TOPIC 1: MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION.

1.1 Introduction
According to William Marsteller, communication is not just words, math symbols, paint on
canvas or the equations; it is the interrelation of human beings trying to escape loneliness,
trying to share experience, trying to implant ideas .
Communication skills discipline is extremely important to a trainee as it will equip him or her
with the necessary knowledge skills and attitude that will get him or her to communicate
effectively on a day to day life.
Effective communication takes place when the transmitter (one with desire to communicate)
formulates their massage very clearly, uses the correct channel of communication, knows the
receiver in terms of level of understanding, relationship etc and finally gets the desired
response. If the response is not what was expected it means there was a problem in the
process of communication.
1.2 Meaning and definition of Communication?

Communication is derived from the Latin word “communicare,” which means "to make
common". This can be taken to mean 'to share' or exchange.
The term communication is defined differently by different authors;
a) Communication is the process by which beings share information, knowledge,
experience and ideas.
b) It can be defined as the transfer of information from one point to another/ from one
mind to another
c) A sharing of ideas and feels in a form of mutual understanding.
d) It is a two way process in which the speaker must have a listener and the writer a
reader to share his experience.
e) Communication is the act either natural or artificial of sending and receiving
information from one point to another using previously agreed symbols with an aim
of establishing commonness or understanding.

N/B Communication therefore is the giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions

or ideas through words in speaking or writing or without the use of words or through visual
means such that the material communicated is completely understood by everyone.

The information emanates from the source to the destination and eventually back to the
source in form of a feed back. The information being exchanged is referred to as a massage
and the process develops to a communication process.
1.3 Terms commonly used in communication
a. Transmitter This is the person with the desire to communicate
Source
Sender
b Receiver This is the person who the message is meant for
Recipient
c Message Information in any form for the receiver
d Channel This is the system or method used to send or
receive information
e Medium A way of communication information to people
e.g. newspaper
f Method A way of manner of passing information e.g. sign,
verbal etc
g Feedback This is the negative or positive response that the
transmitter evokes from the receiver. It can
delayed or spontaneous

N/B: At times the terms Method, Channel and Medium are used interchangeably.
Communication is a process involving certain stages. The Channel, Medium or Method is the
stage after formation of message.

1.4 Aims of Communication

The three main aims of communication are;
a) To inform-this is the desire to supply factual information.
b) To influence- this is the desire to pursue the recipient to adopt a particular idea or
possible cause of action.
c) To initiate action- this is the desire to make the recipient respond by performing a
particular task.

1.5 Role of Communication in an Organization.

Communication is viewed by most organizations as the life-blood of business without an

effective system in place; many organizations may not be able to realize their objectives.
It therefore plays the following role;
 i. It sustains stability. An organization where there is an effective communication
system in place enjoys stability. This leads to a conducive environment for effective
performance.
ii. It helps maintain discipline. Where there is lack of information or delayed
information, the staff tends to be indiscipline as they lack direction. Effective
communication creates order.
iii. Effective communication forestalls rumours. Communication helps to forestall
rumour mongering which can be disastrous. If the communication system is
ineffective, speculation will thrive leading to rumour mongering.
iv. Helps link the organization with external organizations and departments. Through
communication, departments are able to co-ordinate their activities. The organization
is also able to do business with external organizations.
v. Statutory obligations are fulfilled. Communication helps and organization fulfil it
statutory obligations e.g procurement, procedures, etc.

1.6 Importance of Communication

Communication plays a powerful role in the nation building and development and contributes
significantly to bringing about social changes. Communication has led to development in a
community. Below are other major reasons as to why we communicate:-
 We communicate in order to educate and give instruction to the people we are
communicating with.
 To provide knowledge for instance in school, church, political rallies etc.
 To give expertise and skills for smooth functioning by people in society.
 To create awareness and give opportunity to people to actively participate in public
life.
 We communicate for Information in case you want to know something you have to
ask and be told.
 We listen for entertainment.
 We listen for discussion and to persuasion.
 We listen for understanding and insight - we depend on communication for self-
awareness. Communication helps us to understand ourselves and others.
 To develop meaningful relationships - it is through communication contacts that
human beings basic and social needs are met. Psychology has it that people need each
other.
 Influence and persuasion - human beings spend most of their time trying to influence
each other to think as they do, act as they do and like what they like.
1.7 Interpersonal Communication
This is communication involving two people or a small group, on a one-to-one basis. It can
further be said to be the process of sending and receiving information between two or more
people.
The advantage of interacting with few people is it makes it easier for people to open up and
discuss matters to one another’s convenience. The possibility of exchange of opinions and
views on the spot makes this type of communication very valuable to an organization.
Staff meetings, briefings, feedback and customer relations are examples of interpersonal
communication.
Types of Interpersonal Communication
Those are mainly three types of interpersonal communication namely;
i. non-verbal
ii. verbal
iii. Written
Non-verbal Communication- Communication through body language e.g. Facial
expressions, gestures, eye contact etc. This type of communication takes place frequently
between people who interact.
Verbal Communication- Communication by word of mouth, at times referred to as oral
communication. Many times communication accompanies verbal communication.
Written Communication- This is the written work. It may occur through memos, written
reports or even through the internet. Most people prefer to communicate or chat online. They
are a lot more comfortable as the body language is blocked and do not have to worry about
dressing style.

1.8 Interpersonal Skills

These are the skills you require in order to communicate effectively with other. When
communicating with body language be careful to use the language very carefully so as not to
be misunderstood. Remember actions speak louder than words. When happy always wear a
happy face or smile. When things aren’t good, wear an appropriate facial expression.
If using verbal communication always ensure you are audible, precise and pronounce the
word clearly. Avoid making grammatical errors.
If using writing communication, write grammatically avoiding spelling errors, wrong
propositions etc. Ensure you are concise, precise, relevant and extremely clear.
1.9 Interpersonal Relationships.

Interpersonal relationships are social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or

more people through verbal or non-verbal methods. It often includes face-to-face exchange of
information, in a form of voice, facial expressions, body language and gestures.

They vary in differing levels of intimacy and sharing, implying the discovery or
establishment of common ground, and may be centered on something(s) shared in common.

Factors affecting interpersonal relationship

1. Role and position in life

2. Age difference
3. Culture
4. Religion
5. Educational background etc

1.10 Objectives of Communication

The following are some of the objectives of communication in an organization
1. to pass information
2. to give advice
3. to give orders
4. to counsel
5. to give suggestions
6. to persuade
7. to educate
8. to warn
9. to motivate
10. to raise morale
TOPIC 2: THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION.

2.1 Introduction

A process is a series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end.

The objective of communication is to convey information from one person to another person
or to a group. However, effective communication is not just exchange of information between
the sender and the receiver. It is a process that is divided into various components in order to
make communication successful and effective. Many factors can affect this process hence
making communication ineffective.

The process of communication is a cyclic one as it begins with the sender and ends with the
sender in the form of feedback.

2.2 Communication Process.

Terms used in the communication process:

1. Sender - This is a person who formulates, encodes or transmits a message
2. Receiver-This is a person who decodes or interprets a message
3. Encode-It is to put information in its most suitable form
4. Decode-It is to interpret the message conveyed
5. Message-It is the content of the communicative act e.g the way you sit, what you talk
about, facial expressions, touch etc all have communicative information
6. Channel-This is the passage or medium through which a message is sent
7. Feedback-It is the reaction after a message has been sent. It could be positive or
negative
8. Noise-It is anything that interferes or distorts the ability to send or receive a message
The communication process involves 5 elements or stages.
In order for communication to take place there must be a transmitter with the desire to
communicate. The transmitter must have the massage he wishes to transmit. He has to think
of a channel that is appropriate then use it to send the message to the receiver. It is at this
point that he receives a feedback, positive or negative, from the receiver.
The process of communication therefore involves;
a) Transmitter
b) Message
 c) Channel
d) Receiver
e) Feedback
In order to understand the communication process it is important that we look at the basic
concepts of transmission and reception of messages. These steps involved are;
The Communication Process
There are several stages in the communication cycle
1. Sender-The sender defines the information sent by thinking about the aim of the
communication and the context to be conveyed. There are three main aims:
a) Informing — the intention is simply to tell someone something eg a ‘no smoking’
notice, a letter of appointing, etc
b) Influencing — the intention is to persuade someone to adopt a particular course of
action or attitude towards something eg advertising
c) Initiating action — the intention is to get the reader to do something eg to activate a
bank account
2. Encoding-This is the process of putting information into the most suitable form. It
involves putting an idea into words, a picture, a gesture, etc
3. Channel-This is the actual transfer of information by means of a medium eg
 Verbal communication can be done through an interview, a meeting, a telephone,
etc
 Written communication can be done through a notice board, an internal mail
service, a public postal service, etc
 Visual communication can be done through a computer, a printer, a fax machine,
etc
4. Receiver-The receiver takes in the message by reading a letter, listening to a speech,
watching a TV program, etc
5. Decoding-The receiver interprets the message he or she has been given in order to obtain
his or her own idea of the information it conveys. This may or may not be the same as the
information which the sender wanted to convey. If the sender encodes the idea wrongly or in
terms which the receiver interprets according to his or her own experience rather than the
sender’s, then distortion is likely to occur and the receiver will gain a different message from
that intended.
6. Feedback-It is where the receiver’s first reaction to the message is made. A skilled
communicator should look out for feedback when talking to an individual or group eg
 Murmurs, is a sign of discontentment
  Yawning-hunger, boredom
 Nodding - agreement
6. Response-This is the final stage. It is a complete repetition of the communication
cycle, eg a person who receives and reads a letter will write a reply. In so doing, he or
she will start communicating from the first stage where they define the information to
be sent.
The Communication Cycle

Z - Noise
Examples of Noise/Interference
Sender: Language, lack of content, physical noise, poor handwriting
Channel: lack of resources, breakdown of equipment, poor network Receiver: Language,
misinterpretation, physical noise

2.3 The Components/Elements in a communication process.

Sender -the sender is the entity that conveys or sends the message. At this stage, an idea,
thought or feeling is formulated in the mind of the sender as a result of an external of internal
stimulus or motivation.

