CHAPTER 4- APPROACHES AND MODEL OF ECOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE

Lesson 1
Organic Farming

Introduction

Farming is both challenging and exciting. We have compiled knowledge about

how things grow and why some growing methods might be preferred over other
methods. The following information is offered to help expand awareness of methods
of organic farming and sustainable agriculture. There are many concerns about how
long farming will continue using current conventional methods.

What does organic mean?

The philosophical characterization of “organic” agriculture. In the simplest

terms, organic growing or farming is based on maintaining a living soil with a diverse
population of micro and macro soil organisms. A common phrase used to characterize
organic growing that will be explained in detail is “feeding the soil, not the plant”.
Organic matter is maintained in the soil through the addition of compost, animal
manure, and green manures and the avoidance of excess tillage and nitrogen
applications. Another common aspect of organic agriculture is growing plants without
synthetic fertilizers or pest control chemicals. On a broader scale, it seems there are
some that perceive organic growing as requiring some spiritual or religious
commitment. While this is far from the truth, it is true that many people committed to
organic agriculture are committed to some important social principles as well. These
usually include the desire for organic agriculture to be economically, environmentally
and socially sustainable and based on integrated production systems. Most people
committed to organic production for social and environmental reasons, as opposed to
economic opportunists, expect to be operating within and as part of the ecological
system or web of life as opposed to dominating and subjugating the system. There
often is an emphasis on using locally available and renewable resources, marketing
locally, and the quality of food is also seen as a key part of personal health and
wholeness.

INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC AGRICULTURE

Organic agriculture follows the principles and logic of a living organism, in

which all elements (soil, plant, farm animals, insects, the farmer and local conditions)
are closely linked to each other. This is accomplished by using, where possible,
agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, following the principles of these
interactions, using natural ecosystem as a model (Figure 1).
 Organic agriculture shares many techniques used by other sustainable
agricultural approaches (e.g. intercropping, crop rotation, mulching, integration of
crops and livestock). However, the use of natural inputs (non-synthetic), the
improvement of soil structure and fertility and the use of a crop rotation plan
represent the basic rules that make organic agriculture a unique agricultural
management system.

According with the Guidelines of Organically Food Produce of the Codex

Alimentarius (2007), an organic production system is designed to:

• Enhance biological diversity within the whole system;

• Increase soil biological activity;
• Maintain long-term soil fertility;
• Recycle wastes of plant and animal origin in order to return nutrients
to the soil, thus minimizing the use of non-renewable resources;
• Rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems;
• Promote the healthy use of soil, water and air as well as minimize all
forms of pollution that may result from agricultural practices;
• Promote the careful processing methods agricultural products in order
to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of the product at all
stages;
• Become established on any existing farm through a period of
conversion, the appropriate length of which is determined by site-
specific factors such as the history of the land, and type of crops and
livestock to be produced.

In addition, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

(IFOAM), a non-governmental organization internationally networking and
promoting organic agriculture, has established guidelines that have been widely
adopted by the organic community for organic production and processing.
 According with IFOAM (2002), the organic agriculture practices are
based on the following principles:

Principle of health: the role of organic agriculture, whether in farming,

processing, distribution, or consumption, is to sustain and enhance the health
of ecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to human beings. In
view of this, it should avoid the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and
food additives that may have adverse health effects.

Principle of ecology: organic agriculture should be based on living

ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help
sustaining them. Organic management must be adapted to local conditions,
ecology, culture and scale. The reduction of inputs by reuse, recycle and the
efficient management of materials and energy will contribute to improve
environmental quality and will conserve resources.

Principle of fairness: This principle emphasizes that those involved in

organic agriculture should conduct human relationships in a manner that
ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties – farmers, workers, processors,
distributors, traders and consumers. It also insists that animals should be
provided with the conditions and opportunities of life according with their
physiology, natural behaviour and wellbeing. Natural and environmental
resources that are used for production and consumption should be managed in
a socially and ecologically fair way and should be held in trust for future
generations. Fairness requires systems of production, distribution and trade
that are open and equitable and account for real environmental and social
costs.

Principle of Care: This principle states that precaution and responsibility

are the key concerns in management, development and technology choices in
organic agriculture. Science is necessary to ensure that organic agriculture is
healthy, safe and ecologically sound. However, it must consider valid solutions
from practical experiences, accumulated traditional and indigenous knowledge
and prevent significant risks by adopting appropriate technologies and
rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic engineering.

Why organic Agriculture?

The goal of organic agriculture is to contribute to the enhancement of

sustainability. But what does sustainability mean? In the context of agriculture,
sustainability refers to the successful management of agricultural resources to
satisfy human needs while at the same time maintaining or enhancing the
quality of the environment and conserving natural resources for future
generations. Sustainability in organic farming must therefore be seen in a
holistic sense, which includes ecological, economic and social aspects.

Only if the three dimensions are fulfilled an agricultural system can be called
sustainable

The organic agriculture techniques are known to be ECOLOGICALLY

SUSTAINABLE by:

• Improving soil structure and fertility through the use of crop rotations,
organic manure, mulches and the use of fodder legumes for adding
nitrogen to the soil fertility cycle.
 • Prevention of soil erosion and compaction by protecting the soil
planting mixed and relay crops.
• Promotion of biological diversity through the use of natural pest
controls (e.g. biological control, plants with pest control properties)
rather than synthetic pesticides which, when misused, are known to kill
beneficial organisms (e.g. natural parasites of pests, bees, earthworms),
cause pest resistance, and often pollute water and land.
• Performing crop rotations, which encourage a diversity of food crops,
fodder and under-utilized plants; this, in addition to improving overall
farm production and fertility, may assist the on-farm conservation of
plant genetic resources.
• Recycling the nutrients by using crop residues (straws, stovers and
other nonedible parts) either directly as compost and mulch or through
livestock as farmyard manure.
• Using renewable energies, by integration of livestock, tree crops and on
farm forestry into the system. This adds income through organic meat,
eggs and dairy products, as well as draught animal power. Tree crops
and on-farm forestry integrated into the system provide food, income,
fuel and wood.

SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability is also about equity among and between generations.

Organic agriculture contributes to the social well-being by reducing the losses
of arable soil, water contamination, biodiversity erosion, GHG emissions, food
losses, and pesticide poisoning.

Organic agriculture is based on traditional knowledge and culture. Its

farming methods evolve to match local environments, responding to unique
biophysical and socio economics constraints and 9 opportunities. By using
local resources, local knowledge, connecting farmers, consumers and their
markets, the economic conditions and the development of rural can be
improved.

Organic agriculture stresses diversification and adaptive management to

increase farm productivity, decrease vulnerability to weather vagaries, and
consequently improves food security, either with the food the farmers produce
or the income from the products they sell.

ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Organic farming appears to generate 30% more employment in rural

areas and labor achieves higher returns per unit of labor input. By using local
resources better, organic agriculture facilitates smallholders’ access to markets
and thus income generation; and delocalizes food production in market-
marginalized areas.

Generally, organic yields are 20% less as compared to high-input

systems in developed countries but could be up to 180% higher as compared to
low-input systems in arid/semi-arid areas. In humid areas, rice paddy yields
are equal, while the productivity of the main crop is reduced for perennials,
though agroforestry provides additional goods.

Operating costs (seeds, rent, repairs and labor) in organic agriculture

are significantly lower than conventional production, ranging from 50-60% for
cereals and legumes, to 20-25% for dairy cows and 10-20% for horticulture
products. This is due to lower input costs on synthetic inputs, lower irrigation
costs, and labor cash costs that include both family labor and hired workers.
Total costs are, however, only slightly lower than conventional, as fixed costs
(such as land, buildings and machinery) increase due to new investments
during conversion (e.g. new orchards, animal houses) and certification.

