KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Fundamental of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics

Unit-2
Part-1: INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Heat Engine:
A Heat Engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal
energy and uses this thermal energy to produce mechanical work.
Heat engines can be broadly classified into:
 External combustion engines ( EC Engines)
 Internal combustion engines ( IC Engines )
External combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place outside the
engine; for example, Steam engine or steam turbine. The heat generated due to
combustion of fuel is utilized to generate high pressure steam in Steam boiler, the
steam thus produced is used as working fluid in a reciprocating engine or turbine.

In Internal Combustion Engine the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder. Power is generated intermittently (only during power stroke) and flywheel is
used to provide uniform output torque. Usually these engines are reciprocating
engines. The reciprocating engine mechanism consists of piston which moves in a
cylinder and forms a movable gas tight seal. By means of a connecting rod and a crank
shaft arrangement, the reciprocating motion of piston is converted into a rotary
motion of the crankshaft. They are most popular because of their use as main prime
mover in commercial vehicles.

CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES:

There are different types of IC engines that can be classified on the following basis.

(1) According to thermodynamic cycle

(a) Otto cycle engine or Constant volume heat supplied cycle.
(b) Diesel cycle engine or Constant pressure heat supplied cycle

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

 (c) Dual-combustion cycle engine

(2) According to the fuel used:

(a) Petrol engine
(b) Diesel engine
(c) Gas engine

(3) According to the cycle of operation:

(a) Two stroke cycle engine
(b) Four stroke cycle engine

(4) According to the method of ignition:

(a) Spark ignition (S.I) engine
(b) Compression ignition (C I ) engine

(5) According to the number of cylinders.

(a) Single cylinder engine
(b) Multi cylinder engine

(6) According to the arrangement of cylinder:

(a) Horizontal engine (b) Vertical engine (c) V-engine
(d) In-line engine (e) Radial engine, etc.

(7) According to the method of cooling the cylinder:

(a) Air cooled engine
(b) Water cooled engine

(8) According to their applications:

(a) Stationary engine (b) Automobile engine (c) Aero engine
(d) Locomotive engine (e) Marine engine, etc.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTION

Cylinder :- It is a metallic cylindrical container fitted with a piston, where the fuel is
burnt and power is produced.
Cylinder Head/Cylinder Cover:- One end of the cylinder is closed by means of cylinder
head. This consists of inlet valve for admitting air fuel mixture and exhaust valve for
removing the products of combustion.
Piston:- Piston is used to reciprocate inside the cylinder. It transmits the energy to
crankshaft through connecting rod.

Piston Rings:- These are used to maintain a pressure tight seal between the piston and
cylinder walls and also it transfer the heat from the piston head to cylinder walls.
Connecting Rod:- One end of the connecting rod is connected to piston through piston
pin while the other is connected to crank through crank pin. It transmits the
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reciprocatory motion of piston to rotary crank.
Crank:- It is a lever between connecting rod and crank shaft.
Crank Shaft:- The function of crank shaft is to transform reciprocating motion in to a
rotary motion.
Fly wheel:- Fly wheel is a rotating mass used as an energy storing device.
Crank Case:- It supports and covers the cylinder and the crank shaft. It is used to store
the lubricating oil.

IC ENGINE – TERMINOLOGY:

Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is called the bore.

Stroke: The linear distance along the cylinder axis between the two limiting positions
of the piston is called stroke.
Top Dead Centre (T.D.C): The top most position of the piston towards cover end side
of the cylinder” is called top dead centre. In case of horizontal engine, it is called as
inner dead centre.
Bottom Dead Centre (B.D.C): The lowest position of the piston towards the crank end
side of the cylinder is called bottom dead centre. In case of horizontal engine, it is

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

called outer dead centre (O.D.C).
Clearance Volume: The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston,
when the piston is at the top dead centre is called clearance volume.
Compression ratio: It is the ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance volume