Message- is what is being transmitted from sender to receiver.

Encoding -encoding is a process through which the message is symbolized. It involves

giving the message a communication form.

Channel -channel is the medium through which message is being sent. The sender selects the
most appropriate and effective vehicle that will deliver the message to the receiver.
Communication channels may include websites, letters, email, phone conversations, video
conferences and face-to-face meetings.
Effective communication relies on selecting an appropriate communication channel for
your message. Selecting the wrong communication channel can cause communication
obstacles including information overload and inadequate feedback. The effectiveness of
communication channels can be evaluated based on richness and opportunity for feedback.
Richness refers to the depth of your message. For instance, the Encyclopedia of Business
names face-to-face communication as the richest communication medium. Face-to-face
encounters allow the listener to hear your message, as well as sense your tone of voice and
watch your facial expressions to determine the meaning of your message. Face-to-face
communication also allows for instant feedback, unlike communication mediums like letters
and emails.

Receiver -is the entity that receives the message.

Decoding -decoding is the process in which the message is translated and meaning is
generated out of it.

Feedback -is the process through which receiver sends his response.

2.4 The roles of a sender and receiver

Both sender and the receiver have a role in the communication process:-

Role of the sender

While sending the message you must have the ideas, purpose/reason, means of sending that
communication, the actual act and encoding and the sending of the message.

When composing that letter, ask yourself:-

 What do I want the receiver to do or think, what do I expect.

 Choose appropriate language with an appropriate non-verbal behavior suitable for you
at that appropriate time.
 Take time to structure your message strategically
 Select appropriate media/means; select media that will help achieve your aim.
 Put yourself in the receivers position
 Make sure your message is not misunderstood. Avoid being ambiguous, being
 vague etc.
 Check the feedback and decide whether you are needed to feedback or not
  Check the attitude of the receiver of the feedback

Role of the receiver

The receiver has a role to play while on the other side of the line:-

 Receive message
 Give the message full attention so that you avoid misunderstanding.
 Check whether the media sender used suit your means
 Ensure full comprehension of the message by checking the references to refer to.
 Check whether there is any underlined meaning/implication.
 Ensure you give sufficient and necessary feedback.

2.5 Barriers to effective Communication.

Barriers in communication are circumstances or obstacles that prevent communication

process from taking place. Communication barriers can arise at every stage of the
communication process that is from the sender, the message, the channel, the receiver, the
feedback and the context.

Communication breakdowns will sometimes occur irrespective of how an individual or

organization plans to communicate effectively. We should be aware of these barriers if we
are to overcome them. There are two main classifications namely:

1. Barriers caused by the sender or receiver

2. Barriers caused by external factors

Barriers caused by the sender or receiver

1. Language

This barrier arises at the encoding and decoding stages of communication. There are various
ways in which language can be a barrier, such as:

 Mother-tongue interference
 Similar words with different meaning
 Speaking too fast or too slow
 Pronunciation
 Stammering
  Technical terminology
 Accents

These barriers can be overcome by: use of interpreters, practice speaking, moderate pace,
simple language, common language, etc.

2. Poorly defined Aim.

There are three main aims of communication: inform, influence or initiate action. The sender
must have a clear idea of what the communication aims to achieve.

This can be overcome by having a clear idea of the purpose of communication.

3. Wrong medium

Choosing the wrong medium to communicate can be disastrous. It may lead to conveying
false information or receiving negative reactions e.g. informing an employee about a
promotion or salary increase shouldn’t be done on a notice board, but rather sent by delivery
through a messenger or post office.

Careful selection of the medium will help overcome this barrier.

4. Wrong time

It is important to know when to communicate. Trying to discuss an important issue with

someone when he or she is about to leave for an important meeting, will almost certainly end
in failure.

Seeking and making appointments will help overcome this barrier.

5. Differences in perception

The way we view the world is largely determined by our past experiences. People see things
differently depending on different age, nationality, culture, education, occupation, gender,
status, personality, etc. For example, the Kenyan view of time is there’s no hurry in Africa,
whereas in Japan, time is money.

Respecting other people’s views and being more accommodating may help overcome this
barrier.
 7. Jumping to conclusions

We often see what we want to see and therefore hear what we expect to hear rather than what
is actually there.

Listening attentively to a speaker without interruptions can be useful in overcoming.

8. Lack of knowledge

It is difficult to communicate effectively with someone whose level of knowledge of a

particular subject or discussion is considerably less than yours.

Use of simple language or discussing issues that are of the same level may be useful in
overcoming.

9. Lack of interest

The receiver may lack interest in the sender’s message.

The sender should make the message appealing to the receiver e.g use of illustrations

10. Difficulties with self expression

The sender may have difficulty finding the right words to convey their ideas. Careful
preparation and planning will help overcome this barrier.

11. Emotions

These refer to the feelings of either the sender or receiver. Particularly, negative feelings such
as anger, hatred, bitterness can be a hindrance to communication.

One should work at controlling one’s feelings by: taking deep breaths, a walk, ignoring, silent
prayer, etc.

Barriers caused by external factors

 Physical barriers- Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment.
Example poor or outdated equipment, distractions, noise, poor lighting etc
 Physiological barriers- may result from individual’s personal discomfort, ill health, poor
eye sight, hearing difficulties etc.
 Socio-psychological barrier-Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult.
For instance, great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the
present moment. Disorders such as Autism may also severely hamper effective
communication (Berko, M.R, 2010). Other barriers based on social psychological barriers
are according to Saleemi (1997):-
a. Attitude on opinion- if information agrees with our opinion and attitude, we tend
to receive it favorably but if it ends to run contrary to our accepted beliefs, we don’t
react favorably.
b. Emotion- emotional state of mind affects communication. If the sender is exited
or nervous his thinking will be blurred and he will not be able to organize his
message properly.
c. Closed mind- it’s a person with deeply ingrained prejudices and is not prepared to
reconsider his opinions.
d. Status conscious- are common in organization and subordinates are afraid of
communicating upward any unpleasant information. Superiors also think that
consulting their juniors would be compromising their dignity.
e. The source of communication- if the receiver is suspicious about a prejudice
against the source of communication there is likely to be a barrier to communication.
f. Inattentiveness- people often become inattentive while receiving a message in
particular, if the message contains a new idea.
g. Faulty transmission- translator can never be perfect.
h. Poor retention- studies shows that employees retain only about 50% of the
information communicated to them. If the information is communicated through3-4
stages, very little reaches the destination. Poor retention may lead to imperfect
responses which may further hamper the communication process.
 Environmental barrier -Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as
standing next to loud speakers at a party, pulling and moving of seats in a lecture room,
working in a factory etc
 Physiological-Impairment barrier- Physical maladies that prevent effective
communication, such as deafness or blindness.
 Organizational barriers - Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver
from accurate interpretation.
2.6 Overcoming barriers to effective communication.

Strategies to improve workplace communication

The following are 14 communication strategies you can use to overcome and prevent
communication challenges at work:

 Nonverbal communication strategies

 Active listening strategies
 Verbal communication strategies
 Written communication strategies

Nonverbal communication strategies

1. Be aware of your body language

Body language, facial expressions and other nonverbal cues can play a large role in effective
communication. Take note of your body language when communicating and adjust if your
body language is not supporting what you are trying to communicate.

2. Work on your posture

Standing up straight or sitting upright in your chair can help promote positive and effective
communication. Be sure that you aren't slouching or slumping your shoulders during a
conversation.

3. Maintain eye contact

Maintaining eye contact shows that you are paying attention to the other person and are an
active part of the conversation.

Active listening strategies

1. Request and provide feedback

Offering and asking for feedback shows that you care about what the other person is saying
as well as their opinions on the topic being discussed.

2. Use encouraging small verbal comments

When taking part in a conversation, use small verbal comments such as "uh-huh." This can
encourage the speaker to continue and lets them know that you are listening.

3. Don't interrupt

Refrain from interrupting when another person is speaking to show respect and that you are
listening to what they are saying.

4. Focus on what the other person is saying

Paying attention is the key to effective communication. When another person is speaking,
give them all of your attention and acknowledge that you are hearing their message.

Verbal communication strategies

1. Limit distractions

Communication is much more effective when there are little to no distractions. When
communicating, put away your mobile device, shut off your computer and limit any other
distractions that may prohibit you from being present during a conversation.