MARKET OPPORTUNITIES

The demand for organic products creates new export opportunities.

Organic exports are sold at impressive premiums, often at prices 20% higher
than the same products produced on non-organic farms. Under the right
circumstances the market returns from organic agriculture can potentially
contribute to local food security by increasing family incomes.
Entering this lucrative market is not easy. Farmers require hiring an
organic certification organization to annually inspect and confirm that their
farms and businesses adhere to the organic standards established by various
trading partners. During the conversion period to organic management, which
lasts 2 to 3 years, farmers cannot sell their produce as “organic” and thus, tap
price premiums. This is because consumers expect organic produce to be free
of residues. However, according to the Codex Guidelines on Organically
Produced Food (2007), products produced on land under organic management
for at least one year, but less than the two-three-year requirement could be
sold as “transition to organic”; but very few markets have developed for
such products.
 While most developing countries producers have historically targeted
international export markets in the EU and North America, domestic market
opportunities for organic food are emerging worldwide. Acknowledging the
role of domestic organic markets in supporting a vibrant organic sector,
alternative systems to certification have emerged worldwide. In developed
countries, consumers and organic producers have built direct channels for
home delivery of non-certified organic produce (e.g. Community Supported
Agriculture). In the United States of America (USA), farmers marketing small
quantities of organic products are formally exempt from certification.
Increasingly in developing countries, Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS)
are recognized as substitute to third part certification (e.g. India, Brazil, Pacific
islands).

More recently, organic agriculture has become an option to improve

household food security, or to achieve a reduction of input costs. With the
economic crisis, this phenomenon is seen also in developed countries. Produce
is used by farmers for their own consumption or it is sold on the market
without a price distinction as it is not certified.

Economic objectives are not the only motivation of organic farmers; the
goals are often to optimize land, animal and plant interactions, preserve
natural nutrient and energy flows and enhance biodiversity, while safeguarding
human health of family farmers and contributing to the overall objective of
sustainable agriculture.
 Lesson 2

Bio-dynamic Farming

INTRODUCTION

Biodynamic farming is an advanced organic farming system that is

gaining increased attention for its emphasis on food quality and soil health.
Biodynamic farming is developed by Rudolf Steiner in 1924.

A fundamental principle of biodynamic farming is that food raised

dynamically is nutrionally superior and tastes better than foods produced by
conventional methods. This is a common thread in alternative agriculture;
because other ecological farming systems make similar claims for their
products. Biodynamic farming was the first ecological farming systems to
develop as a grassroots alternative to chemical agriculture. Biodynamic
farming is an alternative variant where the chemical fertilizers are totally
replaced by microbial (biological) nutrient givers such as bacteria, algae, fungi,
mycorrhiza and actinomycetes.

A basic ecological principle of biodynamics is to conceive of the farm as

an organism, a self-contained entity. Emphasis is placed on the integration of
crops and livestock, recycling of nutrients maintenance of soil, and the health
and wellbeing of crops and animals; the farmer too is part of the whole.

There are nine biodynamic preparations for the purpose of enhancing

soil quality and stimulating plant life. They consist of mineral, plant or
animal manure extracts, usually fermented and applied in small
proportions to compost, manures, the soil or directly on to plants, after
dilution and stirring procedures called dynamizations.

Biodynamic compost is a fundamental component of biodynamic

method; it serves as a way to recycle animal manures and organic waste,
stabilize nitrogen and build soil humus and enhance soil health. Biodynamic
compost is unique because it is made with BD preparations 502-507.
Biodynamic compost serves as a source of humus in managing soil health and
biodynamic compost emanates energetic frequencies to vitalize the farm. After
the compost, preparations 502-506 are strategically placed 507 feet apart
inside the pie, in holes poked about 20 inches deep. Preparation no 507 are
liquid valerian, is applied to the outside layer of the compost by spraying or
hand watering. Valerian (507) is mixed into liquid; a portion is poured into one
hole, and the rest is sprinkled over the top of the compost pile. Lunar and
astrological cycles play a key role in the timing of biodynamic practices, such as
the making of BD preparations and when to plant and cultivate.

Recognition of celestial influences on plant growth is part of the

biodynamic awareness that subtle the energy forces affect biological systems.
For pest attacks herbal extracts should be used only as a final remedy after
utilizing and practicing all the above control methods. The fact remains that
biodynamic farming is practiced on a commercial scale in many countries and
gaining wider recognitions for its contributions to organic farming, food
quality, and community supported agriculture, qualitative tests for soils and
composts. From a practical point of view biodynamics has proved to be
productive and to yield nutritious, high quality foods.

Biodynamics derived from Greek words bios (life) and dynamos

(energy). The name “Biodynamic” refers to a working with the energies which
create and maintain life.

Biodynamic agriculture refers to the agriculture science that recognizes

basic principles at work in nature and applies this knowledge of life forces to
bring about balance and healing in the soil.

It is a method of farming that aims to treat the farm as a living system

which interacts with the environment, to build healthy living soil, and to
produce food that nourishes, vitalizes and helps to develop humanity.

The biodynamic method came into practice based on the suggestions

given by Dr. Rudolf Steiner in a series of lectures called the Agriculture Course

The practice and philosophy of the biodynamic method are based on the
worldview of anthroposophy.

Anthroposophy is a modern path of knowledge and a spiritual science,

which enables the human being to gain a deeper understanding of their own
true nature and of the world.

The word anthroposophy comes from the Greek language means

wisdom of the human being. Biodynamics is a holistic, ecological and ethical
approach to farming, gardening, food and nutrition.

Biodynamic agriculture as one of the organic methods could provide

ecological, economical and physical sustainability (Uzunova and tanasov,2017

Biodynamic method at first, they call it as biological-dynamic and it

leading to “Biodynamic”.
 The use of the word “method” indicates that certain principles are
involved, in which their practical application secures a healthy soil and healthy
plants which in turn produce healthful food for man and healthy feed for
animals.

Biodynamic agriculture was the first ecological farming system to

develop as a grassroots alternate to conventional agriculture.

As of 2019, biodynamic techniques were used on 202,045 hectares in 55

countries (Demeter Monitor).

Biodynamic uses specific fermented preparations proposed by Steiner

(1861– 1925), which are believed to stimulate the soil nutrient cycle, enforce
photosynthesis, and optimize the evolution of compost enhancing in both soil
and crop (Koepf, Schaumann, & Haccius, 2001).

Why biodynamic agriculture

• to increase the vitality of food

• to regenerate natural resources such as the soil (by restoring the organic
matter present in the soil), the seeds, and the water
• to create a personal relationship with the world in which we live, with
Nature of which we are apart of, and to learn to work together
• most of all, to be of service to the Earth and its beings by aiding nature
where it is weak due to constant use

PRINCIPLES OF BIODYNAMIC AGRICULTURE

• Farm as a living system

• Biodynamics generates on-farm fertility
• Biodynamic sprays enhance soil and plant health
• Works in harmony with natural rhythm
• Biodynamics approaches pests and diseases holistically
• Biodynamics brings plants and animals together
• Biodynamic supports seed integrity and diversity
• Economic and social health
• Biodynamics cultivates diversity
ZODIAC PRINCIPLES OF BIODYNAMICS

Biodynamic preparations

BD PREPARATIONS

• bd preparations consist of mineral, plant or animal manure extract

usually fermented and applied in small proportions to compost,
 manures, soil or directly onto plants after dilution and stirring
procedures called dynamization.
• the first group includes 6 different herbal substances numbered bd
502-507 and are added in small amounts to manures and composts. so,
they are collectively called as compost preparations.
• the second group includes the sprays numbered as bd 500 and 501.
sometimes bd508 which is made by boiling the horse tail plant and is
applied only in excessively wet years to prevent fungal diseases.
CONCLUSION

• From the discussion, it can be concluded that biodynamic preparations

rapidly benefit soil physical, chemical and microbial biomass which
makes soil as living system.
• Biodynamics agriculture ensures high soil fertility, which produces the
best and quality food for humans.
• Besides the higher earthworm abundance, enzymatic activities and
microbial population in the soil, higher yield is also obtained with
combination of biodynamic and organic farming practices.
• Thus, biodynamic agriculture altered the degenerative effect of intensive
farming practices, build and sustain soil productivity as well as plant,
animal and human health.
 Lesson 3

Permaculture

What is Permaculture?

