used)

Consumable electrodes Non-Consumable electrodes

Gas Tungsten Arc Plasma Arc Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Flux cored arc Welding (GTAW) (PAW)
Welding (SMAW) welding (FCAW)

Gas Metal Arc Submerged Arc

Welding (GMAW) Welding (SAW)

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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

• Special type of GTAW where a plasma arc

is directed at the weld area
• In PAW, the non-consumable tungsten
electrode is set in a specially designed
nozzle in such a way as to force the arc to
pass through or be contained within a small
diameter nozzle
• Inert gas (e.g., argon or argon–hydrogen
mixtures) forced through this constricted
arc, where it is heated to a high temperature
and forms a hot, fast-moving plasma
• Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach
around 20,000°C or greater, hot enough to
melt any known metal

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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
• Arc can be transferred / non transferred type
Transferred Non-transferred
a) Transferred arc – between a non-
consumable electrode and the workpiece
b) Non-transferred arc – between a non-
consumable electrode and the welding gun

• The process can be used to weld almost any

material, including tungsten
• Transferred plasma offers higher energy
density than non-transferred plasma and it is
preferred for welding and cutting of high-
speed steel, ceramic, Al etc.
• Non-transferred plasma is usually applied
for welding and thermal spray application ➢ Advantages are arc stability, better penetration
of steel and other common metals control, high travel speeds, and excellent weld quality
➢ Major limitation is the high equipment cost

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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Principle of PAW
• In plasma arc welding, arc is forced to pass through nozzle (water cooled copper) which causes the constriction
of the arc
• Constriction of arc results in (a) reduction in cross-sectional area of arc, (b) increases energy density, and (c)
increases to velocity of plasma approaching to the sound velocity and temperature to about 250000C
• A coherent, calumniated and stiff plasma is formed due to constriction therefore it doesn’t get deflected and
diffused
• Hence, heat is transferred to the base metal over a very small area which in turns results in high energy density
and deep of penetration and small width of the weld pool / keyhole / cut
• Energy density and penetration capability is determined by the various process parameters namely plasma
current, nozzle orifice diameter and shape, plasma forming gas (Air, He, Ar) and flow rate of plasma carrying
• In general, the plasma cutting uses high energy density in combination with high plasma velocity and high flow
rate of high thermal conductivity plasma forming gas

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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Principle of PAW
• Plasma gas and Inert gas
➢ This process uses the heat transferred by plasma (high temperature charged gas column) produced by
a gas (Ar, Ar-H2 mixture) passing through an electric arc, for melting of faying surfaces
➢ Inert gas (Ar, He) is used to protect the molten weld pool from the atmospheric gases
• Charged particles (electrons and ions) formed as a result of ionization of plasma gas tends to reunite
when they strike to the surface of work piece. Recombination of charged particles liberates heat which is
also used in melting of base metal.
• PAW uses the constant current type power source with DCEN polarity. Tungsten electrode has good
electron emitting capability therefore it is made cathode. DCEN polarity causes less thermal damage to
the electrode during welding as about one third of total heat is generated at the cathode and balance two-
third of arc heat is generated at the anode side i.e., work-piece.

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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Depending upon the current, plasma gas flow rate, and the orifice diameter following variants
of PAW has been developed such as: micro-plasma, melt-in mode, and keyhole mode
➢Micro-plasma (0.1 to 15A): The micro-plasma arc can be operated at very low welding currents.
The columnar arc is stable even when arc length is varied up to 20mm. Good enough to melt thin sheet.
➢Melt-in mode (15–400 A): higher current and greater plasma velocity, process characteristics of the
plasma arc are similar to the TIG arc, but because the plasma is constricted, the arc is stiffer. This is
generally used up to 2.4 mm thickness sheet.

➢Keyhole mode (>400 A): The keyhole technique uses

high current and high-pressure plasma gas to ensure keyhole
formation. High energy density of plasma melts the faying
surfaces of base metal and high-pressure plasma jet pushes the
molten metal against vertical wall created by melting of base
metal and developing keyhole.

