STIL 5 WEEK COURSE – INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY MAY 2022

CLASS TIME – SATURDAYS 6-8PM

RUN TIME – 28TH MAY – 25TH JUNE 2022
CLASS 2

Major Perspectives in Modern Psychology

The early years of psychology were dominated by a succession of these different schools of
thought. If you have taken a psychology course, you might remember learning about
structuralism, functionalism, psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism—all of which are
different schools of psychological thought.
As psychology has grown, the number and variety of topics that psychologists investigate
have also expanded. Since the early 1960s, the field of psychology has flourished. It
continues to grow at a rapid pace, as has the depth and breadth of subjects studied by
psychologists.
Few psychologists identify their outlook according to a particular school of thought. While
there are still some pure behaviorists or psychoanalysts, the majority of psychologists today
categorize their work according to their specialty area and perspective.

Seven Major Perspectives

1. The Psychodynamic Perspective
The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This view of
psychology and human behavior emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early
childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior, as well as
to treat mental illnesses.
Much thanks to Freud's work and influence, psychoanalysis became one of the earliest major
forces within psychology. Freud conceived of the mind as being composed of three key
elements: the id, the ego, and the superego.
The id is the part of the psyche that includes all the primal and unconscious desires. The ego
is the aspect of the psyche that must deal with the demands of the real world. The superego is
the last part of the psyche to develop and is tasked with managing all of our internalized
morals, standards, and ideals.
While the psychodynamic perspective is not as dominant today, it continues to be a useful
psychotherapeutic tool.
2. The Behavioral Perspective
Behavioral psychology focuses on learned behaviors. It was founded on the work of
psychologists such as Edward Thorndike and John B. Watson. Behaviorism dominated
psychology in the early twentieth century but began to lose its hold during the 1950s.
Behaviorism differs from other perspectives because it focuses solely on observable
behaviors rather than on emphasizing internal states.
Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how behaviors are learned and
reinforced. Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health settings, where therapists
and counselors use these techniques to explain and treat a variety of illnesses.

3. The Cognitive Perspective

During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive psychology emerged. This area of
psychology focuses on mental processes like memory, thinking, problem-solving, language,
and decision-making.
Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura, the cognitive
perspective has grown tremendously in recent decades.
Cognitive psychologists often utilize an information-processing model (comparing the human
mind to a computer) to conceptualize how information is acquired, processed, stored, and
utilized.

4. The Biological Perspective

The study of physiology played a major role in the development of psychology as a separate
science. Today, the perspective is known as biological psychology (also called biopsychology
or physiological psychology). The point of view emphasizes the physical and biological bases
of behavior.
Researchers with a biological perspective on psychology might look at how genetics
influence behavior or how damage to specific areas of the brain affect personality.
The nervous system, genetics, the brain, the immune system, and the endocrine system are
just a few subjects of interest to biological psychologists. Over the last few decades, the
perspective has grown significantly with advances in our ability to explore and understand
the human brain and nervous system.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans give
researchers tools to observe the brain under a variety of conditions. Scientists can now look at
the effects of brain damage, drugs, and disease in ways that were not possible in the past.

5. The Cross-Cultural Perspective

Cross-cultural psychology is a fairly new perspective that has grown significantly in the last
twenty years. Psychologists and researchers in this school of thought look at human behavior
across different cultures.
By looking at these differences, we can learn more about how culture influences our thinking
and behavior. For example, researchers have looked at how social behaviors differ in
individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
In individualistic cultures (such as the United States) people tend to exert less effort when
they are part of a group—a phenomenon known as social loafing.
In collectivistic cultures (such as China), people tend to work harder when they are part of a
group.

6. The Evolutionary Perspective

Evolutionary psychology focuses on the study of how the theory of evolution can explain
physiological processes. Psychologists who take this perspective apply the basic principles of
evolution (like natural selection) to psychological phenomena.
The evolutionary perspective suggests that these mental processes exist because they serve an
evolutionary purpose—meaning that they aid in human survival and reproduction.

7. The Humanistic Perspective

In the 1950s, a school of thought known as humanistic psychology arrived. It was greatly
influenced by the work of prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
The humanistic perspective emphasizes the role of motivation in thought and behavior.
Concepts such as self-actualization are essential. Psychologists with a humanist perspective
focus on what drives humans to grow, change, and develop their personal potential.
Positive psychology (which focuses on helping people live happier, healthier lives) is a recent
movement in psychology with roots in the humanist perspective.