2. Participate in a public speaking class

Taking a speech class can help build confidence when speaking to others and equip you with
effective communication strategies when verbally communicating.

3. Acknowledge what others are expressing

When having a conversation with someone, acknowledge what they are saying by nodding,
using facial expressions and participating in the conversation when appropriate.

4. Practice empathy

Consider the feelings of the person you are communicating with so that you can better
acknowledge their needs and concerns.

5. Consider your tone of voice

Your tone of voice can have a significant impact on how others interpret your communication
efforts. Pay attention to your tone when communicating and try to match your tone to what
you are trying to convey. For example, if you are discussing a serious topic, your tone should
be confident and firm rather than playful or unsure.
Written communication strategies

1. Proofread and edit

Before sending an email, text or other written form of communication, take the time to
proofread and make any necessary edits. This ensures your written communication is
professional and conveys your message as accurately as possible.

2. Use appropriate grammar and spelling

Avoid using abbreviations, slang, jargon and other forms of language that may not be
understood by others. Spell out words and ensure proper spelling and gramma

In order to remove hindrances in the way of communication the following steps are worth
consideration:

2.7 Measures to overcome barriers to effective communication in an organization

a) Steps must be taken to make the organisation structure straight forward and the
communication lines simple, clear and direct.
b) In place of formal and rigid relationships, a climate of trust and confidence throughout
the organisation should be created.
c) Communication should be well-planned and well-constructed. Why, to whom and
when[time] are the basic questions to be considered in planning the communication
d) The medium and method of communication should be chosen carefully to suit the
particular communication needs.
e) The flow of communication must be carefully regulated to maintain the optimum
flow. Careful processing of information to eliminate all unnecessary information will
ensure communication channels are not overloaded.
f) All efforts should be made to improve human relation within the organisation. This
will automatically reduce or eliminate behavioural barriers
TOPIC 3. PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

3.1 Introduction

To be classified as a good communicator, you must possess certain skills in speaking and
listening. This topic identifies such principles and looks into their application. Good
communication is also determined by a sound background in sentence construction and
meaning This topic helps you determine your competence in both.
The principles of communication are those scientific aspects which must be taken into
account in all media of communication. Those aspects are clarity, completeness, consensus,
consideration, courtesy and correctness, consistency as well as coherence.
These principles help to make various forms of communication e.g letters, memoranda,
reports, representations etc more effective. Although principles are of fundamental
importance and relevant to all media, they are most important to written media.
3.2 Principles of effective communication

They are called the seven ‘Cs’, they are completeness, conciseness, consideration,
concreteness, clarity, courtesy and correctness.

1. CLARITY
 This is the ability to express your ideas clearly
 The language you use should be simple
 Organize your material/content so that it can be easily followed
 Avoid trying to impress by using long complicated words
 Explain any terms that may be unfamiliar to your audience
 Utter words distinctly so that they are easily recognizable
2. CONCISENESS
 This is the use of the exact words to express what you mean
 Wide vocabulary range will enable you choose the precise words to suit your purpose
 Facts used should be correct
 Research your subject thoroughly
 Ensure that any authorities quoted are reliable
 Avoid making statements which go beyond the facts and which might be challenged
3. CONSIDERATION
 Consideration means that you prepare every message with the recipient in mind and
try to put yourself in his or her place.
 Try to visualize your readers (or listeners)—with their desires, problems,
circumstances, emotions, and probable reactions to your request.
 Then handle the matter from their point of view. This thoughtful consideration is also
called "you-attitude," empathy, the human touch, and understanding of human nature.
(It does not mean, however, that you should overlook the needs of your organization.)
4. COMPLETENESS
 Your business message is "complete" when it contains all facts the reader or listener
needs for the reaction you desire.
 Completeness is necessary for several reasons.
 First, complete messages are more likely to bring the desired results without the
expense of additional messages.
 Second, they can do a better job of building goodwill. Third, they can help avert
costly lawsuits that may result if important information is missing.
 Answer all questions asked.
 Give something extra, when desirable.
5. CONCRETENESS
 Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague
and general.
 Use specific facts and figures.
 Put action in your verbs.
 Choose vivid, image-building words.
6. COURTESY
 Courteous messages help to strengthen present business friendships, as well as make
new friends.
 Courtesy stems from sincere you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical
insertions of "please's" and "thank-you's."
 Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and appreciative.
 Omit expressions that irritate, hurt, or belittle.
 Grant and apologize good-naturedly.
7. CORRECTNES
 Give correct facts and send them in the correct language. Transmit messages only
after ensuring they are correct.
 Send your messages at the correct time and respond at the right time too. Outdated
information is useless. Outdated information is useless. Communication is an
 expensive process so correct timing will help reduce wastage of time and money.
Choose to communication at a time that is more effective.
 Send your messages in the correct style [adaptability principle]. You must adapt your
message to the needs of the receiver by considering his or her educational
background, width of his vocabulary, specialize knowledge on the subject etc Avoid
using jargon language to a layman.

3.3 Definition of a sentence

It is a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate that
conveys a statement, question, exclamation or command and consisting of a main clause and
sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.
3.4 Sentence structure -Syntax
Every clause is in a sentence. There are 4 structures of a sentence namely:
 The simple sentence
 The compound sentence
 The complex sentence
 The compound-complex sentence
1. Simple sentence
This is the most basic type of a sentence. It contains only one independent clause i.e one
subject and one verb/adjective/adverb ect. For example:
 Run!
 Ice melts.
 Ice melts quickly.

2. Compound sentence
It consists of two or more independent clauses. These clauses are joined by co-ordinating
conjunctions e.g and, but, or. For example:
 Canada is a rich country. It has many poor people. Canada is a rich country, but it has
many poor people.
 I don’t like dogs. My sister doesn’t like cats.
 I don’t like dogs and my sister doesn’t like cats.
 You can write on paper. You can use a computer.
3. Complex sentence
It contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The dependent clause is
similar to an incomplete sentence. It doesn’t make sense on its own. The independent clause
is referred to as the main clause. It makes sense on its own. A dependent clause usually starts
with a subordinating conjunction e.g that, because, although, where, which, since, etc. for
example:
 Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.
 I don’t like dogs that bark at me during the day.
 None of the students were injured when the tree fell through the classroom roof.
4. Compound-complex sentence
It contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. That means it
has three clauses. E.g
 I don’t like dogs, and my sister doesn’t like cats because they make her sneeze.
 You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can easily correct your
mistakes.
 A tree fell through the classroom roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured
although many of them were in the classrooms located at the top of the building.
3.5 Types of sentences
There are four types of sentences.
1. Statements
2. Questions
3. Commands
4. Exclamations
(a) Statements
When we make a statement we put forward a fact or an opinion. Grammatically however,
there is no difference between truth and false hood. The following sentences are
grammatically correct but not a fact;
 Nairobi is the capital of Kenya.
 Jinja is the capital of Uganda.
(b) Questions
We can ask questions in both speech and writing. When we write questions we must end them
with a question mark i.e. [?]. In speech you show that you are asking questions though use of
one of the following;
 Word order.
 Voice tones.
 (c) Commands
When giving commands or orders, we give imperative mood of verbs. Verbs that show
firmness or emergences e.g. Put that book down.
(d) Exclamations
This is a cry or other utterances which is sudden and conveys some sort of sudden feeling e.g
excitement, anger or delight. Many exclamations begin with the word “what” e.g.
 What a stupid thing to do!
 What a great idea!
Exclamations end with an exclamation mark and statements end with full stops. Direct
questions end with question marks.

3.6 Sentence meaning (semantics)

A phrase is a group of words without a finite verb (is a form of verb that shows agreement
with a subject) a subject is what is being discussed e.g
 The man in the bank
 An early history of pottery
 As soon as possible
A phrase isn’t a sentence. It works exactly as a noun, adjective, adverb according to its nature
and purpose.
Noun phrases name people, things or ideas e.g
 The man in the picture
 A cookery demonstration Adjectival phrases describe something e.g
 With a long nose
 For business users

3.7 Clauses
A clause is an expression that contains a subject and a predicate. At times a clause does not
constitute a complete sentence, in other words it forms part of a sentence.
Types of Clauses
a) Main clause
This s a clause in a complex sentence that can stand alone. At times it does not constitute a
complete sentence, it is also called an independent clause e.g. ‘It is cold, although the sun has
been shinning.’
 b) Dependent clause
its is a clause that cannot stand on its own and is also called a subordinate clause e.g. ‘If he
gets money, he will buy a new car.’
c) An adverbial clause
They function like single adverbs i.e. the modify adverbs. They are to are subordinate clauses
and cannot stand on their own. They are usually joined to the main clause by conjunctions
such as when and when etc. Ann and Maria came after we had finished the work.
d) Relative clause
They are subordinate clauses introduces by relative pronouns; who, whom, whose, which and
that, e.g. This is the man whose wife died.
e) Conditional clause
This are subordinate clauses introduced by words like ‘if’ and ‘unless’. They express co-
dependent situations e.g. If he gets money, he will buy a new car
f) Adjectival clauses
These are subordinate clause which describe or modify a noun/ pronoun that comes before
them e.g. The book which Angaya bought yesterday is very boring

g) Noun clauses
Noun clause function as nouns. They can replace nouns and noun phrases. The noun clause is
usually more than one word e.g. ‘The man who became Prime Minister was not very
popular’.