Four-Stroke Petrol Engine OR Four stroke Spark Ignition Engine (S.I. engine):
The four-stroke cycle petrol engines operate on Otto (constant volume) cycle shown in
Figure below. Since ignition in these engines is due to a spark, they are also called Spark
Ignition Engines SI Engines). The four different strokes are:
i) Suction stroke
ii) Compression stroke

iii) Working or power or expansion stroke

iv) Exhaust stroke.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Suction Stroke: During suction stroke, the piston is moved from the top dead centre to
the bottom dead centre by the crank shaft. The crank shaft is revolved either by the
momentum of the flywheel or by the electric starting motor. The inlet valve remains
open and the exhaust valve is closed during this stroke. The proportionate air-petrol
mixture is sucked into the cylinder due to the downward movement of the piston. This
operation is represented by the line AB on the P-V diagram.
Compression Stroke: During compression stroke, the piston moves from bottom dead
centre to the top dead centre, thus compressing air petrol mixture. Due to
compression, the pressure and temperature are increased and is shown by the line BC

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on the P- V diagram. Just before the end of this stroke the spark - plug initiates a spark,
which ignites the mixture and combustion takes place at constant volume as shown by
the line CD. Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke.
Expansion or Working Stroke: The expansion of hot gases exerts a pressure on the
piston. Due to this pressure, the piston moves from top dead centre to bottom dead
centre and thus the work is obtained in this stroke. Both the inlet and exhaust valves
remain closed during this stroke. The expansion of the gas is shown by the curve DE.
Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed and the exhaust
valve opens. The greater part of the burnt gases escapes because of their own
expansion. The drop in pressure at constant volume is represented by the line EB. The
piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre and pushes the remaining
gases to the atmosphere. When the piston reaches the top dead centre the exhaust
valve closes and cycle is completed. This stroke is represented by the line BA on the P-
V diagram. The operations are repeated over and over again in running the engine.
Thus a four stroke engine completes one working cycle, during this the crank rotate by
two revolutions.

Four Stroke Diesel Engine (Four Stroke Compression Ignition Engine— C.I.Engine):

The four stroke cycle diesel engine operates on diesel cycle or constant pressure cycle.
Since ignition in these engines is due to the temperature of the compressed air, they
are also called compression ignition engines. The construction and working of the four
stroke diesel engine is shown in fig below, The four strokes are as follows:

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Suction Stroke: During suction stroke, the piston is moved from the top dead centre to the
bottom dead centre by the crankshaft. The crankshaft is revolved either by the
momentum of the flywheel or by the power generated by the electric starting motor. The
inlet valve remains open and the exhaust valve is closed during this stroke. The air is
sucked into the cylinder due to the downward movement of the piston. The line AB on the
P- V diagram represents this operation.

Compression Stroke: The air drawn at the atmospheric pressure during suction stroke is
compressed to high pressure and temperature as piston moves from the bottom dead
centre to top dead centre. This operation is represented by the curve BC on the P- V
diagram. Just before the end of this stroke, a metered quantity of fuel is injected into the
hot compressed air in the form of fine sprays by means of fuel injector. The fuel starts
burning at constant pressure shown by the line CD. At point D, fuel supply is cut off, Both
the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke

Working Stroke: The expansion of gases due to the heat of combustion exerts a
pressure on the piston. Under this impulse, the piston moves from top dead centre to the
bottom dead centre and thus work is obtained in this stroke. Both the inlet and exhaust
valves remain closed during this stroke. The expansion of the gas is shown by the curve DE.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed and the exhaust valve
opens. The greater part of the burnt gases escapes because of their own expansion. The
vertical line EB represents the drop in pressure at constant volume. The piston moves
from bottom dead centre to top dead centre and pushes the remaining gases to the
atmosphere. When the piston reaches the top dead centre the exhaust valve closes and the
cycle is completed. The line BA on the F- V diagram represents this stroke. Below figure
shows a theoretical diesel cycle.

TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE):

In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction,
compression, power and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e.
one revolution of the crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas
movement takes place through holes called ports in the cylinder. The crankcase of
the engine is air tight in which the crankshaft rotates.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + compression)

When the piston moves upward it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and
transfer port, which are normally almost opposite to each other. This traps the charge
of air- fuel mixture drawn already in to the cylinder. Further upward movement of the
piston compresses the charge and also uncovers the suction port. Now fresh mixture is
drawn through this port into the crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the
mixture in the cylinder is ignited by a spark plug (Fig 2 c &d). Thus, during this stroke
both suction and compression events are completed.
Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust)
Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and pressure of the gases which
forces the piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston moves down, it closes
the suction port, trapping the fresh charge drawn into the crankcase during the
previous upward stroke. Further downward movement of the piston uncovers first
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the exhaust port and then the transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase
moves in to the cylinder through the transfer port driving out the burnt gases
through the exhaust port. Special shaped piston crown deflect the incoming mixture
up around the cylinder so that it can help in driving out the exhaust gases . During
the downward stroke of the piston power and exhaust events are completed.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO STROKE AND FOUR STROKE ENGINES:

Four stroke engine Two stroke engine
1. One power stroke for every two One power stroke for each revolution of
revolutions of the crankshaft. the crankshaft.
2. There are inlet and exhaust valves in There are inlet and exhaust ports instead
the engine. of valves.
3. Crankcase is not fully closed and air
tight. Crankcase is fully closed and air tight.
4. Top of the piston compresses the Both sides of the piston compress the
charge. charge.
5. Size of the flywheel is comparatively Size of the flywheel is comparatively
larger. smaller.

6. Fuel is fully consumed. Fuel is not fully consumed.

Weight of engine per hp is comparatively
7. Weight of engine per hp is high.
low.
8. Thermal efficiency is high. Thermal efficiency is comparatively low.
Removal of exhaust gases comparatively
9. Removal or exhaust gases easy.
difficult.
10. Torque produced is even. Torque produced is less even.
11. For a given weight, engine would give For same weight, two stroke engine gives
only half the power of two stroke twice the power that of four stroke
engine.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

COMPARISON OF DIESEL ENGINE WITH PETROL ENGINE:
Diesel engine petrol engine

i)It has got no carburetor, ignition coil and It has got carburetor, ignition coil & spark
spark plug. plug.
ii) Its compression ratio varies from 14:1 Its compression ratio varies from 5:1 to
to 22:1 8:1.
iii) It uses diesel oil as fuel. It uses petrol (gasoline) or power
kerosene as fuel.
iv) Only air is sucked in cylinder in suction Mixture of fuel and air is sucked in the
stroke. cylinder in suction stroke.
v) It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ and It has got no fuel injection pump and
injector injector, instead it has got carburetor and
ignition coil.
vi) Fuel is injected in combustion chamber Air fuel mixture is compressed in the
where burning of fuel takes places due to combustion chamber when it is ignited
heat of compression. by an electric spark.
vii) Thermal efficiency varies from 32 to
Thermal efficiency varies from 25 to 32%
38%
viii) Engine weight per horse-power is Engine weight comparatively low.
high.
ix) Operating cost is low. Operating cost is high.

x) Compression pressure inside the

Compression pressure varies from 6 to 10
cylinder varies from 35 to 45 kg/cm2 and
kg/cm2 and temperature is above 260°C.
temperature is about 500°C.

Scavenging Process:
Scavenging is the process of replacing the exhaust gas in a cylinder of an internal
combustion engine with the fresh air/fuel mixture (or fresh air, in the case of direct-
injection engines) for the next cycle. If scavenging is incomplete, the remaining
exhaust gases can cause improper combustion for the next cycle, leading to reduced
power output.
Scavenging is equally important for both two-stroke and four-stroke engines. Most
modern four-stroke engines use crossflow cylinder heads and valve timing overlap to
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scavenge the cylinders. Modern two-stroke engines use either Schnuerle scavenging
(also known as "loop scavenging") or uniflow scavenging.

ELECTRIC VEHICLES (EV)

Introduction:
An electric vehicle (EV), also called an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more
electric motors or traction motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered
through a collector system by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-
contained with a battery, solar panels or a generator to convert fuel to electricity. EVs
include road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and
electric spacecraft.

EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the
preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease
of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. The internal
combustion engine has been the dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for
almost 100 years, but electric power has remained commonplace in other vehicle
types, such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types.