Biological Perspective in Psychology

There are many different ways of thinking about topics in psychology. The biological
perspective is a way of looking at psychological issues by studying the physical basis for
animal and human behavior. It is one of the major perspectives in psychology and involves
such things as studying the brain, immune system, nervous system, and genetics.
One of the major debates in psychology has long centered over the relative contributions of
nature versus nurture. Those who take up the nurture side of the debate suggest that it is the
environment that plays the greatest role in shaping behavior. The biological perspective tends
to stress the importance of nature.
The Biological Perspective
This field of psychology is often referred to as biopsychology or physiological psychology.
This branch of psychology has grown tremendously in recent years and is linked to other
areas of science including biology, neurology, and genetics. The biological perspective is
essentially a way of looking at human problems and actions.
The study of physiology and biological processes has played a significant role in psychology
since its earliest beginnings. Charles Darwin first introduced the idea that evolution and
genetics play a role in human behavior.
Natural selection influences whether certain behavior patterns are passed down to future
generations. Behaviors that aid in survival are more likely to be passed down while those that
prove dangerous are less likely to be inherited.
Consider an issue like aggression. The psychoanalytic perspective might view aggression as
the result of childhood experiences and unconscious urges. The behavioral perspective
considers how the behavior was shaped by association, reinforcement, and punishment. A
psychologist with a social perspective might look at the group dynamics and pressures that
contribute to such behavior.
The biological viewpoint, on the other hand, would involve looking at the biological roots
that lie behind aggressive behaviors. Someone who takes the biological perspective might
consider how certain types of brain injury might lead to aggressive actions. Or they might
consider genetic factors that can contribute to such displays of behavior.
Biopsychologists study many of the same things that other psychologists do, but they are
interested in looking at how biological forces shape human behaviors. Some topics that a
psychologist might explore using this perspective include:
 Analyzing how trauma to the brain influences behaviors;
 Assessing the differences and similarities in twins to determine which characteristics
are tied to genetics and which are linked to environmental influences;
 Exploring how genetic factors influence such things as aggression;
 Investigating how degenerative brain diseases impact how people act;
 Studying how genetics and brain damage are linked to mental disorders.
This perspective has grown considerably in recent years as the technology used to study the
brain and nervous system has grown increasingly advanced.
Today, scientists use tools such as PET and MRI scans to look at how brain development,
drugs, disease, and brain damage impact behavior and cognitive functioning.

Strengths and Weaknesses 0f The Biological Perspective

One of the strengths of using the biological perspective to analyze psychological problems is
that the approach is usually very scientific. Researchers utilize rigorous empirical methods,
and their results are often reliable and practical. Biological research has helped yield useful
treatments for a variety of psychological disorders.
The weakness of this approach is that it often fails to account for other influences on
behavior. Things such as emotions, social pressures, environmental factors, childhood
experiences, and cultural variables can also play a role in the formation of psychological
problems.
For that reason, it is important to remember that the biological approach is just one of the
many different perspectives in psychology. By utilizing a variety of ways of looking a
problem, researchers can come up with different solutions that can have helpful real-world
applications.

Behavioral Psychology
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the idea
that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction
with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape
our actions.
According to this school of thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable
manner regardless of internal mental states. According to this perspective, only observable
behavior should be considered—cognitions, emotions, and moods are far too subjective.
Strict behaviorists believed that any person can potentially be trained to perform any task,
regardless of genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts (within the limits of
their physical capabilities). It only requires the right conditioning.

A Brief History of Behaviorism

Behaviorism was formally established with the 1913 publication of John B. Watson's classic
paper, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." It is best summed up by the following quote
from Watson, who is often considered the "father" of behaviorism:
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up
in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist
I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors."
Simply put, strict behaviorists believe that all behaviors are the result of experience. Any
person, regardless of his or her background, can be trained to act in a particular manner given
the right conditioning.
From about 1920 through the mid-1950s, behaviorism grew to become the dominant school
of thought in psychology. Some suggest that the popularity of behavioral psychology grew
out of the desire to establish psychology as an objective and measurable science.
At this time, researchers were interested in creating theories that could be clearly described
and empirically measured but also used to make contributions that might have an influence
on the fabric of everyday human lives.
 Key Concepts of Behavioral Psychology
There are several principles that distinguish behavioral psychology from other psychological
approaches.
Two Types of Conditioning
According to behavioral psychology, there are two major types of conditioning: classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning - Classical conditioning is a technique frequently used in behavioral
training in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually,
the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus,
even without the naturally occurring stimulus presenting itself.
Throughout the course of three distinct phases, the associated stimulus becomes known as the
conditioned stimulus and the learned behavior is known as the conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning - Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental
conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence
for that behavior.
When a desirable result follows an action, the behavior becomes more likely to occur again in
the future. Responses followed by adverse outcomes, on the other hand, become less likely to
happen again in the future.