3.8 Phrases
A phrase us a group of words that function as a single unit. It can also be defined as an
expression consulting of one or more words forming a grammatical constructed of a sentence.
A phrase may function as a noun, verb, adverb or adjective. It lacks the predicate arrangement
of a clause.
Types of Phrases
 Noun phrases
A group of words that function as a noun. It forms the subject part of a sentence. At times it is
just a noun or pronoun but is still defined to as noun phrase e.g. The brightest girl in our
class is called Rose.
 Verb Phrases
The verb phrase is a word of group of words that function as a verb in a sentence. The verb
phrase comprises auxiliary verbs and main verbs e.g. The cow may he eaten the grass.
  Adverbial Phrases
A single adverb or a group of more than one word operating as an adverb e,g James walked
rather slowly. Some begin with prepositions but function as adverbs e.g. We shall stop the
practice at once.
 Adjectival Phrases
This is a word or a group of words that function as adjectives e.g. Athens is singing an old
song.
 Phrasal Verbs
This is a group of words that is used like a verb comprising a verb, adverb and preposition.
They appear in a given order and portray a given meaning e.g. I had to put up with the noise’
meaning content.

3.9 Punctuation
Punctuation is the use of a set of marks in a piece of writing to bring the meaning out clearly
to the recipient. They include;
1. Capitalisation
2. Final punctuation marks such as full stops, question marks and exclamation marks.
3. The comma
4. Quotation marks
5. Hyphen
6. Apostrophe
7. The colon
8. Parenthesis
1. Capitalisation
Use capital letters;
 To begin sentences
 To begin proper nouns
 For book titles, plays, poems etc.
 For official titles
 For the first word in any salutation e.g. Dear Sir;
 For abbreviations or initials
 To begin direct speeches
 For all nouns and pronounced that show holiness.
 To begin direct speeches
 For the pronoun ‘I’
  For titles and degrees attached to people

2. Final Punctuation Marks

These are:
a) The full stop.
Also called a period. It must be used in;
 A mild command
 A reported question
 Abbreviations
 Quotations
 At the end of statements
b) The question marks
Usually put at the end of a question. In sentences that contain direct question, the question
marks are also put inside quotation marks. It may also may be within parts of a list
c) Exclamation
Used after strong commands, statements said with the great emphasis, intersections and
sentences expressing surprise.
3. The comma
This is a punctuation mark that suggests a slight pause. It is used;
 To separate items from a list
 Separate two adjectives referring to the same noun
 Indicate a pause in a sentence with multiple parts
 Before a direct quotation
 After a direct quotation
 In dates, addresses and geographical names
4. Quotation marks (‘’) (“”)
i. Double quotation marks
Put at the beginning and end at the exact words spoken by someone in direct speech.
ii. Single quotation marks
 Used to show that the word used is foreign in language
 Used to a quotation marks in someone's direct speech
  Used to enclose titles such and articles in newspapers, magazines and songs
5. Hyphen
 They link words which form a compound adjective used before a noun.
 They indicate the division of a word at the end of the line. A word should be broken
and there is a natural syllable.
 Used to indicate a missing or implied element n a word.
6. Apostrophe
Has two main uses;
 Shows possession
 Show that a letter has been left out a word
7. The colon
It is used to;
 Introduce a list of things.
 Introduce an explanation of the procedure statement
Semi-colon
Used to:
 Join a two related main clauses
 Separate items in a server that contains commas
 Join a main clause and subordinate clause
8. Parenthesis
Referred to information that is added to a sentence as an explanation or an aftermath. The
sentence is usually grammatical even without that information, the additional information is
marked by; a pair of dashes, commas or brackets e.g.
Activity
1. Each of the following sentences has an error. Rewrite the sentence correcting the error.
 The pupil told the teacher, “I beg you pardon.”
 Michael burst in tears when he saw the accident.
 I was held in traffic for two hours.
 Neither Walter nor Jesica were prepared for the news.
 I do not think I can put up with these noise.
 The two brothers do not get a long.
 Jane wanted to know who she was talking to.
  I take two teaspoonfuls of sugar with my tea.
2. Answer the questions below according to the instructions given after each.
 Many people lost their life in the floods. (correct the error)
 “Did you attend the National International Trade Fair?” the teacher asked the students.
(Rewrite in reported speech.)
 The manager bought receipt books, biros and rulers for his office. (Replace the
underlined words with one word.)
 Mrs. Juma has lived in Nakuru 1990. (Fill the blank space with the correct
preposition.)
 Most people had (go) by the time the meeting started. (Use the verb in brackets in the
correct form.)
 Jane passed the exam. John too passed. (Rewrite as one sentence using the word
BOTH)
 A group of people has arrived. (Rewrite in plural)
QUESTION
Write an essay of about 250 words on: “What the Kenya Government should do to increase
its forest cover”
TOPIC 4: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
4.1 Introduction
As aforementioned, communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts,
feelings and emotions through speech, signals, writing, or behaviour.
4.2 Classification of Communication
Communication is both internal and external.

Internal Communication
This refers to exchange of information by members of the same organization.
It is important because it leads to;
a) Better understanding between employer and employee.
b) Greater efficiency. Understanding is enhanced and the employees take instructions,
accept changes and as a result their efficiency is increase.
c) Effective co-ordination. Proper co-ordination of activities takes place more effectively
where there is a sound communication system.
d) Minimum or no losses. If the communication system is effective, losses and easily
avoided as workers will inform management about breakdown of machinery or any
equipment in record time.

External Communication
This refers to exchange of information or messages between a particular organization and
outside persons or organizations e.g. customers, suppliers, other businesses, organization,
government departments etc.
a) Good reputation. Effective communication with customers and other business
enterprises lead to good reputation increase prestige of the company.
b) Improvement of Public Relations. More people get interested to deal with a company
that has a good and reliable communication structure.
c) Better business prospects. Due to good communication a company can attract more
customers and increase its productivity.
d) Choice of Customers. If a communication system is effective, a company gets to
know the likes and dislikes of their customers. When this happens, it is able to
produce/ act in accordance to customers choices.
e) Tactfulness with Government Departments. Any business enterprise is expected to
deal with financial institutions banks, licensing authorities, income tax offices, post
office etc. Complex situations which may arise will require tactfulness through
negotiations which is simply communication.
4.3 Types of Communication
The types of communication are categorised into two major types; types of communication
based on the communication channels and types of Communication Based on Purpose
and Style of presentation.
4.4 Types of communication based on the communication channels used.
1. ORAL/VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication occurs when we engage in speaking with others. It can be face-to-
face, over the telephone, via Skype or Zoom, etc. Some verbal engagements are informal,
such as chatting with a friend over coffee or in the office kitchen, while others are more
formal, such as a scheduled meeting.

Types of oral and verbal communication

A. Face to Face
B. Telephone communication.
A. Face to Face communications
Face to face communication is the most natural means of communication. One of the best
means of securing cooperation and resolving problems is to talk over the matter with the
person concerned. In face to face conversations the ideas can be conveyed by word of mouth
and gestures. The two communications must use body language to make face to face
communication more effective.
Examples of face to face communication include;
 Face to face conversations
 Interviews
 Meetings
 Training forums
 Conference
In the above examples both, people are able to communicate while seeing one another.

Speeches and listening

Speeches:
The spoken word wields great power. It may turn a hostile mob into a friendly gathering and
it can also turn a friendly gathering into a hostile mob. It can build tension and it can release
tension.

Characteristics of a Good Speech

1. It is clear
2. It is like an informal talk
3. It is brief
 4. It is an interesting
5. It is audience Oriented
6. It is vivid and concrete
Before you make a speech which can be prepared, impromptu or off-the cuff, analyse your
audience. Who is your audience? What are their needs?
Analyse the occasion, this will go a long way into helping you address appropriately and also
to modulate….
Characteristics of a good speaker
A good speaker is lively, enthusiastic and earnest- he doesn’t just speak for the sake of it.
He has a sense of responsibility to his listeners and others.
Planning to speak
1. A good speech needs a lot of planning and effort. Preparations should start well in
advance.
2. Research your topic thoroughly.
3. Plan your speech in three parts. The beginning should arouse interest of audiences.
The middle should be devoted to discussion. The conclusion should summaries the
main points.
4. Time your speech to ensure it is neither too long nor short.
5. Look for some suitable quotations or anecdotes, if possible.
6. Arrange your points in such a way that strong points are kept at the beginning.
7. Tailor your speech to the intellectual level and general taste of the audience.
8. Rehearse your speech to ensure a good deliver.
B. Telephone Communication
The telephone is increasingly becoming one of the world’s most used tool in oral
communication. It is used to;
 Place and take orders
 Exchange urgently needed information
 To make appointments etc.
A lot of money is spent on telephone communication but it is worth is as it saves a lot of
time.