Permaculture is most often used for creating efficient and productive

landscapes that sustain themselves into the future by regenerating biodiversity
and lost fertility.

Brief Overview of Permaculture

Permaculture is an international grassroots network focused on the

sustainable design of human settlement, both in rural and urban areas
although it was initially developed in a rural setting. Permaculture’s central
concept is that humanity can reduce or replace energy and pollution-intensive
industrial technologies, especially in agriculture, through intensive use of
biological resources and thoughtful, holistic, design, patterned after natural
ecosystems (eco-mimicry). Despite a relatively high public profile and broad
international distribution, until recently permaculture has received little
scholarly attention. The definition of permaculture varies among sources and
expands over time. In the founding text, permaculture’s originators define it as
“an integrated, evolving system of perennial or self-perpetuating plant and
animal species useful to man” (Mollison and Holmgren, 1978). By 2002
Holmgren defined permaculture more broadly, encompassing broader issues of
human settlement while maintaining an agricultural focus: “Consciously
designed landscapes which mimic the patterns and relationships found in
nature, while yielding an abundance of food, fiber and energy for provision of
local needs” (Holmgren, 2002). Recent scholarship has identified four levels or
components within permaculture presented in Fig. 1 (each of which may be
referred to by the term): the international movement, the worldview carried by
and disseminated by the movement, the design system, and the set of
associated practices (Ferguson and Lovell, 2014). We will introduce each in
turn.
Worldview

Key elements of the permaculture worldview include a theory about

human– environment relations, a populist orientation to practice, and a model
of social change. The permaculture literature highlights the positive role of
humans in the landscape, as ecosystem managers. This perspective is
expressed through a literature-wide insistence on the need for holistic planning
and design and an optimistic assessment of what these styles of management
can achieve. This perspective on human– environment relations cuts against
the grain of the dualistic worldviews of both growth-oriented development and
preservation-oriented conservation, each of which describe a fundamental
conflict between the needs of society and those of nature. At the core of the
permaculture worldview is the idea that—with the application of ecologically
informed holistic planning and design—humans can meet their needs while
increasing ecosystem health.

Design

“Permaculture Design is not the rain, the roof, or the garden. Permaculture Design
is the connections between these things. Permaculture brings cohesion where there
was once isolation.” -Bill Mollison

The permaculture design system utilizes ecological and systems-

thinking principles, and spatial reasoning strategies, which are used to analyze
site conditions, select practices, and integrate them with site conditions and
land use goals. The most distinctive aspects of the permaculture orientation
toward agroecosystem design are its emphases on (1) site specificity, including
attention to microclimate; (2) interaction between components at multiple
scales, from field-scale polycultures to agroecosystem-scale land use diversity;
and (3) spatial configuration as a key driver of multiple functions.

Design Aims:

• Grow as much food as possible

• Provide food and habitat for beneficial critter friends
• Waste is put back into the system
• Build soil and store water
 • Go with the flow (the problem is the solution!)
• Soil, sun, water, plants, wildlife…

Practice

Land use in permaculture shares much with agroecology, agroforestry,

and traditional and indigenous land use. Since the techniques associated with
permaculture rarely originate from within the movement itself, the practical
stratum is better regarded as a best practices framework than a bundle of
techniques. Best practices in permaculture are evaluated by two broad criteria
of ecosystem mimicry and system optimization. Ecosystem mimicry regards
the structure and function of unmanaged ecosystems as models and attempts
to create highly productive systems with analogous structure and function
using species that produce yields for human use. System optimization does not
refer to a model ecosystem, but seeks to identify strategic points of leverage
where minimal intervention may enhance performance of desired functions
beyond that of naturally occurring systems. Together, these criteria outline an
implicit conceptual framework for the evaluation of practices in the
permaculture movement.
 Lesson 4

Natural Farming

INTRODUCTION

Natural Farming uses methods that observe the laws of nature and
utilizes natural materials and products. It is based on the principle of
interdependence among all living things. It aims to have a nurturing impact on
the environment, in sharp contrast to the disadvantageous effects that often
accompany modernized and commercialized agriculture. The observance of the
natural cycle and environmentfriendly agricultural practices applied in a
modern setting refreshes the established perspectives on farming and provides
an alternative to technology-intensive agriculture.

HOW NATURAL FARMING BEGAN

Natural Farming (NF) was developed by Dr. Cho Han Kyu at the Janong
Natural Farming Institute in South Korea. It was originally intended to change
the chemical-based and harmful farming methods that were being practiced in
South Korea. Together with like-minded farmers, he converted his lifelong
studies and his own experiences into an innovative farming system that not
only promotes respect and care for the environment, but also produces more
with less cost and labour. Natural Farming recognizes the abundance of nature
and utilizes indigenous resources for production. Its basic philosophy is to
maximize the inborn potential of a life form and its harmony with the
environment by not interfering with their growth and development or forcing
the crops to yield more than what they can. Natural Farmers believe that the
best way to achieve top quality yield is to respect the nature of life.

The NF methodology is based on the Nutritive Cycle Theory, that guides

the Natural Farmer on what inputs to apply, how much and how often. Natural
Farming applies the principle of interdependence in which people should
nature, instead of surmounting it or undermining it. Natural Farming is also
envisioned so as to contribute to the alleviation of poverty, disease and
environmental destruction by providing an alternative means of livelihood and
food production. As a farming method that goes back to basics using materials
from nature and without force or chemicals. Natural Farming guarantees its
farmers healthy and strong products needed to provide for their families and
society. Natural farming respecting the natural cycle of life is more than a
farming technique. It is a philosophy, a new economics and a way of life.
STRENGTHS AND BENEFITS

Environment-Friendly: Its inputs are made from natural materials, protecting

the crops from harmful chemicals used as fertilizers in modern agriculture. In
livestock raising, Natural Farming is considered a revolutionary breakthrough,
accomplishing the dream method of “Zero emission”. No wastewater is
emitted. Also wastes are recycled and converted to resources.

Higher Yield: It strictly follows the Nutritive Cycle Theory, using accurate
amounts of substances at the precise moment, nourishing the soil with right
amounts of nutrients when the plants or animals need it.

Low Cost: It helps lessen the farmers financial burden with the use of
homemade materials and making use of resources from the farm.

High Quality: Better-quality crops and livestock is the result of non-usage of

chemicals those are harmful to their production as well as the environment.

Adaptable: NF can be replicated in any region ingredients and products used

by Janong Natural Farming Institute in South Korea can be substituted with
the natural resources distinct to each region or ecosystem.

Farmer / User Friendly: Methods are free of toxic and poisonous chemicals,
which are dangerous to a user’s health. With Natural Farming, farmers
cultivate their own substances that truly provide the nutrients to the crops and
animals, it also helps without harming the plants, animals and humans.