Learning Through Association

The classical conditioning process works by developing an association between an
environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
In physiologist Ivan Pavlov's classic experiments, dogs associated the presentation of food
(something that naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response) with the sound of a
bell, at first, and then the sight of a lab assistant's white coat. Eventually, the lab coat alone
elicited a salivation response from the dogs.

Conditioning Can Be Influenced

During the first part of the classical conditioning process, known as acquisition, a response is
established and strengthened. Factors such as the prominence of the stimuli and the timing of
presentation can play an important role in how quickly an association is formed.
When an association disappears, this is known as extinction, causing the behavior to weaken
gradually or vanish. Factors such as the strength of the original response can play a role in
how quickly extinction occurs. The longer a response has been conditioned, for example, the
longer it may take for it to become extinct.

Consequences Affect Learning

Behaviorist B.F. Skinner described operant conditioning as the process in which learning can
occur through reinforcement and punishment. More specifically, by forming an association
between a certain behavior and the consequences of that behavior, you learn.
For example, if a parent rewards their child with praise every time they pick up their toys, the
desired behavior is consistently reinforced. As a result, the child will become more likely to
clean up messes.

Timing Plays a Role

Reinforcement schedules are important in operant conditioning. This process seems fairly
straight forward—simply observe a behavior and then offer a reward or punishment.
However, Skinner discovered that the timing of these rewards and punishments has an
important influence on how quickly a new behavior is acquired and the strength of the
corresponding response.
Continuous reinforcement involves rewarding every single instance of a behavior. It is often
utilized at the beginning of the operant conditioning process. But as the behavior is learned,
the schedule might switch to one of partial reinforcement.
Partial reinforcement involves offering a reward after a number of responses or after a period
of time has elapsed. Sometimes, partial reinforcement occurs on a consistent or fixed
schedule. In other instances, a variable and an unpredictable number of responses or time
must occur before the reinforcement is delivered.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Behavioural Psychology

One of the major benefits of behaviorism is that it allowed researchers to investigate
observable behavior in a scientific and systematic manner. However, many thinkers believed
it fell short by neglecting some important influences on behavior.
Strengths
 Focuses on observable, measurable behaviors
  Scientific and replicable
 Useful for modifying behaviors in the real-world
 Useful applications in therapy, education, parenting, child care
One of the greatest strengths of behavioral psychology is the ability to clearly observe and
measure behaviors. Behaviorism is based on observable behaviors, so it is sometimes easier
to quantify and collect data when conducting research.
Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, behavior analysis,
token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches
are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and
adults.

Weaknesses
 Does not account for biological influences
 Does not consider moods, thoughts, or feelings
 Does not explain all learning
Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human
behavior. Critics of behaviorism suggest that behavioral theories do not account for free will
and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.
Freud, for example, felt that behaviorism failed by not accounting for the unconscious mind's
thoughts, feelings, and desires that influence people's actions. Other thinkers, such as Carl
Rogers and the other humanistic psychologists, believed that behaviorism was too rigid and
limited, failing to take into consideration personal agency.
More recently, biological psychology has emphasized the power of the brain and genetics
play in determining and influencing human actions. The cognitive approach to psychology
focuses on mental processes such as thinking, decision-making, language, and problem-
solving. In both cases, behaviorism neglects these processes and influences in favor of
studying just observable behaviors.
Also, behavioral psychology does not account for other types of learning that occur without
the use of reinforcement and punishment. Moreover, people and animals can adapt their
behavior when new information is introduced even if that behavior was established through
reinforcement.

Influencers and Impact

Several thinkers influenced behavioral psychology. In addition to those already mentioned,
there are a number of prominent theorists and psychologists who left an indelible mark on
behavioral psychology. Among these are Edward Thorndike, a pioneering psychologist who
described the law of effect, and Clark Hull, who proposed the drive theory of learning.
There are a number of therapeutic techniques rooted in behavioral psychology. Though
behavioral psychology assumed more of a background position after 1950, its principles still
remain important.
Even today, behavior analysis is often used as a therapeutic technique to help children with
autism and developmental delays acquire new skills. It frequently involves processes such as
shaping (rewarding closer approximations to the desired behavior) and chaining (breaking a
task down into smaller parts and then teaching and chaining the subsequent steps together).
Other behavioral therapy techniques include aversion therapy, systematic desensitization,
token economies, modeling, and contingency management.

Conclusion
While the behavioral approach might not be the dominant force that it once was, it has still
had a major impact on our understanding of human psychology. The conditioning process
alone has been used to understand many different types of behaviors, ranging from how
people learn to how language develops.
But perhaps the greatest contributions of behavioral psychology lie in its practical
applications. Its techniques can play a powerful role in modifying problematic behavior and
encouraging more positive, helpful responses. Outside of psychology, parents, teachers,
animal trainers, and many others make use of basic behavioral principles to help teach new
behaviors and discourage unwanted ones.