Advantages of the telephone Communication

1. It saves time
2. Feedback is immediate
3. The voice can be modulated
4. It puts both communication on equal fooling regardless of their rank
Disadvantages of the telephone communication
1. Parties involved are not able to see each other. The only depend on their voices, so no
gestures etc.
2. Miscommunication can easily takes place and usually there is no time to think
3. It is usually difficult to know the appropriate time to make a call. When you visit, you
can gauge the situation and postpone the visits for a later date.
4. A telephone message is not a permanent record

The Telephone
Advantages
1. It is immediate as it saves time as long as the service is efficient.
2. It is possible to get immediate feedback and clarifications each be sought and made. It
is a two-way communication.
Disadvantages
1. Absence of facial expressions makes it less effective as one has solely really on voice
modulation.
2. At times one cannot be able to interpret the information well, or can be treated
badly/rudely by the receiver.
3. Telephone service is not yet satisfactory in Kenya, as such there are many cases of
‘wrong number’ which result a lot of time wasted.
4. There is no time to think while on phone, the receiver always feels him in under a lot
of pressure.
5. At times, It is difficult to know the appropriate time to call and so at times we are the
ones told to call later. If a visit, you can gauge the mood of the receiver.

a) How to use a telephone effectively

1. Speak politely, confidently and in a positive and friendly tone.
2. Have a message pad, telephone directory and an appointment book and at hand.
3. While talking, place the mouthpiece one inch away from the lips and earpiece next to
the ear.
4. Avoid mumbling, running words together or talking through the nose or teeth.
5. Avoid cliches like ‘yap’, ‘yeah’, ‘ah’, ‘I see’ etc.
6. Don't shout into the telephone
b) Guidelines for answering the telephone
1. Always be prepared to receive a call, to give/ receive information, have pen/paper
ready for taking notes, be familiar with names of personnel in management.
2. When you pick the receiver, first introduce company, the dept and yourself if
desirable.
3. Say a pleasant greeting i.e. ‘good morning.’
 4. Listen carefully without interrupting the caller.
5. If the message is unclear, politely request for a repeat as this might save the company
a lot of expenses later on.
c) How to take down telephone messages
1. Use an official message form if available.
2. Take down the name and phone number of the caller.
3. Note down the time of the call and the time at which the caller can be contacted.
4. Record carefully any special instructions given by the caller.
5. Lastly, don't forget to relay the message to the person for whom it is meant. If you are
unlikely to meet him, place it strategical so that he/she may see it.

Importance of Oral/Verbal communication

1. Promotes good interpersonal relations
2. Feedback is immediate, so efficiency is enhanced.
3. It is easy to make judgement since it exposes one to facial expressions, gestures etc.
4. It reduces rigidity and flexibility brought by other forms of communication
Barriers to effective oral communication
Oral communication uses the voice and body language in order to be effective. If these
are not well used, it may hinder the free flow of communication. Some of the barriers are
1. Pronunciation- the way in which a word is pronounced.
2. Articulation- the formation of clear and distinct sounds in speech.
"the articulation of vowels and consonants"
3. Repetition- the action of repeating something that has already been said or written.
4. Speed - the rate at which someone is speaking.

Essentials/Ways of overcoming the barriers of oral communication

The following are essentials for oral communication;
 Use a public address system
 Simple language that is understood by all
 Listen keenly
 Know the purpose of communication and prepare adequately
Advantages of oral/verbal communication

 Oral communication allows for immediate feedback such as the opportunity to ask
questions when the meaning is not entirely clear.
 The sender is able to check and see whether if the instruction is clear or has created
confusion.
  There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is
interpersonal.
 There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing
changes in the decisions previously taken.
 Spoken instructions are flexible and easily adaptable to many diverse situations.
 The feedback is spontaneous in oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made
quickly without any delay.
 Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and efforts.
 Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and
many issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them over.
 Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.
 Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among
organizational employees.
 Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential
information/matter.
 In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one
can guess whether he/she should trust what’s being said or not.

Disadvantages of verbal communication

 Poor presentation of the message or the instruction can result in misunderstanding and
wrong responses.
 Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business
communication is formal and very organized.
 Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal
and not as organized as written communication.
 Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in
case of meetings, long speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.
 Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
 There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack
essentials.
 It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
 Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except
in investigation work.
 Spoken communication is influenced by both verbal and non-verbal communication
such as tone or body language which may twist the meaning of your message in the
mind of the receiver.

2. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Definition:

Non-verbal communication is the communication of one’s thoughts without using words. The
power of non-verbal communication is supported by the popular saying, “Actions speak loud
than words.” Non-verbal communication is the way in which we express our feelings,
emotions, attitudes, opinions and views through or body movement. The body and its
movement substitute words. It is usually very easy to decode the following emotions;
sadness, anger, envy, love and fear through body language.

Types of non-verbal communication:

1. body languages

2. written communication

3. sign language

Body language

Body language has been described as the language we all speak but which very few
understand. It tells you more about what people really mean than words would ever say and
nobody can help speaking this non-verbal language.

Our brains respond to the surrounding and situation by adopting and attitude- fear, joy, anger
or whatever which it communicates to the various parts of the body, this then responds by
triggering….

Body language is a broad term which includes, positive, sitting positions, facial expression,
eye movement, arm movements, handshake, dress, distance from others, it is important than
we are able to control our own and appreciate the relevance it has to the message we are
giving.

Body language will never lie, you can all tell whether someone is bored, lying, nervous etc
but words can lie.

Written language

Written language is in itself non-verbal. We can communicate our thoughts clearly through
writing but after observing a number of factors: the level of the receiver, is he able to read
and understand, the correct presentation: the format or display.

In written communication the non-verbal communication signifiers are the use of white
space, proper margins, right length of sentence, length of paragraphs and line spacing. A
space that has content condensed closely is usually skipped by the reader or is rejected. A
poor visual appearance of a proposal or a resume will prompt the reader to reject it.

Sign language

This is a language used by the deaf air dumb for communication. It employs the use of finger,
eye contact, facial expression and lip reading.

Other types of non-verbal communication

 Dress and appearance

 Eye contact
  Facial expressions
 Body movement and gestures
 Head movements
 Body direction
 Silence
 Space
 Voice
 Circumstances
 Arrangement of the room

1. DRESS AND APPEARANCE

The way a person dresses makes an important statement about them. It is also an indicator of
how one regards the people to whom they are addressing. Smart clean clothes will convey a
message of efficiency and that one is responsible. Many people will judge a person’s
personality by their dressing. Ones appearance is a key factor in interviews.

2. EYE CONTACT

Participants in a room should be able to see the speaker as well as each other. If someone is
hidden in a dark corner or behind a pillar, they would tend to feel cut off and will contribute
little in a discussion. Looking at someone directly in the eye suggests openness or
truthfulness; whereas looking away gives an impression of shyness or dishonesty. When
giving a talk, the speaker should ensure that their eyes roam regularly around the room rather
than fixing one’s gaze on the floor or on one of the persons in the room. Eye contact ensures
that everyone is involved in the discussion.

3. FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

These give a clear indication of one’s feelings. A smile suggests amusement, agreement or
humour. A frown suggests displeasure. A distant expression or look suggests lack of
concentration. These signals are much stronger than verbal communication. One should try to
match their facial expression with what they are saying otherwise there will be conflicting
messages transmitted.

4. BODY MOVEMENT AND GESTURES

It is also referred to as kinesics. Peoples’ body movement can say a lot about their mood.
Anxiety can be detected by kneading of fingers; impatience — crossing and uncrossing the
legs; absentmindedness — drumming of a table. Some movements are very distractive to the
audience e.g stroking of a beard (real or imaginary), cleaning one’s spectacles. Other gestures
are too forceful and should be avoided e.g banging one’s fist on a table.

5. HEAD MOVEMENTS
This includes nodding or shaking of the head. Nodding suggests agreement or understanding
while shaking the head means disagreement or disapproval, disbelief. Both are ways of
conveying feedback.

6. BODY DIRECTION

This concerns the way in which the body may convey signals about a person’s feelings. It is
divided into four areas: posture, proximity, orientation and contact.

 Posture

It refers to the position of the body e.g sitting upright, leaning forwards or backwards, folding
of the arms, etc. A listener who leans forward during a talk suggests that they are very
interested in what is said. A listener who sits back in their chairs, gazing at the floor is
probably not interested or has lost concentration.

 Proximity

It is the distance between people during communication. Some people feel threatened by
those who approach them too closely and may become nervous. Some informal sitting
arrangements permit a close distance between people.

 Orientation

This is simply the direction in which the body is facing. Facing the person you are speaking
to, suggests interest in the subject. Speaking with your body turned away suggests
restlessness or lack of commitment. Change of orientation during a conversation will signify
a change in mood e.g turning away or walking away may suggest boredom or lack of interest
or anger

 Contact

Physical contact should be minimal especially during business e.g a handshake, pat on the
back. A firm handshake is a sign of goodwill. People from different cultures will respond
differently to touch. Some view it as a sign of goodwill while others feel threatened or
offended. It is wise to know who you are dealing with and trea them appropriately.

7. SILENCE

When someone asks a question and one fails to answer, one communicates a message that
could mean they were not concentrating, disagreement, rejection, lack of knowledge or total
satisfaction. Human beings are social beings who need assurance from those around us.