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Other Arc welding Processes – Stud welding

• Stud welding (SW) is a specialized AW process for joining studs or similar components to
base parts
• A typical SW operation is illustrated below, in which shielding is obtained by the use of a
ceramic ferrule

Stud arc welding (SW): (1) Stud is positioned; (2) current flows from the gun, and stud is pulled from the base to establish
arc and create a molten pool; (3) stud is plunged into molten pool; and (4) ceramic ferrule is removed after solidification.
Source: Groover, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing

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Other Arc welding Processes – Stud welding

• To begin with, the stud is chucked in a special weld

gun that automatically controls the timing and
power parameters of the steps shown in the
sequence
• The worker must only position the gun at the proper
location against the base work part to which the
stud will be attached and pull the trigger
• Stud welding applications include threaded
fasteners for attaching handles to cookware, heat
radiation fins on machinery, and similar assembly
situations
• In high-production operations, stud welding usually
has advantages over rivets, manually arc-welded YouTube Channel: STANLEY
attachments, and drilled and tapped holes Engineered Fastening

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Other Arc welding Processes – Electrogas welding

• Electrogas welding (EGW) is an AW process that uses a continuous consumable electrode

(either flux-cored wire or bare wire with externally supplied shielding gases) and molding
shoes to contain the molten metal
• The weld metal is deposited into a weld cavity between the two pieces to be joined. The
process is primarily applied to vertical butt welding.

Electrogas welding using flux-cored

electrode wire: (a) front view with
molding shoe removed for clarity and
(b) side view showing molding shoes
on both sides

Source: Groover, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing

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Other Arc welding Processes – Electrogas welding

• The molding shoes are water-cooled to prevent their being added to the weld pool
• Together with the edges of the parts being welded, the shoes form a container, almost like a
mold cavity, into which the molten metal from the electrode and base parts is gradually added
• The process is performed automatically, with a moving weld head travelling vertically upward
to fill the cavity in a single pass
• When the flux-cored electrode wire is employed, no external gases are supplied, and the
process can be considered a special application of self-shielded FCAW
• When a bare electrode wire is used with shielding gases from an external source, it is
considered a special case of GMAW
• Stock thicknesses from 12 mm to 75 mm are within the capacity of EGW
• Applications of electrogas welding are steels in the construction of large storage tanks and in
shipbuilding

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Other Arc welding Processes – Electroslag welding

• Electroslag welding (ESW) process uses the same

basic equipment as in some arc-welding operations,
and it utilizes an arc to initiate welding
• The process is similar to EGW, however, the arc is
extinguished when the added flux melts due to arc heat
and the molten slag reaches the tip of the electrode
• As the arc is extinguished, ESW is strictly not an arc
welding process
• Electroslag welding (ESW) is a fusion-welding
process in which coalescence is achieved by hot,
electrically conductive molten slag acting on the base
parts and filler metal

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Other Arc welding Processes – Electroslag welding

• At the start of the process, granulated conductive flux is put into the cavity and the consumable
electrode tip is positioned near the bottom of the cavity, and an arc is generated for a short while to
start melting the flux
• Once a pool of slag has been created, the arc is extinguished and the current passes from the
electrode to the base metal through the conductive slag, so that its electrical resistance generates heat
to maintain the welding process
• Because the density of the slag is less than that of the molten metal, it remains on top to protect the
weld pool
• Solidification occurs from the bottom, while the additional molten metal is supplied from above by
the electrode and edges of the base parts
• The process gradually continues until it reaches the top of the joint
• ESW is capable of welding thick plates ranging from 50 mm to more than 900 mm
• Used for large structural steel sections, such as heavy machinery, bridges, oil rigs, ships etc
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Major Welding Processes
Fusion welding
(widely used)

Arc Welding (AW) Resistance Oxyfuel gas Laser beam welding

Welding (RW) welding (OFW) (LBW)
Electron Beam welding
(EBW)

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Resistance Welding (RW)

• Resistance welding (RW) is a group of fusion-

welding processes that use a combination of heat
and pressure to accomplish coalescence, the heat
being generated by electrical resistance to current
flow at the junction to be welded
• The operation results in a fused zone between the
two parts, called a weld nugget in spot welding
• RW uses no shielding gases, flux, or filler metal
• By comparison to arc welding, the electrodes are
non-consumable
• Electrodes in RSW: (i) Copper based, (ii)
Refractory metal (Cu, Tungsten combinations)
Resistance Spot Welding
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 Major Arc Welding Processes
Resistance Welding
(RW) (widely used)

Resistance Spot Resistance Seam Resistance Projection

Welding(RSW) Welding(RSEW) Welding(RSEW)

Resistance spot welding is a Resistance seam welding Projection welding, a variant of

resistance welding process. This produced a series of spots or RSW, shows a significant
welding process is used primarily continuous seam by using improvement for joining materials,
for welding two or more metal rotating wheels. where projection will increase the
sheets together by applying joint quality and make welding
pressure and heat from an easier
electric current to the weld area.