Respect for Life: Natural Farming gives utmost respect and care to the crops
and animals following the natural cycle of life. Better productivity and even
better harvest can be made when one nurses and gives attention to its
environment.
WHAT IT IS vs WHAT IT IS NOT

Natural Farming is similar to organic farming in the sense that both the
methods use non-chemical ingredients to grow crops or raise animals.
However, Natural Farming strictly relates to the Janong Farming Institute in
which the said method was developed by Dr. Cho Han Kyu. Only farmers who
have been educated in the institute or have been trained by Janong Natural
Farming Institute in South Korea or by authorized personnel are called Natural
Farmers. Natural Farming has its own system ranging from theory and practice
of farming necessities and is set at a much lower cost.
WHAT IS NATURAL FARMING

What is NOT Natural What is Natural Farming Benefits of Natural

Farming Farming
Use of imported or Uses “indigenous” Safe, cheap and easy to
artificial microorganisms microorganisms or IMOs make and very effective. It
strengthens the crops
without being affected
from all kinds of weather.
Use of chemical fertilizersUse of Nutritive Cycle Nurtures and strengthens
Theory the crop in a natural way
Mechanical tillage Grass mulching as Holds moisture, provides
(conventional farming remedy for weeds (using good habitat for
with deep ploughing) brown rice vinegar) microorganisms and
prevents soil erosion.
Using natural inputs
helps dwarf the weeds.
Expensive state-of the art The use of microbes All wastes are recycled
technology needed for (IMOs) as simple and cost and made use of for
treatment facilities in effective in livestock costcutting techniques.
livestock management management The livestock housing
itself is a waste treatment
facility, fertilizer producer
and feed mixer
Planting more crops in a Planting with proper More yield because it
limited area distance in crops and emphasizes on formless
plants nutrients such as sunlight
and air
The use of pesticides to Use of natural inputs to Pest attractants are placed
kill pests “distract” the pests from away from the fruits to
the fruits/crops (Eg. divert the pests. It is
Fermented Fruit Juice) cheaper and it focuses
more on co-existence and
co-relation with the pests

THE NUTRITIVE CYCLE THEORY

Dr. Cho is of the view that providing nutrients in excess to plants is not needed
as it will only bring disease. Natural Farming follows the scientific approach of
correctly using the right material at the right amount and at the right stage. So that
crops or livestock can reach their optimum growth. To do this NF relies on the
Nutritive Cycle Theory.

THE NUTRITIVE CYCLE THEORY

The Nutritive Cycle Theory states that plants and livestock need different
nutrients during different stages of growth. Like humans, plants also need different
kinds of food at different stages. Just as a baby can only eat baby food, young plants or
animals can only be fed with nutrients that are appropriate for their age. The Nutritive
Cycle guides farmers in obtaining the best results from their crops and avoiding
disease to their crops through proper nutrient management.

GROWTH STAGES AND MORNING SICKNESS

The Growth and development of a plant takes a certain course along with the
passage of time. All crops go through the stages of growth according to the qualitative
changes that occur and mature with flowering and fruiting.

VEGETATIVE GROWTH STAGE

The vegetative growth stage is the period when plants develop their roots and
shoots through time till they mature. It is when plants consume Carbohydrates (C)
and convert them to Nitrogen (N), which is their main growth requirement at this
stage.

CROSS-OVER PERIOD or MORNING SICKNESS

This is the stage in which the plants begin flowering in preparation for
reproduction. The term “Morning Sickness” is used to liken the state of plants in the
cross-over period to pregnant women who crave for “Sour Foods” during pregnancy.
Plants also undergo a similar phase in which they need “Sour Nutrients” which come
in the form of Phosphoric (P) compounds.
REPRODUCTIVE GROWTH STAGE

Reproductive growth is the period from flowering to ripening of the fruits

when the plant begins storing Carbohydrates in fruits or other storage organs
(accumulative growth). For proper color development of fruits, Potassium (K) is also
needed. The same argument holds good to the fertility of soils. Even though soils are
proper in one growth stage, the degree of fertility may change in the next. This means
the crops are generally deprived of the same qualitative and physiological
requirements for their growth stages namely Young, Adult and Old. Current
agricultural commonsense and cultivation methods unilaterally emphasize only the
external conditions and underestimate the inner conditions intrinsic factors (IF) of
plants. We cannot expect the best harvest when we only emphasize the external
conditions (extrinsic factors) that constantly change every year. What is more
important for the farmers is to understand the exact growth physiology of each stage
and to encourage plants to fully take advantage of the most proper conditions .
 Lesson 5

Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture

A. Low external input Sustainable Agriculture

Introduction

The global population is currently predicted to reach 9.7 billion people

by the year 2050, a 50% increase over the current level, after which it will level
off due to falling fertility rates and family sizes (UN, 2019).

This rise in population, together with a desire for a wider variety in diet
brought about by greater purchasing power through a steady improvement in
incomes, is predicted to increase food demand over the period 1990–2050 by
2.4 times in Asia,
1.9 times in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 5-fold in Africa (FAO, 1996).

The increase in production required to meet this demand will need to be

achieved with less water, less labour, and less land, and without adversely
affecting the environment (Dowling et al., 1998).

Since 1960, the global population has doubled; despite this, food
production has more than kept pace, resulting in a 24% increase in per capita
world food production and a 40% reduction in food prices in real terms
(although these figures do mask some striking imbalances — per capita food
production has fallen 20% in Africa ( Pretty, 1999; Crosson and Anderson,
2002)

The total number of undernourished people in the world has also fallen
significantly over the same period. This has been largely achieved by the use of
“Green Revolution” technologies, i.e., high-yielding cereal varieties, together
with high levels of inputs such as water from irrigation systems, fertiliser to
provide the nutrients needed by the varieties, and pesticides to control any
associated weeds, pests and diseases.

These technologies generally need a relatively high capital investment,

either by, or on the part of farmers, and also need a well-functioning economic
and physical infrastructure for effective implementation.
However, an estimated 30–35% of the world’s population (i.e., 1.9–2.1
billion people) do not have access to such infrastructures, are remote from
markets, practice subsistence agriculture on marginal soils, and lack access to
knowledge on how to improve their situation (Pretty, 1999).
 One school of thought is that a similar high external input agriculture
(HEIA) approach as used in the last 40 years can also be used to address the
demand for food in the next 50 years by improving the productivity of this
group of subsistence farmers, perhaps using new emerging technologies such
as genetic modification (e.g., Crosson and Anderson, 2002).

A second school of thought is that such an approach is not sustainable,

and moreover, is damaging to the environment as the inputs of fertilisers and
chemicals accumulate in neighbouring ecosystems.

Thus, technologies using low levels of external inputs readily available

either on-farm or from nearby off-farm sources are seen by some experts as
more appropriate and sustainable (Pretty, 1995).

This approach, often referred to as low external input agriculture

(LEIA), emphasizes the use of techniques that integrate natural processes such
as nutrient cycling, biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), soil regeneration and
natural enemies of pests, into food production processes (Pieri, 1995; Snapp et
al., 1998).

Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA)

Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) is agriculture

which makes optimal use of locally available natural and human resources
(such as soil, water, vegetation, local plants and animals, and human labour,
knowledge and skill) and which is economically feasible, ecologically sound,
culturally adapted and socially justice. (Reijntjes, Haverkort and Waters-Bayer,
Farming for the Future , 1992)

LEISA practices focuses on

➢ Maximizing the use of locally available resources.

➢ Reducing the use of non-renewable fuels and energy sources.
➢ Right of local communities to control, manage and benefit from natural
resources.
➢ Ensuring that agricultural practices help to shape positive landscapes
and sustained „life support systems’ for small scale.