Holding ones tongue can sometimes be wise; however, sometimes it can be seen as an act of
rebellion or rejection. Silence builds walls and walls are barriers to communication. One the
other hand, silence can be used strategically to indicate that one is prepared to listen and
encourage the speaker to continue speaking.

8. SPACE
This is an area or place that belongs to someone. In offices, space is usually directly related to
status or position. The higher the rank the more square feet or space one has. Different
cultures view space differently e.g Europeans will position the office desk at the centre of the
room so that the authority flows from upwards to the centre. The more one is close to the
centre, the more important they are. Human beings tend to claim particular areas of space,
this is the reason homes are surrounded by walls or hedges to indicate the boundaries. Even
in public spaces like classrooms, people tend to own some space. It is wise to respect each
other’s space.

9. VOICE

It is also referred to as paralinguistic elements. This term is used to describe the noises of
agreement and encouragement or disagreement which people make when listening to others.

E.g ‘uh huh’ ‘a hah’ ‘mmm’ ‘eeeeeeh’ Other elements of paralinguistics include: pitch,
volume, rate, and pause.

 Pitch

This is the highness or lowness of the voice. A high pitch is associated with females while a
low pitch is associated with males

 Volume

This is the degree of loudness. Loud people are viewed to be aggressive while the soft spoken
people are shy or polite. A good speaker should vary their degree of loudness when necessary
to be more effective.

 Rate

It is the speed at which we speak. It can be quick, slow, or moderate. Fast speakers are seen
to be intelligent while slow speakers can be viewed to be lazy or inefficient which may not
necessarily be the case.

 Pause

It is a planned stop. It is used to slow the rate of speech and give the sender and receiver a
chance to gather their thoughts, unfortunately, many people feel that all pauses must be filled
and consciously or unconsciously seek ways to fill the pauses with meaningless phrases e.g
mmmmm’

10. CIRCUMSTANCES

It refers to the situation in which an Exchange takes place. It has a lot to do with the
impression one conveys or one gives. It affects the overall message that is received by the
other person. Eg the amount of preparation made for a presentation or discussion; observation
of punctuality; avoidance of disturbance or distraction during a meeting or presentation.

11. ARRANGEMENT OF THE ROOM

The physical layout of a room can have a great influence on the communication that takes
place e.g board members seated at a round table suggest equality. A horse-shoe arrangement
also suggests equality. A manager, who sits behind his/her desk throughout a conversation
with an employee, will emphasize the difference in rank or position between the two; on the
other hand, if the two share a table an air of equality is immediately created.

Importance of non-verbal language

Non-verbal communication if used well can help one to communicate effectively without
necessarily using oral communication.

1. Can be used by the hearing impaired

2. Can be used where noise is prohibited eg library, banking hall, lecture hall,etc
3. Creates emphasis when it accompanies oral communication
4. Can be used where there is language barrier
5. Very fast in transmitting information
6. Can be used by both literate and illiterate
7. It provides instant feedback

Barriers to effective NVC [non-verbal communication]

1. Mixed messages as likely to be sent depends on the situation/ relationship between the
communications.

2. Cultural differences are likely to lead to misinterpretation

3. NVC can easily betray one. While you may say something, your body language may
communicate the opposite.

4. NVC [written] is subject to misinterpretation depending on the semantics.

5. The deaf and dumb are often misunderstood by those who are unfamiliar with sign
language.

Work to do:

1. Research the following

2. Braille

3. Kenyan sign languages

4. Finger spelling

5. Signing exact English.

Functions of non-verbal communication

Argyle (1988) concluded that there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior
in human communication namely:-
  Express emotions
 Express interpersonal attitudes
 To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and
listeners
 Self-presentation of one’s personality.
 Rituals (greetings)

Ways of making NVC communication effective

1) Pay attention to non-verbal signals e.g. eye….

2) Concentrate on your tone of voice to bring out your emotions – enthusiasm, and
happiness etc.

3) Use signals appropriately

4) Use verbal communication alongside non-verbal communication to make it complete

5) Ensure your signals are not misread

6) Look for in congruent behaviours to see whether ones’ words do not match their non-
verbal communication e.g. at times people frown when they tell you they are happy.

Advantages of non-verbal communication

 You can communicate with someone who cannot hear.

 You can communicate in places where you have to avoid talking audibly.
 You can communicate without others around you hearing what is being
communicated.
 You can communicate when a person is too far away from you to hear you (for
example, by gesturing)
 Non-verbal communication makes conversation short and brief.
 Non-verbal communication saves on time and can be used as a tool to communicate
with people who don't understand your language

Disadvantages of non-verbal communication

 Long conversations using non-verbal communication are usually not possible.

 Non-verbal communication varies from culture to culture.
 Particulars of messages using non-verbal communication cannot be discussed in
detail.
 It is not useful as a public tool for communication
 It cannot be used everywhere and is less influential than verbal communication.

3. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Whether it is an email, a memo, a report, a Facebook post, a Tweet, a contract, etc. all forms
of written communication have the same goal to disseminate information in a clear and
concise manner – though that objective is often not achieved. In fact, poor writing skills often
lead to confusion and embarrassment, and even potential legal jeopardy. One important thing
to remember about written communication, especially in the digital age, is the message lives
on. Thus, there are two things to remember: first, write well – poorly constructed sentences
and careless errors make you look bad; and second, ensure the content of the message is
something you want to promote or be associated with for the long haul.

Advantages of written communication

 Written communication is good for complicated and vital instructions, which can be
given in a precise and uniform manner.
 Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and rules
for running of an organization.
 It is a permanent means of communication: written instructions can be used for future
references. Therefore important where record maintenance is required
 It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities.
 Written communication is more precise and explicit
 Effective written communication develops and enhances an organization’s image
 It provides ready records and references.
 Legal defenses depend upon written communication as it provides valid records
 There is a lesser chance for the message to be misunderstood.
 Authority is transmitted more effectively with a written order than with an oral one
 Messages can be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent.
 Written communication provides record for every message sent and can be saved for
later study.
 Reader can read the information at a pace that suits them.
 A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate
feedback.

Disadvantages of written communication

 People may not always read them.

 Written communication takes time.
 It is impersonal or unfriendly.
 Written communication is expensive. It costs huge in terms of stationery and the
manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.
 Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The
encoding and sending of message takes time
 Effective written communication requires great skills and competencies in language
and vocabulary use. Poor writing skills and quality have a negative impact on
organization’s reputation.
 Too much paper work.
 4. AUDIO-VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Audio, Visual and Audio-Visual Communication

Definition:
1. Audio communication- a kind of communication that relies on hearings
2. Visual communication – a kind of communication that relies on vision
3. Audio-visual communication – a kind of communication that relies on both hearing
and vision [sight]

a) Types of audio communication aids

1. Radio
2. Cassette tapes
3. Telephone
4. Compact disks
5. I-pods [brand of portable media players]

Importance of audio communication

 For passing information
 For entertainment
 To educate
 To advertise.

b) Barriers to effective audio communication

Communication may not be very effective as parties involved are not able to see the each
other during the communication process. As a result, facial expression, eye contact and
gestures which accompany verbal communication are lacking.
Lacks personal touch
In the case of a radio, reputation may not take place and so one may miss out on very
important points.
There is delayed feedback as the processor procedure of transmitting feedback may be slow
During black outs there is no communication taking place

c) Overcoming barriers to effective audio comm.

Observe brevity and communicate information with precision.

Check the speed/ rate of communication in order for information to be understood clearly.

Words should by pronounced articulately.

 d) Types of visual communication aids

 Organisations charts
 Photographs
 Graphs
 Posters
 Drawings
 Sign

e) Importance of visual communication

A visual message has a greater power to inform, persuade or educate.

If well presented, visual communication may have a lasting impression as it may remain
imprinted on one’s mind for a time.

It is faster way of sending information as opposed to verbal communication.

They can be stored for future reference.

f) Barriers to effective visual communication

They are subject to misinterpretation as one has to rely only in what they see.

They may not be as effective since they lack verbal communication which is quite powerful.

They are subject to being ignored.

g) Overcoming barriers to effective visual communication

They should be attractive and strategically placed.

There should be awareness created to endure the targeted people to understand them.

When they have served their purpose they should be withdrawn.

Changes should be made by either improving on them or replacing them with more
innovative aids.

h) Types of audio-visual communication aid

Television

VCR- Videocassette Recorder

DVD- Digital Video Disc

Computer

i) Importance of audio-visual communication

Audio-visual aids are important because one is able to both hear and see. When this happens,
communication becomes extremely effective.

May be used;

 To pass information
 To educate
 To entertain
 To advertise/ market

j) Barriers to effective audio-visual aid

At times information may not be repeated as in the case of TV, communication is regulated.

At times, what is displayed may be undesirable e.g. pornography, thus poisons one’s mind. In
other words, the receiver has no control.

Communication process is slow as feedback is usually delayed.

k) Overcoming barriers to effective audio visual comm

Important information ought to be repeated at intervals.

Vetting ought to be done on certain programs that may be undesirable.

Information ought to be brief and precise

If an advert, it should be attractive.

l) Importance of visual audio communication

It is quite interesting and reduces boredom as one doesn’t only hear but it is able to see.

It is a cheap and convenient way of communication without a personal touch.