An Electric Vehicle contains 3 main parts-

(1) Energy Source. (2) Power Converter. (3) Traction Motor.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

The energy sources consist of Rechargeable batteries, ultra capacitors and fuel cell. The
electronic controller controls the flow of power from energy source to traction motors.
The power converter adjusts the voltage according to the load demand. Li-Ion battery is
better preferred as energy source because of long life and high energy density but it is
not economically feasible.

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV):

What is a hybrid? A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources. Possible
combinations include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and fuel cell (FC)/battery.
Typically, one energy source is storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy.
The combination of two power sources may support two separate propulsion systems.
Thus to be a True hybrid, the vehicle must have at least two modes of propulsion.
Consistent with the definition of hybrid above, the hybrid electric vehicle combines a
gasoline engine with an electric motor. An alternate arrangement is a diesel engine
and an electric motor

For example, a truck that uses a diesel to drive a generator, which in turn drives
several electrical motors for all-wheel drive, is not a hybrid . But if the truck has
electrical energy storage to provide a second mode, which is electrical assists, then it is
a hybrid Vehicle.

These two power sources may be paired in series, meaning that the gas engine
charges the batteries of an electric motor that powers the car, or in parallel, with both
mechanisms driving the car directly.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Series Hydrid Electric Vehicle:
This is called a series hybrid system because the power flows to the wheels in series. A
series hybrid system can run a small-output engine in the efficient operating region
relatively steadily, generate and supply electricity to the electric motor and efficiently
charge the battery. This system is being used in the Coaster Hybrid.

Parallel Hydrid Electric Vehicle:

In a parallel hybrid system, both the engine and the electric motor drive the wheels,
and the drive power from these two sources can be utilized according to the prevailing
conditions. This is called a parallel hybrid system because the power flows to the
wheels in parallel.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Series/parallel hybrid system
This maximizes both series and parallel systems, it has two motors, and
depending on the driving conditions, uses only the electric motor or the driving power
from both the electric motor and the engine, in order to achieve the highest efficiency
level. This is the system used in the Prius and the Estima Hybrid.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

The Benefits of EV’s and HEV’s compared with conventional vehicles
The electric motor is far more efficient (70%-85% efficiency) than the heat engine
(need some numbers).
EV’s can use regenerative stopping (regain 30% of energy used, theoretically).
As mentioned already, HEV’s are more environmentally friendly and the oil
supplies for conventional vehicles are being depleted.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

 KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Fundamental of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics

Unit-2
Part-2: REFRIGERATION

Introduction:
Refrigeration:
Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a
temperature below that of the surroundings, the aim being to cool some product or
space to the required temperature. One of the most important applications of
refrigeration has been the preservation of perishable food products by storing them at
low temperatures. Refrigeration systems are also used extensively for providing
thermal comfort to human beings by means of air conditioning.

Air Conditioning:
Air Conditioning refers to the treatment of air so as to simultaneously control its
temperature, moisture content, cleanliness, odour and circulation, as required by
occupants, a process, or products in the space.

Applications of refrigeration:

o Food processing, preservation and distribution

o Chemical and process industries
o Special Applications such as cold treatment of metals,
medical, construction, ice skating etc.
o Comfort air-conditioning

Storage of Raw Fruits and Vegetables

 Dairy Products
 Meat and poultry
 Beverages
 Candy

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 Chemical & process industries

 Separation of gases
 Condensation of Gases
 Dehumidification of Air
 Storage as liquid at low pressure:
 Removal of Heat of Reaction
 Cooling for preservation

Industrial applications

 Laboratories
 Printing
 Manufacture of Precision Parts
 Textile Industry
 Pharmaceutical Industries
 Photographic Material
 Farm Animals
 Vehicular Air-conditioning

UNIT OF REFRIGERATION AND COP

The standard unit of refrigeration is ton of refrigeration or simply ton denoted by TR. It
is defined as the amount of refrigeration effect produced by the uniform melting of
one US tone (907.14 kg) of ice from and at 0ºC in 24 hours.

Since latent heat of ice is 335kJ/kg, therefore one tone of refrigeration,

𝟗𝟎𝟕. 𝟏𝟒 𝒙 𝟑𝟑𝟓
𝟏𝑻𝑹 = = 𝟐𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟐𝟒 𝒙 𝟔𝟎

In actual practice one tone of refrigeration is taken as equivalent to 210kJ/min

or 3.5kW (i.e 3.5kJ/s).