Basic concepts of LEISA

➢ Optimize the use of locally available resources

➢ LEISA aims at a stable and adequate production level over the long
term.
 ➢ LEISA incorporates that best components of indigenous farmers
knowledge and practices, ecologically – sound agricultural practices.
➢ LEISA practices must be developed within each ecological and socio
economic systems.
Criteria for LEISA
a) Ecological Criteria
➢ Balanced use of nutrients and organic matter
➢ Efficient use of water resources
➢ Diversity of genetic resources
➢ Efficient of genetic resources
➢ Efficient use of energy sources
➢ Minimal negative environmental effects
➢ Minimal use of external inputs
b) Economic Criteria
➢ Sustained farmer livelihood systems
➢ Competitiveness Efficient use of production factors
➢ Low relative value of external inputs
c) Social Criteria
➢ Wide-spread and equitable adoption potential, especially among small
fanners
➢ Reduced dependency on external institutions
➢ Enhanced food security at the family and national level
➢ Respecting and building on indigenous knowledge, beliefs and value
systems
➢ Contribution to employment generation

LEISA - Ecological principles

➢ Favorable soil conditions for plant growth
➢ Optimize nutrient availability
➢ Minimizing losses due to solar radiation, air and water
➢ Minimizing losses due to plant and animal pests and disease
➢ Promoting biodiversity and complexity

Some LEISA Techniques and

Practices
a) Soil and water management
➢ Terraces are other physical structures to prevent soil erosion
➢ Contour planting
➢ Hedgerows and living barriers
➢ Conservation tillage
➢ Mulches, cover crops.
b) Soil fertility enhancement
 ➢ Manures and composts
➢ Biomass transfer and green manures
c) Controlling weeds and pests
➢ Intercrops and rotations
➢ Integrated pest management

Low input technologies in crop sector

a) Land Preparation:
The uses of ruminant farm animals such as cattle sheep
and goats to clear bushes and old stalk residues of
harvested crops has been practiced in mixed farm yield
low input technology.

b) Low input technologies organic farming crop

enterprise:
Low input technologies used in soil fertility are ashing, cattle
manure, green manure, mulching, urine-manure maintaining
slurry and manure tea technology.

A Case study

Low external input sustainable agriculture: expectations and realities

J.J. Kessler M. Moolhuijzen

Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) is receiving

increased attention, both as a sustainable alternative to Green Revolution-like
strategies making intensive use of external inputs, and as a strategy of
sustainable agriculture in resource-poor environments where no or very few
external inputs are used.
The evaluation of LEISA field-experiences in the Philippines and in
Ghana shows that the potential of LEISA to improve ecological and/or
socioeconomic sustainability depends on site-specific factors in the first place.
In areas with a high production potential, LEISA can simultaneously
improve ecological sustainability and farmers' socioeconomic conditions by
reduced use of external inputs.
In areas with a low production potential, LEISA can stabilize and restore
the carrying capacity, but generally has limited potential to improve
socioeconomic conditions for growing populations, and an increased
production may also result from a further depletion of natural resources, and
by a limited number of farmers.
 Lesson 6

High External Input to Low External Input Agriculture

HIGH EXTERNAL IPUT SUSTAINABLE AGICULTURE (HEISA) AND LOW

EXTERNAL IPUT SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (LEISA)

One of the most promising paradigms that has emerged for the benefit of small
scale resource poor farmers is Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA),
which can enable such farmers to achieve higher income and attain sustainability by:

1. Optimizing the use of locally available resources, thereby achieving a synergetic

effect among the various components of the farming system (soil, water, animals,
plants, etc.) so that they complement each other in the production of output.

2. Minimizing the use of external inputs, except where there is a serious deficiency
and where the effect on the system will be to increase recycling of nutrients.

The aim is not to maximize short-term production, but to attain an adequate and
sustainable level over the longer term.

Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) is receiving increased

attention, both as a sustainable alternative to Green Revolution-like strategies making
intensive use of external inputs, and as a strategy of sustainable agriculture in
resource-poor environments where no or very few external inputs are used.

To achieve these goals, LEISA must tap the most viable indigenous knowledge and
practices and ecologically friendly technologies in a given ecological and socio
cultural setting, since the experience in one agro-ecological setting may not be
appropriate in other areas. There are many cases of farmers using LEISA under
different agro-ecological zones in different countries. These experiences should be
documented to learn more of the principles, constraints, and potentials in order to
provide policy-makers, development workers and farmers [with] alternative and viable
strategies to develop sustainable farming systems.

Low-External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) is a series of practices which

serve to reinforce ecological principles that are in line with local ecosystems.

Practices such as recycling of plant nutrients (nitrogen and others), minimizing crop
losses due to insects and pests, and securing favourable soil conditions for plant
growth are just the tip of the hat. An integral component of LEISA is in ensuring that
this environmental awareness remains connected to the daily lives, needs and concerns
of farmers who rely on these ecosystems for their livelihoods. With regards to LEISA
practices, CPAR’s work in farming communities focuses on:

➢ Maximizing the use of locally available plants and tree species

➢ Reducing the use of non-renewable fuels and energy sources
➢ Acknowledging the right of local communities to control, manage and benefit
from natural resources
➢ Ensuring that agricultural practices help to shape positive landscapes and
sustained „life support systems‟ for small-scale who rely on favourable
environmental conditions for their survival
The continuous use of chemicals to obtain high yields had its adverse impacts on
both the natural environment as well as the economy of the farmer in the medium
term. The shift from Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) to High
External Input Agriculture (HEIA) was proved to be neither sustainable nor high
income yielding in the longer term. It is in this context that attention was focused on
the need for LEISA generating higher yields. Towards this, Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) practices and use of organic manure replacing or minimizing the
use of chemical fertilizer came to be experimented with from around mid 1980‟s.

Low-External Inputs and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA). It is included the

technical, social and economic options open to farmers who seeks to improve
productivity and income in a ecologically friendly way. Low-External Inputs and
Sustainable Agricultural principals teach us the optimal use of local resources and
natural processes and if necessary the safe and efficient use of external inputs such as
chemical fertilizer and artificial pesticides.

Appropriate and desired plans to achieve sustainability while maintaining

productivity at optimum level based on personal preferences are essential for farmers
to get self-satisfaction and socio-economic benefits. The role of extensionists,
researchers and trainers is to facilitate the farmers to improve productivity and farm
income, through reducing dependency on external inputs and increasing use oflocal
available resources.

LOW EXTERNAL INPUT AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (LEISA)

LEISA is based on the following ecological principles

Creating a favorable condition for growth and sustenance of plant-by

stimulating of soil microorganisms as far as possible and adding organic matter
sufficiently.

• Maintaining nutrient content at optimum level assuring the balance of

nutrients in the soil by Nitrogen fixation, utilization of nutrients
available in the deep soil layers, promotion of recycling process and
 addition of external fertilizer as and when necessary, to complement
deficient nutrients.
• Controlling the micro climatic conditions to minimize loss of resources,
due to sunlight, air and water. Use of biological and mechanical
methods to prevent soil erosion.
• Minimizing loss of resources caused by pests and diseases. Integration
of pest control methods giving priority to natural biological control of
pests by natural enemies on the principle that prevention is better than
eradication.
• Promoting biodiversity and complexity Stimulating synergetic and
symbiotic conditions between plants/ plants and plants/animals.