It can be used to pass information to a targeted audience as it is subjected to programming.

It is more effective as the picture and the words leave a lasting impression in the mind of the
viewer.

It can be used to entertain market and advertise as well as educate.

m) Disadvantages of audio-visual

They are majorly for a class of people who are able to afford the aid as well as power

Occasionally what comes in is what is programmed, the user has no control.

It is one of the factors that have adversely interfered with our cultural values.

Since they rely on power, they can be expensive but also if there is power shortage then a
barrier to effective communication is caused.
A good number of items are not repeated so unless you sit before a screen, you will missed
out on very valuable information.

5. LISTENING

The act of listening does not often make its way onto the list of types of
communication. Active listening, however, is perhaps one of the most important types of
communication because if we cannot listen to the person sitting across from us, we cannot
effectively engage with them. Think about a negotiation – part of the process is to assess
what the opposition wants and needs. Without listening, it is impossible to assess that, which
makes it difficult to achieve a win/win outcome.

4.5 Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style

Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both
bears their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:

i. Formal Communication
ii. Informal Communication

i. Formal Communication

In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style. Usually
professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern. Informal
communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct pronunciation is
required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal communication.

ii. Informal Communication

Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal
communication channels. It is just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of
members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and
family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted.
Usually informal communication is done orally and using gestures. Informal communication,
unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority lines. In an organization, it helps in
finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking informally. Informal
communication helps in building relationships.
Factors to consider when choosing a communication media

There are many factors that the speaker has to consider before he/she chooses the media for
communication. Here are some of the factors to consider:-

i. Reliability

Reliability is of fundamental importance, it considers whether the message will get to the
intended destination. It is also important to consider how reliable it is in getting across the
ideas /message contained.

ii. The receiver

The medium selected should be one that can serve the communication needs of the audience
in terms of age, education background, cultural orientation etc.

iv. Relationship with the receiver

The exact nature of relationship the sender has with the receiver influences the kind of
communication media to use.

v. Confidentiality

Some messages are confidential and should be read or heard by the intended recipient while
others are less private. A letter for instance would be used for confidential messages while
memos, notices and oral messages can be used for less confidential messages.

vi. Cost

The channel selected should be cost effective in terms of time ad money.

vii. Speed

The urgency of the message is important. The channel selected should be appropriate to
deliver the message within the expected time span .Speed is usually linked with cost too.

viii. Availability

The channel selected should be available both to the sender and the receiver.
 N/B NOT IN TVET LEVEL

4.6 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

There are about 8 forms of communication

1. Personal or Intra-personal Communication

2. Interpersonal Communication

3. Organizational Communication

4. Mass Communication

5. Social Communication

6. Transformational Communication

7. Corporate Communication

8. Group Communication

1. Personal or Intra-personal Communication

This is when an individual communicates in his/her mind through the process of thinking and
feeling. By doing so one is able to process the information and seek to establish an
understanding with others. It helps one shape self concept and ones conviction

2. Interpersonal Communication

This refers to communication between two people or a small group of people on a one-one
basis

3. Organizational Communication

This is the life-blood of any organization. It is the result of successfully governed, well-
understood and networked organization. Without a positive organization climate o
organisation can function or survive complexities that besiege it daily.

4. Mass Communication

5. Social Communication
 6. Transformational Communication

7. Corporate Communication

This is the way a company builds and keeps in contact with employees, dealers, businesses,
houses and all stakeholders. It is n=very important and is carried out not only by the board
and CEO or the MD of the company but also by the responsible employee

8. Group Communication

This occurs when meting re held face to face for issues that affect the working lives of
employees. The group works towards common goals and follows the norms that govern its
functioning.

4.7 Types of internal communication

Internal communication may further be classified into two types: Formal and Informal
Communication.

d) Formal Communication
It follows the course laid down by the organization structure of the enterprise. Members of
the organisation are supposed to communicate with each other strictly as per the channels laid
down in the structure e.g. a sales manager may have a sales man, secretary, a book-keeper
and a mail room boy under him. All his subordinates are supposed to communicate their
problems with him and not with each other.

e) Informal Communication
This kind of communication takes place due to informal relationships we enjoy as people
who interact daily. It does not amuse our organisation needs but in all the same as the integral
parts of the communication system. This kind of informal communication is referred to as the
grapevine.
4.8 Downward Communication

Communication that flows from a superior to a subordinate e.g. orders, individual

instructions, policy statements etc.
Main objectives of downward communication:

1. To give specific directives about the job entrusted to subordinates.

2. To explain policies and organizational procedures.
3. To appraise the subordinate of their performance.
4. To give subordinates information about the rational of their jobs so that they
understand the significance of their jobs in relation with the organizational goals and
objectives.

Media for Downward Communication

Downward communication may be both oral and written media/ channels used may include;
letters, circulars, house organizations, manuals, bulletins [house organisation in a magazine
or periodical published by a company in-order to promote its products] reports, meeting
meeting posters, audio-visual media like slides, however the downward flow is dominated by
oral means.

Limitations/ Disadvantages of downward communication

1. Under communication and over communication
2. Delays – The process is time consuming
3. Loss of information -unless in written form.
4. Distortion -message distorted due to long lines of communication
5. Built-in-resistance.

Essentials of effective Downward Communication

Managers should ensure that they are well informed of policies, objectives etc. in order to
pass adequate information.
Managers should work in accordance to communication plans and decide how much on what
should be realised to avoid over/under communication
There should not be over concentration of authority at the highest level, delegation should
take place to cut delays.

Information must be passed on to the correct person in the hierarchy; no by-passing should
take place.
4.9 Upward Communication
This is communication emanating from level to the managers. Without it, management will
realize a lot of difficulties.

Importance of Upward Communication

Providing feedback- Management is able to confirm if directives issued were followed, and
they may also what the employees think of the organization.
Outlet for pent up emotions- Gives employee a chance for venting their problems and
grievances
Constructive Suggestions- There are often made to promote the welfare of the organisation.
Ensure introduction of new schemes- Since employees feel part and parcel of the organisation
Create Harmony and Cohesion – give an enabling/ conducive environment for working
together as a team.

Methods of Upward Communication

Open-door policy – Employees are given a feeling that the managers doors are always open
to them.
Complaints and Suggestion boxes – Employees are encouraged to drop their complaints or
suggestions in the boxes.
Social Gathering – they are often arranged in different departments, they are informal and
such employees are free to talk about their problems.
Direct Correspondence - at times the manager may write directly to the employees and vice-
versa.
Reports – Employees may be asked to submit reports on their progress etc at regular intervals
about their works.
Counselling – In some organization employees are encouraged to seek from their superiors
on their personal problems hence the set up of guidance and counselling departments.

Limitations of upward communication

Employees are usually reluctant to initiate upward communication [ inferiority or superiority

complexities].

Employees may feel like if they communicate their problems to their superiors, they might be
considered incompetent.

Upward communication is more prone to distortion than downward communication. Most of

the time it is deliberate.
Some times during upwards communication, some workers may become extremely bold and
may even ignore their immediate supervisors and approach top most authorities instead.

Essentials of effective upward communication

Managers should encourage workers to feel free and communicate.

Distortion of information can be limited if the line is kept as short as possible

All upwards communication should be properly analysed. Genuine grievances deserve

immediate attention suggestion for improvement if found feasible. It should be taken up for
implementation and the workers responsible rewarded.

4.10 Channels of Communication

A channel is a means through which communication is transmitted. A transmitter may have

the message and prepare it well, but if the correct channel of communication is not chosen,
then he might not achieve his purpose of communication.

Organisations have an uphill task of ensuring that they use the appropriate channels. They
must educate their employees on the need to follow the correct channels as well as let them
know the channels the organisation recognizes.

4.11 Organisation Chart

An organisation chart is a diagram that depicts the structure of an organisation in terms of

relationships amongst personnel or departments. It is a chart that contains a horizontal or
vertical tree and contains geometric shapes to represent staff or division. The lines that
connect the shapes indicate relationships between the positions. It indicates the formal
structure of a business or a company. Most often a rectangle represents a person, position or
department.

The chart depicts the hierarchy in organisation with the top rectangle depicting the top most
e.g. CEO, President etc. Underneath this comes high level managers and such succeeding
levels include subordinates of the line above.

Lateral position indicates relationships between departments on the same level of hierarchy in
the organisation.
Example of Organisation Chart

Personal Assistant

Purposes of Organization Charts

a) It portrays the type of organisation and defines the sphere of authority for the
supervising staff.
b) It show the various departments, departments sectors and their relationship to one
another
c) It is useful when explaining to new members of staff, the type of organization they are
working in and their position in it.
d) It shows the chain of command hierarchy and delegation of authority.
e) It portrays the span of control.
f) It acts as a starting point when the organization of the firm in being alone
g) It helps to ensure task are completed/ accomplished.
h) It provides for communication and authority.
i) It helps define areas of responsibility within the organization.
j) Provides reference points for the handling of various functions.
k) Helps to establish a line of communication for employees to making it easy or
possible for comments, questions and ideas to flow easily from anywhere within the
organization. To someone in authority to act on information effectively.
l) It helps to ensure effective interaction and helps to minimize time wasted by
information moving through the company in a disorganized manner.