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Heat Pump:
A heat pump is a device that transfers heat energy from a source of heat to what is
called a thermal reservoir. Heat pumps move thermal energy in the opposite direction
of spontaneous heat transfer, by absorbing heat from a cold space and releasing it to a
warmer one. Heat pump is used in Cold condition to heat up a room or any space. A
heat pump uses external power to accomplish the work of transferring energy from
the heat source (atmosphere) to the heat sink (room).

Coefficient of Performance (COP)

The coefficient of performance or COP of a heat pump, refrigerator or air conditioning
system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to net work input. Higher COPs
equate to lower operating costs.

𝑪𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝟐 ) 𝑸𝟐

𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑹 = =
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕(𝑾𝑹 ) 𝑸𝟏 − 𝑸𝟐

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝟏 ) 𝑸𝟏

𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑯𝑷 = =
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕(𝑾𝑷 ) 𝑸𝟏 − 𝑸𝟐

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Air cycle refrigeration systems:
Air cycle refrigeration systems belong to the general class of gas cycle refrigeration
systems, in which air is used as the working fluid. The air does not undergo any phase
change during the cycle, consequently, all the internal heat transfer processes are
sensible heat transfer processes. air cycle refrigeration systems find applications in air
craft cabin cooling and also in the liquefaction of various gases.
Ideal reverse Brayton cycle is used in Air cycle refrigeration systems. This cycle is also
called as Joule or Bell-Coleman cycle. Figure below shows the schematic of a closed,
reverse Brayton cycle and also the cycle on T-s diagram. As shown in the figure, the
ideal cycle consists of the following four processes:
Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a compressor
Process 2-3: Reversible, isobaric heat rejection in a heat exchanger
Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine
Process 4-1: Reversible, isobaric heat absorption in a heat exchanger

Process 1-2: Air at low pressure is compressed isentropically from state 1 to state 2.

Process 2-3: Hot and high pressure air flows through a heat exchanger and rejects heat
sensibly and isobarically to a heat sink. The enthalpy and temperature of the air drop
during the process due to heat exchange, no work transfer takes place and the entropy
of the air decreases.
Process 3-4: High pressure air from the heat exchanger flows through a turbine,
undergoes isentropic expansion and delivers net work output. The temperature of the

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air drops during the process from T3 to T4.
Process 4-1: Cold and low pressure air from turbine flows through the low
temperature heat exchanger and extracts heat sensibly and isobarically from a heat
source, providing a useful refrigeration effect. The enthalpy and temperature of the air
rise during the process due to heat exchange, no work transfer takes place and the
entropy of the air increases.

Standard Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS):

Figure shows the schematic of a standard, saturated, single stage (SSS) vapour
compression refrigeration system and the operating cycle on a T s diagram. As shown
in the figure the standard single stage, saturated vapour compression refrigeration
system consists of the following four processes:
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of saturated vapour in compressor
Process 2-3: Isobaric heat rejection in condenser
Process 3-4: Isenthalpic expansion of saturated liquid in expansion device
Process 4-1: Isobaric heat extraction in the evaporator

The Basics
Essentially, a vapor-compression refrigeration system is a system that uses liquid
refrigerant in a closed system which circulates the refrigerant through four stages in
which it is alternately compressed and expanded, changing it from liquid to vapor. As
this change happens, heat is either absorbed or expelled by the system, resulting in a
change in temperature of the surrounding air that is passing over the unit's
components. Nearly all of the refrigeration systems we use today use this cycle to
accomplish cooling.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