The objective of LEISA system is to maintain the agricultural production at an

optimum level using less external inputs in a eco-friendly environment. To achieve
this objective, the LEISA practices concentrated heavily on the following factors

1. Maintaining a living soil

2. Creating of bio-diversity
3. Recycling of resources.
4. Natural pest Management

Maintaining a living soil

➢ Maintaining Biological characteristics of the soil. The climate, animals,

plants and human being influence on the physical, chemical and
biological characteristics of the soil.
➢ Adequate amount of water, air and nutrients in the soil is essential to
maintain crop production at a sustainable level.
➢ Favorable soil structure is essential to retain water, nutrients and the
growth of root systems of the plants.
➢ The soil temperature should exist for maintenance of living soil.
➢ It is important that soil should be free from poisonous substances.
➢ The soil contains clay, gravel, air, water, organic matter and humus.
➢ Biological activities including breeding of many micro and
macroorganisms taking place in the soil is an

Important characteristic.

1.Soil organisms

All animals and plants living in the soil are considered as soil organisms. Based
on the sizes the soil organisms can be classified as follows.
Microflora - Bacteria, fungus and Algae
Microfauna - Protozoa
Mesofauna - Nematodes
 Macro animals - Weevils, Centipede, Termites, Rats, Worms, Snakes

FARM WITH LOW EXTERNAL INPUT USE

Farmers working with little external inputs based on traditional practices may
grow many different crops in a densely mixed system on the same piece of land
changing crops randomly. A few livestock such as chickens, pigs, cattle and/or goats
may be kept, which scatter the manure in their feeding places, hence providing very
little manure for the gardens. The trees may be extensively cut for firewood and
charcoal burning. Bush and trash burning may be a common practice especially
during land preparation. Harvests are probably low and increasingly becoming
difficult due to unreliable and insufficient rains. The harvests may just be sufficient for
feeding the family and little may be left to sell for income.

Traditional farmers fulfil some principles of organic farming already by relying

on farm-own resources, growing different crops simultaneously and raising
livestock. However, there are still practices, which clearly distinguish such
farms from organic farms. The following challenges need to be addressed for
conversion:

➢ Avoid burning of crop residues after harvest as this is, in most cases,
not a viable solution, since it destroys valuable organic material and
damages soil organisms.
➢ Establish a well organised diversification systems including a ‘planned’
crop rotation and intercropping systems.
➢ Accumulate knowledge and practice regarding efficient use of farm own
resources, especially for compost production to manage and improve
soil fertility.
 ➢ Avoid indiscriminate tree cutting for firewood and charcoal burning.
➢ Establish a system to collect the animal manure for composting.
➢ Apply measures to prevent loss of soil through erosion and protect it
from drying out.
➢ Pay special attention to satisfy feed and health requirements of the
farm animals.
➢ Avoid infection of seeds with diseases, gain knowledge on disease cycles
and preventive measures.
➢ Avoid harvest and storage losses.

Some practices for conversion in this system are:

➢ Implement planned crop rotation and intercropping systems. A
combination of annual and perennial crops including leguminous green
manure cover crops is needed. Combined with
➢ properly selected or improved crop varieties with good resistance to
plant pests and diseases, will facilitate the crop and soil management.
➢ Proper integration of animals into the farming system, as well as
planting rows of nitrogen fixing trees between annual crops will
improve the growing conditions for the crops and encourage better
growth, while providing additional feed for the ruminant animals.
Better housing is also needed to facilitate collection of animal manure
for field use.
➢ Improving the fertility of the soils, for example, through the application
of high-quality compost. Compost is a highly valuable fertilizer in
organic farming. Instead of burning the crop residues after harvest,
collect them for compost production, or work them into the soil. The
animal manures and plant materials should be regularly collected for
compost making.
➢ Growing nitrogen fixing legumes between annual crops is another
possibility to feed the soil and the crops.
➢ Additional measures to control soil erosion such as digging trenches
and planting trees along the hillside, and covering the soil with living or
dead plant material should be implemented.
HIGH EXTERNAL INPUT AGRICULTURE (HEIA)

The basic aspect of conventional agriculture was to maintain

subsistence level production by using locally available resources. All resources
had been naturally recycled and reused without wasting. But due to pressure of
increasing population in developing countries steps were taken to expedite food
production deviating from the traditional pattern.

The pressure of world population explosion exerted more on the people

of developing countries. In order to confront the pressure of world population
explosion the farmers as well as the Researchers and Extensionists were
compelled to join the
“Seed – Manure” revolution born with the label “Green Revolution” The aim of this
“Revolution” was to provide food for the increasing population by enhancing the
harvest per unit and the intensification of the number of cultivation seasons. The
“Green Revolution” introduced during the early part of the 6th decade of the 20th
century accelerated food production of Sri Lanka.

The advantages of High External Input Agriculture (HEIA)

 Agricultural Production could be rapidly increased to meet the demand for food

for the increasing population.

➢ As a result of availability of adequate food stuffs many problems

related to diseases caused by mal-nutrition and deficiency were
prevented or reduced.
➢ New improved varieties gave yields within a short period of time.
➢ Mechanization solves the problem of Labor shortage.
➢ Income and profit margins of the products were increased
➢ Productivity of land increased.
➢ Increased market facilities for production.

Disadvantages of (HEIA)
Collapse of environmental balance due to lack of biodiversity by planting a few
cash crops.
➢ Increase in soil erosion due to constant furrowing by machinery.
➢ Dependence on imported machinery, chemical fertilizer, pesticides,
hybrid seeds and other inputs.
➢ Extensive use of pesticides disturbed the natural mechanism of
controlling pest and diseases as the artificial pesticides kill both pests
and their natural enemies.
➢ Use of artificial agro-chemicals adversely affected the soil PH, cation
exchange capacity, soil structure, soil texture and soil organisms.
Consequently, the microbial activities of the soil tend to reduce
forming dead soil.
➢ Although the need for high capital investment, the large-scale farmers
benefited while small scale farmers who were short of capital ran into
debt.
➢ Neglecting environmental friendly traditional varieties of seeds and
their genetic resources faced extinction due to introduction of hybrid
varieties. Conventional agricultural knowledge and techniques were
neglected and extinguished.
➢ The farmers in developing countries had to encounter a series of
environmental, social economic and political problems as a result of
the use of High External Input Agricultural practices. The following
case study taken from an Indian experience illustrates the problems
faced by farmers who practiced high external input Agriculture.

FARMS WITH HIGH EXTERNAL INPUT USE

The majority of intensively managed farms in Africa, Latin America and

Asia that strongly rely on external inputs are larger farms. Such farms mostly
grow a few annual or perennial cash crops relying heavily on the use of
fertilizers for plant nutrition and pesticides and herbicides for pest, disease and
weed control. On such farms crops are often grown without a planned rotation
and farm animals are not integrated into the nutrient cycle. Diversification is
usually low on these farms. Trees and bushes are mostly removed to facilitate
extensive mechanization, and crops are mostly grown alone.