Advantages of Organization Charts

a) Responsibility for work at different levels is clear.
b) The lines of communication both upward and downward are indicated.
c) The co-ordination among the various departments improves the efficiency of the
organisation and so productivity is increased.
Disadvantages of Organization Charts

a) That chart indicates that the responsibilities of different levels have been divided on
permanent basis. It becomes difficult to in cooperate new changes.

b) Formal Organization Charts do not recognize informal lines of communication and

influence that are quite vital in many business settings.

c) The decisions are made by some authorised personnel only. It becomes difficult to
make decisions in some cases. The delay can be costly to the organization.

d) The rivalry amongst different departments may be harmful to the organization due to
fevoritism of one office.

e) They encourage individuals to have a very narrow view of their jobs, they are
therefore not responsive to change; that lacks flexibilities.

Forms of Organization Charts

This refers to how an organization chart is put or presented on the piece of paper. An
organisation chart may be drawn horizontally or vertically; these are the different forms. e.g.

Vertical;

Horizontal;

This chart gives the line of command from left to right.

It is important to note that communication in using the organization chart flows in an upward
vertical, downward vertical, or horizontal manner. If communication flows from down to up,
is usually in the form of; seeking for clarifications, giving suggestions, making complaints,
making enquiries, giving information, consultation.

Communication from up to down; that is from senior to junior is usually in the form of
instructions, orders, advice, seeking suggestion, passing information, motivation etc.
Horizontal communication is done among people of the same level, they usually consult,
enquire, exchange notes, remind etc.

This kind of communication uses the chain or line of commands. It is dictated by hierarchy.

h) Importance of Horizontal Communication

Horizontal communication is extremely important for promoting understanding and co-
ordination among various departments. If encouraged there will be less friction, wastage of
time and money due to consultation.
Limitation- Some managers do not encourage this form of communication because they fear
the workers might get friendly with others and this might cause problems. If this happens and
decision come from the top it may lead to delays and provoke bitterness and indignation
amongst the workers.

a) Methods of Horizontal Communication

1. Oral/ face-face
2. Use of telephones
The above two provide immediate feedback and is informal.
3. Written communication e.g. letters, memos, reports etc
4.12 The Grapevine

In every organization their operates a informal line of communication called grapevine. It is

defined as gossip spread through spoken word.

Unlike formal communication which follows a finite, predetermined directions. It follows no

line nor any definite rule, but spreads like a grapevine in any direction anywhere and spreads
fast.

It is quite normal for a group of people working together to be interested in one another and
talk about appointments, promotions, retrenchments even domestics affairs like the estranged
relations of any employee with his wife or romantic involvements of another. Mostly this is
supposed to be a secret, but some people derive great pleasure from gathering such
information and transmitting it to others i.e. the leaders who control the grapevine. The
slogan for spreading a rumour is ‘don’t tell anyone’ after transmission. Obviously the
recipient will forward the information and repeat the slogan.
 a) Sources of Grapevine in Organisation

a) Loud telephone conversations

b) Loud voices in an office of people arguing
c) Documents left lying carelessly around
d) Danger; suspension, demotion or transfers
e) Absence of defined communication structures
f) Bad interpersonal relationships

b) How the Grapevine operates

Within the organization communications chains wire. The chain used by formal
communication may be very rigid following the chain of command “authority”. The chain
used by the grapevine tends to be very flexible.
Their are four different structures that appear to dominate the grapevine network namely;
a) The single stand chain: this is a simple concept to follow, A tells B, who tells C, who
tells D and so on. Each person passes the information onto to the next person. The
longer are strand, more distortion and filtering affects the information being passed on
the last person may get a message quite different to the first. Most inaccuracies occur.
b) The gossip chain: in this illustration: A simply tells everyone who he comes into
contact with. The pattern is considered to be slow in passing information.
c) The probability chain: In this case A makes random contact with F and C and passes
on the information. They in turn randomly contact other in accordance with laws of
probability, some hear the information and some don’t. In this structure there is no
definite pattern of communication. Information is randomly to anyone willing to
listen. The transmitter is mostly likely outgoing and talkative in character.
d) The cluster chain: here A contacts B and F who may work with him. They may tell
three or other people who they have close contact with.
The most prominent pattern is the cluster pattern. Selectivity is the basis of this pattern. In
any organization individuals will generally feel more comfortable with some fellow
employees than with others and therefore only relay information to those in their informal
social group.

b) Classification of Rumours

There mainly two types;

1. Spontaneous rumours

2. Remediated rumours
Spontaneous Rumours- these appeal during periods of stress and there in an atmosphere of
anxiety, mistrust, repression of utter chaos. These rumours die as soon as they became
irrelevant

Remediated Rumours- as might expected they are often planted for Machiavellian reasons;
using clever but immoral methods to get what you want. It is more relevant in highly
competitive environments and is usually planned in advance.

The grapevine usually carries rumours. Such rumours can be concerning any practice or
policy of the company or about any person in the organisation. Rumours can be divided into
4 categories.

Wish fulfilment or Pipe dreams- This expresses the wishes and hopes of those that spread
the rumours and there are the most positive as they help stimulate the creativity of others.
Often solutions to work problems are as a result of employees verbally expressing desires for
change. The improvement sometimes results in improved efficiency for certain departments
within the organisations.

Anxiety or Boogie rumour- this comes from employees fears and anxieties causing general
uneasiness among employees e.g. during budget crunch or slash in budget. In this case
employees still verbally express their fears to others. These rumours are sometimes damaging
especially if they are about lay-offs. They require formal rebuttal from management [refutal].

Aggressive or wedge drivers rumour- the majority of rumours fall into this category.
Wedge drivers divide groups and destroy loyalties. They are motivated by aggression or even
haired. They are divisive and very negative rumours. They tend to be demeaning a company
or individual and can cause damage to the reputation of others.

Home-stretches- these are anticipatory rumours. They occur after employees have been
waiting a long time for an announcement.

c) Importance/ advantages of the grapevine

A safety valve- talking about promotions, transfers offers employees emotional relief. This is
because employees become apprehensive or anxious when such things happen or about to
happen.
Organization solidarity and cohesion- The existence of the grapevine proven that
employees are interested in their associates. The very fact that they talk among themselves
helps promote organization solidarity and cohesion. If well used the grapevine may even raise
the morale of workers.

Supplement to other channels- All information cannot be transmitted to the employees

through the official channels. If there is some useful information unsuitable for being
transmitted through official channels, it can be transmitted through the grapevine.

Quick transmission- the grapevine has a remarkable speed. Rumours they say spread like
fire in the bush.

Feedback- the grapevine provides feedback to the management. It enables them to know
what the subordinates think about the organization and various activities.

d) Demerits of the grapevine

Distortion- it is subject to distortion. It respects, body and can prove quite harmful to the
organization or individual.
Incomplete information- grapevine information is usually incomplete. As a result, it is
likely to be misunderstood or misinterpreted.
Damaging Softness- the softness with which the grapevine transmits formation may be
damaging.

e) How to use the grapevine effectively

Because of the damaging effects some grapevine is ale to produce, some managers are highly
suspicious of it and want to stop it completely. The truth of the matter is that the grapevine
cannot be stopped from operation. It can effectively be used in the following ways.
a) The management should try to spot the leaders. Then should try to find out those who
are more active on the grapevine and keep them well informed so that harmful
rumours do not reach the employees.
b) The grapevine should be used to feel the pulse of the employees. If dissatisfaction is
felt, the management should find ways to divert problems.

c) If there is any false rumour, the management should immediately use the official
channels to contradict and drop the fears of employees.

d) If the workers are associated with decision making, the rumour mongers will be
automatically frustrated.
4.13 Consensus

Definition- consensus may be defined as an opinion that everyone in a group will agree with
or accept.

The concept of consensus in quite familiar in the political sphere. It is useful particularly to
avoid controversy. If a leader or his vice is to be elected, it is important to get consensus from
those to be served by the loud leader so that the leaders are not made or become objects of
controversy. In this way, clashes are avoided and the dignity of the high office is preserved.

In business set ups, it is always desirable that when a board meeting is held, decision should
be assured at through consensus . When decisions are made unanimously, it helps to project a
good image of the organisation among employees and all stakeholders.

Consensus does not mean that everybody is in an agreement, it simply means that majority of
the people are or subscribe to a particular view which al members are wiling to accept in the
interest of the enterprise.

f) Advantages of Consensus

1. Members often find it easy to accept the decisions since they are taken after
consultation. The consensus process is often brought about to bring about agreement
between the parties involved.
2. It helps project an image of unity and harmony in the organization. The employees
develop confidence in their superiors and their morale is drastically increased
3. Unnecessary and undesirable conflicts and splits are avoided – cohesions are
enhanced.

g) Disadvantages of Consensus
1. A member with a different opinion is forced to subscribe to the vies he does not hold.
If sensitising views are continually stuffled, discontent will and may be blow up.
2. The process of consensus is an accommodation of interests, it at times leads to
collusions amongst members who are loyal to one another. This is conspiracy and it
may be disastrous in the long term.

3. At times if the process takes place through consultation with subordinates, some
employees may feel like their boss is incompetent leading to occasional loss of
respect.