The Four Components
Your VCRS system is made up of four main components: the evaporator, condenser,
compressor and expansion valve. The evaporator and condenser are both a series of
coils that are designed to create more surface area for the refrigerant to react with.
Meanwhile, the compressor and expansion valve are mechanical units that control the
amount of pressure and temperature change that occurs between the two stages. The
evaporator and condenser are at opposite ends of the system where they manage the
exchange of heat into and out of the system.
How It Works
Initially, the VCRS is charged with a liquid refrigerant until it reaches its correct
operating pressure. When the system turns on, the refrigerant passes through the
compressor, turning it into a high pressure/high temperature vapor. At this point, it
passes through the condenser coils, which are designed to allow airflow to the
exterior. As ambient air from outside blows across the condenser coils, it carries away
the excess heat, allowing the vapor to cool and condense into liquid form. From here,
the liquid flows to the expansion valve where it is rapidly expanded back into a low
pressure vapor. Due to the sudden drop in pressure, the refrigerant also sees a drastic
drop in pressure.
With the supercooled refrigerant flowing into the evaporator coils, this is where the
real magic happens. A fan inside the unit directs air over the supercooled coils and into
the room or space that you want cooled. As the air from the fan passes over the cold
coils, it is also cooled, which fills the space with cold air. This also has the effect of
warming the refrigerant back up by taking the heat out of the room. As this exchange
happens, the refrigerant flows back around to the compressor so that it can be sent
outside to ditch the excess heat once more. By adjusting the rate of expansion and
compression, it is possible to control the precise temperature of any space, whether
you are cooling an entire building or a walk-in refrigerator.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Simple Vapor absorption system:

Working of Simple Vapor absorption system:

A Simple Vapor absorption system consists of evaporator, absorber, generator,
condenser, expansion valve, pump & reducing valve. In this system ammonia is used as
refrigerant and solution is used is aqua ammonia. Strong solution of aqua ammonia
contains as much as ammonia as it can and weak solution contains less ammonia. The
compressor of vapor compressor system is replaced by an absorber, generator,
reducing valve and pump. The heat flow in the system at generator, and work is
supplied to pump.
Ammonia vapors coming out of evaporator are drawn in absorber. The weak solution
containing very little ammonia is spread in absorber. The weak solution absorbs
ammonia and gets converted into strong solution. This strong solution from absorber

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is pumped into generator. The addition of heat liberates ammonia vapor and solution
gets converted into weak solution. The released vapor is passed to condenser and
weak solution to absorber through a reducing valve. Thus, the function of a
compressor is done by absorber, a generator, pump and reducing valve. The simple
vapor compressor system is used where there is scarcity of Electricity and it is very
useful at partial and full load.

Domestic Refrigerator:
A refrigerator commonly called as fridge is defined as a machine which is used to
maintain or keep the food materials at low temperature and prevents their spoilage.
The food materials kept at low temperature spoils or degrade gradually and can
remain fresh for longer time. The refrigerator generally keeps the perishable items at a
lower temperature range.

Working Principle of Refrigerator

It works on the principle of thermal equilibrium i.e. when a cold body comes in contact
with a hot body than the heat flows from hot body to cold body until they will not
attain the same temperature. In the same way a liquid (called as refrigerant) at low
temperature is allow to pass through the fridge compartment. As the refrigerant
comes in contact with the air, it takes the heat from it and lowers its temperature. This
process keeps continue and the temperature inside the fridge lowers down and keeps
the food or perishable items at lower temperature and stops or slows down their
spoilage time and can be stored for weeks or months.

Main Components
A refrigerator has the following five main components

1. Refrigerant: Isobutane, CFCs, ammonia.

2. Compressor: Compresses the vapor and maintains the flow of refrigerant in the
cycle.
3. Condenser Coil: Cools the high pressure vapor and changes it into high pressure
liquid.
4. Expansion device or throttling device: Expands the high pressure liquid, reduces its
temperature and pressure.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

5. Evaporator coil: Takes the heat from the air inside the fridge and makes it cool.

Lets discuss the function of each component in detail

1. Refrigerant
It is also called as coolant and is the working fluid for the refrigerator. It takes the heat
from inside of the refrigerator and transports it to the outside. Most commonly used
refrigerant in the refrigerator are isobutane (used in modern fridges), CFCs and
ammonia (toxic gas and not used in modern fridge)

2. Compressor
It circulates the refrigerant during the working of the fridge. It compresses the
refrigerant gas and increases its temperature and pressure. Compressor is the heart of
the fridge, without it its working is not possible.