Potential challenges in conversion of such farms (Figure 2-3):

➢ Establishing a diverse and balanced farming system with a natural

ability to regulate itself usually takes several years.
➢ Major efforts may be necessary to restore natural soil fertility by
providing a considerable amount of organic matter to the soil.
➢ Abandoning high input external fertilizers results in yield depression in
the first years of conversion, before soil fertility is re-established and
yields rise again.
➢ New approaches and practices usually involve a lot of learning and
intensive observation of crop development, and dynamics of pests,
diseases and natural enemies.
However, the conversion process can be achieved, if the following practices are
implemented:

➢ Diversify the farming system: Select appropriate annual crops for

the area and rotate them in a planned sequence. Include legume crops
such as beans or leguminous feed crops in the rotation to provide
nitrogen to the subsequent crops. Plant hedges and flower strips to
encourage natural enemies and to control pests.
➢ Start recycling valuable farm by-products. Establish on-farm
compost production based on harvest residues and manure, if available,
and mix the compost with the topsoil. This will bring stable organic
matter into the soil and improve its structure and its capacity to feed
the plants and store water. Green manures can provide plenty of plant
material to feed soil organisms and build up soil fertility (Figure 2-4).
➢ Introduce farm animals into the system. Farm animals provide
valuable manure and diversify farm income through additional animal
products.
➢ Grow cover crops. Cover crops or lay out mulches in perennial crops
provide protection to the soil.
 Characteristics of HEI Characteristics of LEISA
The farming pattern depends heavily on LEIA relies on the optimal use of
external and chemical inputs. natural processes. for keeping up with
this development.
The focus of agricultural development The focus is on the sustainability of
and research has mainly been on farming system
maximizing yields coupled with
increasing specialization of production
There is a great damage Environmentally sound and that have
to the environment the potential to contribute to the
longterm sustainability of agriculture.
The continuing drop in prices of farm Greater emphasis is on the long-term
produce and the rising costs of subsistence and balance between the
agricultural inputs have made farming profit and livelihood
increasingly unprofitable
HEIA depends on the higher production Sustainable ecological practices depend
and profit, without consideration of the largely on local agroecological
local needs and local market conditions and on local socio-economic
circumstances, as well as on farmers‟
individual needs and aspirations.
Primarily one or two commodity driven One way of LEIA is to diversification of
development, lack of diversity in the farms; with a range of crops and/or
farming practices, as a result, there is animals, farmers will suffer less from
greater risk of failure and price price fluctuations or drops in yield of
fluctuation. The number of products single crops. Maintaining diversity will
and commodities are very minimum also provide a farm family with a range
of products to eat or sell throughout a
large part of the year
 Lesson 7
Regenerative and Keyline farming

A. Regenerative Agriculture

Terms like “sustainable agriculture”, “climate-smart agriculture” and

“agroecology” are widely used in academic literature. However, the term
“regenerative agriculture” has not been widely been used in scientific
publications.

The diversity of literature means that there is a wide range of

regenerative agriculture definitions. In our review we identify three main ways
of defining regenerative agriculture: including 1) a set of practices, 2) which
may or may not avoid synthetic fertilizer and pesticides, and 3) a focus on
going beyond the reduction of negative impacts to ensure that agriculture has a
positive environmental effect (Burgess et al 2019).

Regenerative agriculture as a set of practices

The TED talk by Gabe Brown (2016) provides a good introduction to

regenerative agriculture on his farm in northern USA, highlighting the
importance of minimising cultivation and bare soil, encouraging diversity and
water percolation, and integrating crop and livestock production at a farm-
scale. Building on this, five practices that are widely associated with
regenerative farming are: 1) abandoning tillage, 2) eliminating bare soil, 3)
fostering plant diversity, 4) encouraging water percolation into the soil, and 5)
integrating livestock and cropping operations. Practices 1, 2, 3 and 5 are also
highlighted by LaCanne and Lundgren (2018).

1) Abandoning tillage: almost all definitions and descriptions of regenerative

agriculture highlight the benefits of minimising or avoiding tillage. Minimising
tillage reduces the oxidation of soil carbon, leading to higher soil carbon
contents and increased water and nutrient holding capacity.
2) Eliminating bare soil: this helps to reduce soil erosion and the increased
production of dry matter, such as through cover crops, can again increase soil
carbon.

3) Fostering plant diversity: encouraging plant diversity and avoiding

monocultures can also lead to greater dry matter production because of the
complementarity of light, water, and nutrient use of different crops.

4) Encouraging water percolation into the soil: in many areas, agricultural

production is limited by water, and hence there are benefits from increasing
the amount of water percolating in the soil. This is an objective of keyline
technologies used in Australia (Savory and Duncan, 2016; Duncan 2016).

5) Integrating livestock and cropping operations can be particularly useful in

systems where there is a focus on minimising synthetic inputs as the manure
from livestock can help maintain soil nutrient levels.

Regenerative organic agriculture

Pearson (2007) reports that regenerative agriculture seeks to minimize

external inputs and negative external impacts outside the farm. Francis et al.
(1986) also argues that regenerative agriculture “emphasizes the use of
resources found on the farm”, minimizing the use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides. Lovins (2016) argues for a “circular economy of the soil” and Brown
(2016) also highlights that on his farm they do not use synthetic fertilizer and
pesticides (Table 1). California State University (CSU) (2017) also emphasizes
the negative effects of synthetic fertilizers in terms of energy costs,
environmental pollution, and their effect on soil biology.

Drawdown (2017) identifies methods to reduce global greenhouse gas

emissions. The Drawdown Assessment is a comprehensive and useful survey of
a range of interventions including estimates of their current extent and
potential extent by 2050. Although they recognise a range of regenerative
agricultural systems, they use the term “regenerative agriculture” for annual
cropping systems that include at least four of the following six practices: no-till
or reduced tillage, cover crops, crop rotations, compost applications, green
manures, and/or organic production (Table 1). Although their definition
includes systems that are not “organic”, the associated technical notes imply
that many systems are. A detailed description of regenerative organic
agriculture is provided by the Rodale Institute (2018). It is not essential to
integrate animals and crops to achieve “regenerative organic agriculture”
certification, but the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides is prohibited if
the label organic is to be applied. The regenerative organic certification scheme
builds on USDA’s certified organic standards and has three pillars relating to
soil health, animal welfare, and social fairness.

Regenerative agriculture as farming that enhances

Many current agricultural systems whilst providing safe nutritious food

result in reduced soil fertility, carbon storage and biodiversity. Such systems
can be termed “degenerative agriculture”. To address this, FAO (2014a)
promotes “sustainable agriculture” that “conserves land, water, and plant and
animal genetic resources, and is environmentally non-degrading, technically
appropriate, economically viable, and socially acceptable” (Figure 1).
Selected regenerative agriculture systems

There are a wide range of potential regenerative agricultural systems

and practices. Serle (2017) identified the regenerative capacity of conservation
tillage, cover cropping, enhanced crop rotations, residue retention, pasture
cropping, and planned grazing. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation and
SYSTEMIQ (2017) considered regenerative practices to include permaculture,
organic agriculture, no-till polyculture, holistic grazing and keyline land
preparation. Building on these together with Toensmeier (2016) and
Drawdown (2017), this report examines the extent to which nine systems can
be considered as regenerative. Each of the nine systems meets at least two of
the three criteria of minimising tillage, minimising bare soil, and fostering
plant diversity. The animal-based silvopasture and multi-paddock and organic
grazing systems meet all four of the criteria (Table 3).

Conservation agriculture: is a cropping system with minimum tillage that

ensures retention of crop residue mulch on the soil surface. Some definitions
also include the diversification of plant species (Kassam et al. 2019) through
intercropping, cover cropping, green manuring, and agroforestry, the
integration of manure and organic materials, and judicious use of chemical
fertilizers (e.g. Lal 2009).

Organic crop production: the Rodale Institute (2018) uses the term
regenerative organic agriculture to describe conservation agriculture that
prohibits the use of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers. Whilst regenerative
organic agriculture can include animals, it is not a specific requirement.
Increased plant diversity is generally a feature of organic systems. Soil health,
animal welfare and social fairness are specifically presented as three pillars of
regenerative organic agriculture.

Tree crops include tree crops used for food production including nuts, staple
fruits (e.g. bananas, plantains, breadfruit, and avocado), fruits (e.g. citrus,
apple), and beverages (e.g. coffee, tea, and cocoa). Such tree crops are often
planted in orchards or in plantations, but many are also used in agroforestry
systems. Drawdown (2017) focused specifically on the role of tropical staple
crops on carbon sequestration, but this report examines both temperate and
tropical species. Such crops typically minimise tillage and the level of bare soil.
Plant diversity may not be high.