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

• It is widely used in the mass production

of automobiles, appliances, metal
furniture, and other products made of
sheet metal
• Importance of resistance spot welding:
typical car body has approximately
10,000 individual spot welds
• The process is used to join sheet metal
parts of thickness 3 mm or less
• The shape of electrode tip is important
like round, hexagonal, square etc. The
nugget is typically 5-10 mm in dia

YouTube Channel: TWI Ltd.

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Major Resistance Welding Processes
Resistance Welding
(RW) (widely used)

Resistance Spot Resistance Seam Resistance Projection

Welding(RSW) Welding(RSEW) Welding(RPW)

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

• The heat energy is expressed as,

𝐻 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑡
H = total heat input in joules, I = current in amperes, R
= electrical resistance of the circuit in ohms, t = length
of time, in seconds, during which current is flowing
Often, 𝐻 = 𝐾𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡, K=thermal constant (weld force, part
geometry and fixturing)
• Total resistance between electrodes consists of
✓ The bulk resistance of the electrodes and
workpieces • The final resistance, that between the faying surfaces, is
✓ The contact resistance between the electrodes ✓ the quality of the surfaces (surface finish)
and the workpieces ✓ the presence of nonconductive scale, dirt, or other
✓ The resistance between the surfaces to be contaminants (should be free of these)
joined, known as the faying surfaces ✓ the pressure (electrode force) and the contact area
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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
• BULK RESISTANCE is a function of temperature. All metals exhibit a Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC), which means that their bulk resistance increases
with temperature. Bulk resistance becomes a factor in longer welds.
• CONTACT RESISTANCE is a function of the extent to which two surfaces mate
intimately or come in contact. Contact resistance is an important factor in the first
few milliseconds of a weld.
✓ When the metals are forced together, some of the peaks make contact and, on those peaks,
where the contact pressure is sufficiently high, the oxide layer breaks, forming a limited
number of metal-to-metal bridges
✓ The current is forced to flow through these metallic bridges and this “necking down” increases
the current density, generating enough heat to cause melting
✓ As the first of these bridges melt and collapse, new peaks come into contact, forming new
bridges and additional current paths
✓ The resistance of the molten metal is higher than that of the new bridges so that the current flow
transfers from bridge-to-bridge
✓ This process continues until the entire interface is molten. When the current stops, the
electrodes rapidly cool the molten metal, which solidifies, forming a weld.

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

Two 1 mm thick steel sheets are being spot welded at a current of 5000 A and a current flow of t = 0.1
seconds. The electrodes are 5 mm in diameter. Estimate the amount of heat generated and its distribution in
the weld zone. Use an effective resistance of 200 µΩ and unit melting energy, Um=9.7 J/mm3

Answer:

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Steps in RSW cycle
1) Parts are inserted between open
electrodes
2) Electrodes close and force is applied
3) weld time when current is ON
4) Current is turned off, but force is
maintained or increased (a reduced
current is sometimes applied near the end of
this step for stress relief in the weld region)
5) electrodes are opened, and the
welded assembly is removed

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

• Examples of welding sequences (also called heat profiles) include:

❑Single Pulse: Use on flat unplated parts

❑Up Slope: Use on hard, irregular shaped, oxidized parts and aluminum parts

❑Preheat/Postheat: Use on refractive parts

❑Quench/Temper

❑Down Slope: Used to reduce marking and embrittlement

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Major Welding Processes
Fusion welding
(widely used)

Arc Welding (AW) Resistance Oxyfuel gas Laser beam welding

Welding (RW) welding (OFW) (LBW)
Electron Beam welding
(EBW)

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Das, A., et al. (2020). International Journal of Impact Engineering 144: 103672.
Advantages Disadvantages
Base material
Low cost joining process Difficult for highly
conductive & dissimilar
materials
Good quality control and Surface cleaning of
joint monitoring contaminants, (i.e. grease, Fusion zone 500 µm

oil, and dirt) 1.0 mm Al-Al RSW

Load-displacement joint joints
from RSW
Easy automation for RSW-electrode sticking with Weld zone
industrial production material 3.0
application

Load [kN]
No need for fluxes, filler Additional process and
2.0
materials or protective maintenance for RSW-
gases electrode tip dressing
1.0Nickel to steel joint of 0.3 mm
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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) - Electrodes

• The welding electrodes play three different roles in resistance welding:

✓ maintaining required current density,
✓ concentrating current at welding points, and
✓ maintaining thermal balance during welding
✓In conventional macro-welding, e.g. car body assembly, the electrodes are made of
copper alloys and usually water-cooled
✓However, in micro-welding, the electrodes are made of a wide variety of conductive and
refractory materials depending on the parts to be joined and are air-cooled
✓Electrodes are available in many shapes, with
the most common shown as

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) - Electrodes

The choice of electrode configurations is

determined by the geometry of the workpieces,
the application, and the desired current path
➢ Opposed (Direct) Welding is the most commonly
used type of resistance welding. The welding current
flows directly from one electrode to the other,
through the weldments.
➢ Step (Indirect) Welding is often used when the
workpieces are configured in such a way that only
one side of the workpiece is accessible with an
electrode, or there is a large thermal imbalance. The
welding current flows from the first electrode,
through the workpiece, through the area of the weld,
through the other workpiece and into the other
electrode.

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) - Electrodes
➢ Series welding is also used when only one side of the weldment is accessible with
electrodes. This form of welding has the advantage of making two weld nuggets at
one time. However, series welding is generally less controllable because of the
many shunt paths available to the welding current.
➢ Parallel-gap welding is performed with a narrow gap between two electrodes.
This method uses the same principle as series welding. However, parallel-gap
welding is used for creating a single weld joint between electrodes instead of
two weld joints, as in series welding. This method is effective for welding
narrow sections.
➢ Seam welding is another variation on resistance spot welding. in this case, the
welding electrodes are motor-driven wheels rather than stationary rods. The result is
a “rolling” resistance weld or seam weld used to join two sheets together.
Overlapping and continuous seam welds can produce gas- or liquid-tight joints.
➢ Projection welding is another variation of RSW. A focused high current is applied
to a projection provided for the workpiece. By providing workpieces with different
plate thicknesses with projections, this method allows workpiece temperature
distribution to be balanced.

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) - Electrodes

• Materials used for RSW electrodes consist of two main groups: (1) copper-based alloys
and (2) refractory metal compositions such as copper and tungsten combinations
• Common electrode materials
✓ DISPERSION STRENGTHENED COPPER with 0.15% ALUMINUM OXIDE – 92% conductivity.
Longer life, greater thermal stability, higher strength
✓ COPPER COBALT BERYLLIUM ALLOY – 48% conductivity. Used for welding high resistance
materials requiring high weld forces
✓ COPPER TUNGSTEN ALLOY – 46% conductivity. Used for welding cuprous and precious metals.
Used for light projection welding dies
✓ TUNGSTEN – 32% conductivity. Difficult to be machined but may be ground to the desired shape.
Used to weld non-ferrous metals such as copper and brass
✓ MOLYBDENUM – 31% conductivity. Machineable. Used for welding copper, silver, gold and their
alloys

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Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

• In RSEW, the rod-shaped electrodes in spot

Sheet metal parts

welding are replaced by rotating wheels
• the seams should be along a straight or
uniformly curved line
• Sharp corners and similar discontinuities are
difficult to deal with

Conventional resistance seam welding Roll spot welding Continuous resistance seam
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Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

• The welding current remains on at a

constant level (rather than being
pulsed) so that a truly continuous
welding seam is produced

• Cooling of the work and wheels is

often necessary in RSEW, and this is
accomplished by directing water at the
top and underside of the work part
surfaces near the electrode wheels

YouTube Channel: TWI Ltd.

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Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)

• Projection welding, a variant of RSW, shows a significant improvement for joining

materials, where projection will increase the joint quality and make welding easier

• Useful for high electric & thermal Clamping

Force
conductive materials
High RSW
Current
• Presence of oxide layer on the surface, Flow
Electrode

e.g. aluminium in particular Weld Zone

Top
part
• Micro-resistance spot/projection welding Bottom
Projection

is also used for battery pack building part

used for small electric vehicle, two

wheelers or e-rickshaws battery packs Resistance Spot Welding Projection Welding Variant

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Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)

Projections produced by Embossing

✓ A number of welds in one pass can be obtained

✓ Electrode life is enhanced
✓ Metals of different thicknesses can be welded

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Resistance Spot /Projection Welding Applications
Projections

Application of projection welding using

bi-furcated strip for increased current
flow through tab and cell terminal
(adapted from MacGregor Systems) (*Adapted from Sunstone Battery Welding)

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Resistance Welding (RW) – Other operations

In addition to the principal RW processes, several additional processes in this group

should be identified: flash, upset, percussion, and high-frequency resistance welding
• Flash welding (FW): normally used for butt joints, the two surfaces to be joined are
brought into contact or near contact and an electric current is applied to heat the surfaces
to the melting point, after which the surfaces are forced together to form the weld

Flash welding (FW):

(1) heating by
electrical resistance
and (2) upsetting—
parts are forced
together.