3. Condenser Coil
It is present outside at the back of the refrigerator. It has grill tube and looks like
radiator. Its main purpose is to cools the hot and high pressure gases from the
compressor. When the hot gases pass through the condenser coil, it gets cool down by
the cool air of the room and gets converted into high pressure liquid.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

4. Expansion Device or Throttling Device
As its names indicated it expands the high pressure liquid refrigerant and reduces its
temperature and pressure. The temperature drops to 20 degree Celsius and pressure
to 0.6 bar.

5. Evaporator Coil
Evaporator coil is present inside the fridge. It takes the heat from the air inside the
fridge and makes it cool. And this cool air inside the fridge takes the heat from the
food materials and lowers their temperature.

Working of Domestic Refrigerator

1. The high pressure and high temperature (80-90 degree Celsius) refrigerant vapor
from the compressor enters into the condenser. In the condenser the vapor gets
cooled down and changes into liquid.

Since the condenser coil is exposed to the room temperature and when the hot high
pressure vapor inside the condenser coil is comes in contact with room air, It gets
cooled and changes into high pressure liquid.

2. Now this high pressure liquid has a temperature of 45 degree Celsius and pressure
of 8 bar and passes to the throttling device where it expands and its pressure and
temperature drops to .6 bar and 20 degree Celsius and partially gets converted into
vapor.

3. The partially converted vapor-liquid refrigerant passed to the evaporator coil and it
absorbs the heat from the air inside the refrigerator and completely gets converted
into vapor. Here refrigerant cools the inside air of the fridge by absorbing its heat. In
the evaporator the temperature of the refrigerant do not changes. The cool air inside
the fridge is used to maintain the food items at lower temperature.

4. Form evaporator the low pressure vapor enters into the compressor. The
compressor compresses the vapor to high pressure. But as the pressure of the gas
increases it also increases its temperature. And this high pressure and high
temperature vapor enters into the condenser to repeat the cycle.

The cycle that is used in the working of the refrigerator is called vapor compression
cycle.
Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad
Numerical Problems:

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad
 KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Fundamental of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics

Unit-2
Part-3: Air-conditioning

Psychrometry is the study of the properties of mixtures of air and water vapour. The
moist air can be thought of as a mixture of dry air and moisture. As mentioned before
the air to be processed in air conditioning systems is a mixture of dry air and water
vapour. While the composition of dry air is constant, the amount of water vapour
present in the air may vary from zero to a maximum depending upon the temperature
and pressure of the mixture (dry air + water vapour).

At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can only hold a certain maximum
amount of moisture. When the moisture content is maximum, then the air is known as
saturated air, which is established by a neutral equilibrium between the moist air and
the liquid or solid phases of water.

Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist air as measured by a
standard thermometer or other temperature measuring instruments.

Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the saturated partial pressure of water vapour at
the dry bulb temperature. This is readily available in thermodynamic tables and charts.
ASHRAE suggests the following regression equation for saturated vapour pressure of
water, which is valid for 0 to 100oC.

Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapour in moist
air to mole fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the same temperature and
pressure. Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage. When is 100
percent, the air is saturated.

Humidity ratio (W): The humidity ratio (or specific humidity) W is the mass of water
associated with each kilogram of dry air1. Assuming both water vapour and dry air to
be perfect gases2.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

For a given barometric pressure pt, given the DBT, we can find the saturated vapour
pressure psat from the thermodynamic property tables on steam. Then using the above
equation, we can find the humidity ratio at saturated conditions, W sat.
It is to be noted that, W is a function of both total barometric pressure and vapor
pressure of water.

Dew-point temperature: If unsaturated moist air is cooled at constant pressure, then

the temperature at which the moisture in the air begins to condense is known as dew-
point temperature (DPT) of air.

Comfort Airconditioning:
Following are the Factors affecting Comfort Air conditioning:
 Temperature
 Humidity
1. Temperature: Convection Heat transfer depends upon the temperature difference.
So an adequate difference between body temperature and ambient temperature
would ensure the convection heat transfer. Temperature difference would cause
chilling effect as in winter. In such cases insulation in the form of pullover would avoid
chill. Greater activity by rubbing your hand would generate some engery for the heat
dissipation and makes you feel better. So preferred temperature range is between 20-
25 Degree.
2. Humidity : At higher ambient temperature convection heat transfer is either not
adequate or is in reverse direction. The evaporation of perspiration by body heat is the
only means of heat dissipation. Ambient air contains some water vapour in it and
water evaporation depends upon vapour pressure difference. So we can say that
higher humidity would reduce evaporation of sweat from out body. Even at low
temperature water vapour is given out through body pores due to vapour pressure
difference. So in dry climate excessive loss of moisture leads to drying of skin and
blister on the skin. So relative humidity must be maintained in between 30 to 70 %.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

Air Conditioning systems:
In air conditioning it includes the cooling and heating of air, cleaning and controlling its
moisture level as well as conditioning it to provide maximum indoor comfort.