Tree intercropping, or silvoarable agroforestry, is the integration of woody

perennials with arable or horticultural crops at field scale. The presence of
trees reduces the need to cultivate the soil and plant diversity is typically
increased.

Multistrata agroforestry is a farming system that integrates different

layers of multiple woody perennials often with understorey herbaceous crops.
It differs from multistrata forestry as food is an output. The presence of trees
means that tillage and bare ground is minimised and plant diversity is
increased.

Permaculture, which was coined in the 1970s, is “an integrated, evolving

system of perennial or self-perpetuating plants and animal species useful to
man” (Mollison and Holmgren, 1981). Holgrem (2002) has also defined
permaculture as “consciously designed landscapes which mimic the patterns
and relationships found in nature, while yielding an abundance of food, fibre
and energy”. Whitefield (2011) reports that the inspiration for permaculture is
to combine the self-reliance of a wood with the highly edible nature of a wheat
field.

Silvopasture is the practice of integrating trees and the grazing of animals in

a mutually beneficial way (Rodale Institute 2018). Because grass is largely a
perennial crop, tillage and bare soil is minimised, and plant diversity is greater
than conventional grassland.

Multi-paddock grazing refers to rangeland management where the grazing

unit has livestock on it for less than 10% of the time (Rhodes 2017). It is also
known as “holistic planned grazing” (Teague et al. 2013) and has been called a
regenerative practice (Lovins 2016; Teague and Barnes 2017). Like most
grazing systems it minimises soil tillage and bare ground, but it also includes
more complex rotations. It has also been termed “pulse grazing” and a
“permaculture approach to rangeland management” (Rhodes 2017).
Organic grazing refers to certified organic livestock systems that prohibit the
use of synthetic pesticides and fertilisers.

Rewilding and agricultural land abandonment can mean different things in

different locations. In America rewilding generally relates to the restoration of
large wilderness areas with a focus on a dominant carnivore such as wolves
(Corlett 2016). In this report, we use “rewilding” in the European sense of
assisting the “regeneration of natural habitats through passive management
approaches” (Navarro and Pereira 2015), which has also been termed
“ecological rewilding”. Rewilding is likely to minimise the extent of bare soil
and it can include food production (Lorimer et al. 2015).
The definition of regenerative agriculture used in this report is “a system
of principles and practices that generates agricultural products, sequesters
carbon, and enhances biodiversity at the farm scale”. This definition is very
close to the definition of organic agriculture which has been defined as “a
production management system which promotes and enhances agroecosystem
health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity”
(FAO and WHO 1999). However organic agriculture specifically avoids the use
of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides (FAO and WHO 1999). An attraction of
the term regenerative agriculture is that it provides an engaging narrative to
promote change. In a similar way that a “circular” economy approach contrasts
with a “linear” economy, regenerative agriculture can be contrasted with
degenerative agricultural practices that degrade the soil and reduce
biodiversity.

Important practices associated with regenerative agriculture are: 1)

abandoning tillage, 2) eliminating bare soil, (3) encouraging plant diversity
and 4) water percolation, and 5) integrating livestock and cropping operations.
Some proponents of regenerative agriculture emphasise the need 6) to
minimise inputs, including synthetic fertilizer and pesticides. Systems that
purport to regenerate agriculture are conservation agriculture; regenerative
organic agriculture for cropland and grassland; tree crops; agroforestry
systems including tree intercropping, multistrata agroforestry and
permaculture, and silvopasture; multi-paddock grazing; and rewilding. Each of
these systems includes at least two of the first three regenerative agriculture
practices.
B. Keyline Farming

ʻKeylineʼ Design describes a holistic design system developed by Australian

mining engineer and farmer PA Yeomans in the 1940s and 50s. Developed as a
direct response to the conservation movement in the 30s and 40s, Yeomans
believed it was not nearly enough to ʻconserveʼ the remaining topsoil resource
that had since eroded from abused Australian farmland - they needed to
develop a ʻregenerativeʼ agriculture and land use system that helped restore
health to landscapes.

Keyline Design looks to the topographic character of the landscape to

inform the layout of farm, home and community infrastructure. To help guide
this process,
Yeomans developed the Scale of Permanence, a spectrum of ecological
characteristics that influence a site, organized based on those things that are
ʻmost permanentʼ (we have the least ability to modify) and those that are most
easily changed. The Scale of Permanence (as modified by Jacke and
Toensmeier) includes:

➢ Climate
➢ Landform
➢ Water
➢ Legal Issues
➢ Access and Circulation
➢ Vegetation and Wildlife
➢ Microclimate
➢ Buildings and Infrastructure
➢ Zones of Use
➢ Soil Fertility and Management
➢ Aesthetics and Experience of Place

Together these characteristics help guide our analysis of a site and our
understanding as to how best to lay out these qualities in response to the
physical realities on the ground.

The name ʻKeylineʼ actually describes a physical feature in the

landscape. Yeomans identified the basic geography of keyline (see illustration
above) to include the ʻmain ridgeʼ (the watershed divides at the horizon),
ʻprimary ridgesʼ (convex slopes radiating off of the main ridge) and ʻprimary
valleysʼ (concave basins receiving runoff between primary ridges). Essentially,
landforms take either one of 2 shapes - convex or concave. Convex shapes shed
water while concave shapes receive it.
 The ʻkeypointʼ of the landscape exists in valleys and is the point where
the slope changes from being convex to concave in shape. This is often the
point where springs and seeps emerge from the landscape. It marks the highest
point in the landscape where itʼs often cost-effective to hold water as the
concave shape below allows for the development of farm ponds that require
minimal excavation in order to create storage.
The contour line passing through the keypoint is known as the ʻKeylineʼ.

Principles of Keyline Design

Keyline management focuses primarily on soil building and the

development of on-site water security as two means towards building resilience
into farm operations. Subsoil plowing that follows the keyline presents one way
to help decompact degraded soils, improve water infiltration, and spread and
distribute water more evenly. The image at right depicts a subsoil plow regime
that helps restore a soilʼs structure and water holding capacity.

Following the keyline pattern can help distribute water more evenly
across the landscape. Water naturally flows downhill (more specifically
ʻperpendicular to contourʼ). This means it runs off ridges and concentrates in
valleys. By following the keyline with a subsoil plow, one can actually create
mini drainage channels in the subsoil rips that serve to divert water from a
place of concentration (the valleys) gently downhill and back out onto the
ridges. This elegantly embodies our water harvesting principle ʻSlow it, Spread
it, Sink itʼ.
 This unique pattern creates a symmetrical layout for farm operations
like pasture paddocks, agroforestry systems, road, and farm fields. Whereas
with contour layouts, the spacing between rows is always changing because
contour lines constantly change in their relationship to one another, any given
slope only has one keyline - once itʼs established, everything else follows
parallel. It can be a confusing concept to grasp, but itʼs extremely powerful
once understood.

Little has been written in recent times to describe keyline design in

greater detail. Most folks explore Yeomans Water for Every Farm as the most
comprehensive primer. Several of Yeomans now out-of-print books are
available as free downloads at www.soilandhealth.org Yeomans experimental
farm Yobarnie in New South Wales, AU (depicted left) elegantly demonstrates
what good, conscious, land use planning can look like when one considers how
best to utilize the natural patterns of the landscape to catch and store water
resources and layout farm operations so that a large preliminary investment in
energy results in a powerful, gravity fed system that is capable of supporting
sustainable ag systems for centuries into the future.