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Resistance Welding (RW) – Other operations

Flash welding (FW):

✓In addition to resistance heating, some arcing occurs (called flashing, hence the name of
the welding process), depending on the extent of contact between the faying surfaces, so
flash welding is sometimes classified in the arc-welding group
✓Current is usually stopped during upsetting
✓Some metal, as well as contaminants on the surfaces, is squeezed out of the joint and
must be subsequently machined to provide a joint of uniform size
✓Applications of flash welding include butt welding of steel strips in rolling-mill
operations, joining ends of wire in wire drawing, and welding of tubular parts

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Resistance Welding (RW) – Other operations

Upset welding (UW):

✓similar to flash welding except that in UW the faying surfaces are pressed together
during heating and upsetting
✓Heating in UW is accomplished entirely by electrical resistance at the contacting
surfaces; no arcing occurs
✓When the faying surfaces have been heated to a suitable temperature below the melting
point, the force pressing the parts together is increased to cause upsetting and
coalescence in the contact region
✓Thus, upset welding is not a fusion-welding process in the same sense as the other
welding processes discussed
✓Applications of UW are similar to those of flash welding: joining ends of wire, pipes,
tubes, and so on

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Resistance Welding (RW) – Other operations

High-frequency resistance welding

(HFRW):
✓This is a resistance-welding process in
which a high frequency alternating current
is used for heating, followed by the rapid
application of an upsetting force to cause
coalescence
✓The frequencies are 10 to 500 kHz, and the
electrodes make contact with the work in
the immediate vicinity of the weld joint

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Resistance Welding (RW) – Other operations

High-frequency induction welding (HFIW):

✓The heating current is induced in the parts
by a high-frequency induction coil and the
coil does not make physical contact with the
work
✓The principal applications of both HFRW
and HFIW are continuous butt welding of
the longitudinal seams of metal pipes and
tubes

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Major Welding Processes
Fusion welding
(widely used)

Arc Welding (AW) Resistance Oxyfuel gas Laser beam welding

Welding (RW) welding (OFW) (LBW)
Electron Beam welding
(EBW)

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Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
• Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is the term used
to describe the group of FW operations that
burn various fuels mixed with oxygen to
perform welding
• The most important OFW process is
oxyacetylene welding (OAW), performed by a
high-temperature flame from the combustion
of acetylene and oxygen
• The flame is directed by a welding torch
• Filler metal used is typically in the form of a
rod with diameters ranging from 1.6 to 9.5
mm. The composition of the filler is similar to
that of base metal
• Filler is often coated with flux to help clean
the surfaces and prevent oxidation, thus
creating a better weld joint

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Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

• Flame in OAW is produced by chemical 1st stage:

reaction of acetylene and oxygen in two 𝐶2 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
stages
2nd stage:
• First stage reaction is seen as the inner
cone of the flame (which is bright white) 2𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 + 1.5𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
• The second stage is exhibited by the outer
envelope (colorless with tinges ranging
from blue to orange)
• Total heat liberated during the two stages
of combustion is 55×106 J/m3 of acetylene.
• But the heat transfer factor, f1 in OAW is
0.1 to 0.3 as the flame spreads over large
region.
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Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

• The maximum temperature of the flame is reached at the tip of the inner cone
• The outer envelope spreads out and covers the work surfaces being joined, thus shielding them
from the surrounding atmosphere
• The combination of acetylene and oxygen is highly flammable, and the environment in which
OAW is performed is therefore hazardous
❑Pure acetylene is colorless and odorless – for leakage detection/safety →often garlic odor added
❑PPEs to be used for eye and skin protection (goggles, gloves, and protective clothing)
❑Storage issues - unstable at pressures much above 1 atm, acetylene storage cylinders are packed with a porous
filler material (such as asbestos, balsa wood, and other materials) saturated with acetone. Acetylene dissolves
in liquid acetone
• OAW equipment is relatively inexpensive and portable. Used for low-quantity production & repair
jobs.
• Typically, a slow process and it is usually performed manually and is hence dependent on the skill
of the welder to produce a high-quality weld joint

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Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

The flame has three distinct zones

✓ Inner cone having higher temp. around 3480°C
✓ Acetylene feather of temp around 2000°C
✓ Outer envelope 1260°C

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Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

The flame has three types

a) Neutral flame or balanced flame is named neutral since in most cases, it will have no chemical
effect on the metal being welded. The neutral flame has a one-to-one ratio of acetylene and oxygen.
b) Oxidizing flames are produced when slightly more than one volume of oxygen is mixed with one
volume of acetylene. An oxidizing flame is hotter than a neutral flame.
c) Reducing or carburizing flames are obtained when slightly less than one volume of oxygen is mixed
with one volume of acetylene. The inner cone has a feathery edge extending beyond it.