An air conditioner transfers heat from the inside of a building, where it is not wanted,
to the outside. Refrigerant in the system absorbs the excess heat and is then pumped
through a closed system of piping to an outside coil. A fan blows outside air over the
hot coil, transferring heat from the refrigerant to the outdoor air. Because the heat is
removed from the indoor air, the indoor area is cooled.

An air conditioning system generally consists of five mechanical components:

1. Compressor
2. Fan
3. Condenser Coil (Hot)
4. Evaporator Coil (Cool)
5. Chemical Refrigerant

The cleaning function of air conditioners is performed by filters, which remove dust

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad

and contaminants from the air. In some systems, the filters are permanent and can be
washed periodically to remove accumulated dirt. Most systems have disposable filters
which can be replaced. When filters become clogged, they restrict the flow of air and
cause the system to operate inefficiently.

Room Air Cycle

The air moving inside the room and in the front part of the air conditioner where the
cooling coil is located is considered to be the room air. When the window AC is started
the blower starts immediately and after a few seconds the compressor also starts. The
Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad
evaporator coil or the cooling gets cooled as soon as the compressor is started.

The blower behind the cooling coil starts sucking the room air, which is at high
temperature and also carries the dirt and dust particles. On its path towards the
blower, the room air first passes through the filter where the dirt and dust particles
from it get removed.

The air then passes over the cooling coil where two processes occur. Firstly, since the
temperature of the cooling coil is much lesser than the room air, the refrigerant inside
the cooling coil absorbs the heat from the air. Due to this the temperature of the room
air becomes very low, that is the air becomes chilled.

Secondly, due to reduction in the temperature of the air, some dew is formed on the
surface of the cooling coil. This is because the temperature of the cooling coil is lower
than the dew point temperature of the air. Thus the moisture from the air is removed
so the relative humidity of the air reduces. Thus when the room air passes over the
cooling coil its temperature and relative humidity reduces.

This air at low temperature and low humidity is sucked by the blower and it blows it at
high pressure. The chilled air then passes through small duct inside the air conditioner
and it is then thrown outside the air conditioner through the opening in the front
panel or the grill. This chilled air then enters the room and chills the room maintaining
low temperature and low humidity inside the room.
The cool air inside the room absorbs the heat and also the moisture and so its
temperature and moisture content becomes high. This air is again sucked by the
blower and the cycle repeats. Some outside air also gets mixed with this room air.
Since this air is sent back to the blower, it is also called as the return room air. In this
way the cycle of this return air or the room air keeps on repeating.

Hot Air Cycle

The hot air cycle includes the atmospheric air that is used for cooling the condenser.
The condenser of the window air conditioner is exposed to the external atmosphere.
The propeller fan located behind the condenser sucks the atmospheric at high
temperature and it blows the air over the condenser.
Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad
The refrigerant inside the condenser is at very high temperature and it has to be
cooled to produce the desired cooling effect. When the atmospheric air passes over
the condenser, it absorbs the heat from the refrigerant and its temperature increases.
The atmospheric air is already at high temperature and after absorbing the condenser
heat, its temperature becomes even higher. The person standing behind the
condenser of the window AC can clearly feel the heat of this hot air. Since the
temperature of this air is very high, this is called as hot air cycle.

The refrigerant after getting cooled enters the expansion valve and then the
evaporator. On the other hand, the hot mixes with the atmosphere and then the fresh
atmospheric air is absorbed by the propeller fan and blown over the condenser. This
cycle of the hot air continues.

Dr. Sandeep Chhabra, KIET Group of Institutions, Ghaziabad