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Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)
An oxyacetylene torch supplies 0.3 m3 of acetylene per hour and an equal volume rate of oxygen for an OAW
operation on 4.5-mm-thick steel. Heat generated by combustion is transferred to the work surface with a heat
transfer factor f1 = 0.20. If 75% of the heat from the flame is concentrated in a circular area on the work surface
that is 9 mm in diameter, find (a) rate of heat liberated during combustion, (b) rate of heat transferred to the work
surface, and (c) average power density in the circular area.
(a) The rate of heat generated by the torch is the product of the volume rate of acetylene times the heat
of combustion: RH = (0.3 m3/hr) × (55×106) J/m3 =

(b) With a heat transfer factor f1 = 0.20, the rate of heat received at the work surface = RH × f1

(c) The area of the circle in which 75% of the heat of the flame is concentrated.
𝐷2
Area, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋 =
4
R ×f
Power density = 0.75 × H 1 =
𝐴

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Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

Advantages and disadvantages of OAW:

• The equipment is relatively cheap and portable. So, it is used as an economical,
versatile process that is well suited for low quantity production and repair jobs.
• A single set of equipment can be used for welding, brazing, and soldering, and as
a heat source for bending, forming, straightening, and hardening
• The combination of acetylene and oxygen is highly flammable and hence
hazardous to environment
• It is mandatory for the welder to wear gloves, goggles etc. as preventive measures
• It is rarely used to weld plates thicker than 6.5 mm
• Large heat affected zone; slow & skill required

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Other Oxyfuel welding
Fuel Temp Heat of Characteristics
(°C) Combustion
(MJ/m3)
Acetylene (C2H2) 3087 54.8 Most commonly used
Methylacetylene- 2927 91.7 Close to acetylene in burning temperature and heating value, can be
propadiene (MAPP - stored under pressure as a liquid
C3H4)
Hydrogen (H2) 2660 12.1 Oxyhydrogen welding (OHW) - the color of the flame is not
affected by differences in the mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, and
therefore it is more difficult for the welder to adjust the torch
Propylene(C3H6) 2900 89.4 Preferred for brazing, soldering, and flame-cutting operations than
welding
Propane (C3H8) 2526 93.1
Natural gas 2538 37.3 Natural gas consists mostly of ethane (C2H6) and methane (CH4),
common in small welding shops

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Pressure gas welding

• Pressure gas welding (PGW) is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence is obtained over the entire
contact surfaces of the two parts by heating them with an appropriate fuel mixture (usually oxyacetylene
gas) and then applying pressure to bond the surfaces
• Parts are heated until melting begins on the surfaces, heating torch withdrawn and apply high pressure
during solidification. No filler metal is used.

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Other chemical energy-based welding: Thermit welding

• Thermit is a trademark name for thermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powders that produces
an exothermic reaction when ignited
• The heat for coalescence is produced by superheated molten metal from the chemical reaction of Thermit
• Filler metal is obtained from the liquid metal; although the process is used for joining, it has more in
common with casting than it does with welding
• Mixed powders of aluminum and iron oxide (in a 1:3 mixture), when ignited (by Mg fuse) at a
temperature of around 1300°C
8𝐴𝑙 + 3𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4 → 9𝐹𝑒 + 4𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
• The temperature from the reaction is around 2500°C (4500°F), resulting in superheated molten iron plus
aluminum oxide that floats to the top as slag and protects the iron from the atmosphere
• The superheated iron (or steel if the mixture of powders is formulated accordingly) is contained in a
crucible located above the joint to be welded

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Other chemical energy-based welding: Thermit welding

• After the reaction is complete (about

30 s), the crucible is tapped and the
liquid metal flows into a mold built
specially to surround the weld joint
• Because the entering metal is so hot,
it melts the edges of the base parts,
causing coalescence upon
solidification
• After cooling, the mold is broken
away, and the gates and risers are
removed by an oxyacetylene torch
• Applications: railroad, repair of
cracks in large steel castings, large-
diameter shafts, frames for machinery

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