Republic of the Philippines

Bulacan State University

City of Malolos, Bulacan

College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering

Prepared By:

Eleazer C. Nabong, REE, MEng(Mfg), MSEE

EE Faculty – College of Engineering

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 Unit 1 – INTRODUCTION

Title of the Lesson

 Definition of Terms
 Historical Development
 Advantage/Disadvantage of Control Systems
 Types of Control Systems
 Basic Elements of a Closed-loop System

Duration: 6 hours
Introduction

Objectives

After studying this unit, the student should be able to:

Pre-test

Lesson Content:

Humans have created control systems as technical innovations to enhance the quality and comfort of
their lives. Human engineered control systems are part of automation, which is a feature of our modern life.
They are applied in several aspects of our daily life – in heating and air conditioning to control our living
environment and in many of our household and even office appliances (i.e., rice cooker, automatic washing
machine, printer, etc.). They significantly relieve us from the burden of operation of complex systems and
processes and enable us to achieve control with desired precision. Control systems enable accurate positioning
and control of machine tools in metal cutting operations (like CNC) and automate manufacturing processes.
The system automatically guide and control space vehicles, aircraft, large sea going vessels, and high-speed
ground transportation systems. Modern automation of a plant involves components such as sensors,
instruments, computers and application of techniques of data processing and control. The principles and
techniques of automatic control may be applied in a wide variety of systems in order to enhance the quality of
their performance.

Control systems are not human inventions; they have naturally evolved in the earth’s living system. The action
of automatic control regulates the conditions necessary for life in almost all living things. They possess sensing
and controlling systems and counter disturbances. An automatic human temperature control system, for
example, makes it possible to maintain the temperature of the human body constant at the right value despite
varying ambient conditions. The human body is a very sophisticated biochemical processing plant in which the
consumed food is processed and glands automatically release the required quantities of chemical substances
as and when necessary in the process. The stability of the human body and its ability to move as desired is
due to some very effective motion control systems. A bird in flight, a fish swimming in water or an animal on the
run- all are under the influence of some very efficient control systems that have evolved in them.

A control system is a means by which any quantity or process of interest in a machine, or in a process
flow is maintained or altered to achieve a desired response.

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Understanding a system and knowing its properties is prerequisite to the creation of a controlled system. Before
attempting to control a system, it is essential to know how it generally behaves and responds to
external stimuli. Such an understanding is possible with the help of a model. The process of developing a
model is known as modeling.

TERMINOLOGIES
1. Automation - Used to describe the automatic operation of a device or control of a process.
2. Control - means to regulate, direct, or command.
3. System - is an interconnection of elements and devices towards a desired purpose.
It is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to form and/or act as a
unit.
It is an arrangement, set, or collection of things connected or related in such a manner as to form an entirety or
whole.
4. Control System - a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the behavior of other
devices or systems in order to produce a desired response.
5. Block Diagram – it is shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause-and-effect relationship between the input
and output of a physical system.

6. Sampler - It is a device that converts a continuous-time signal into a discrete-time signal.

7. Data hold - is one that converts the discrete-time output of a sampler into a particular kind of continuous-time
or analog signal.

8. Transducer - is a device that converts one energy form into another.

9. Disturbance (or noise input) - is an undesired stimulus or input signal affecting the value of the controlled
output.

10. Servomechanism - is a power-amplifying feedback control system in which the controlled variable is
mechanical position, or a time derivative of position such as velocity or acceleration.

11. Regulator or regulating system - is a feedback control system in which the reference input or command is
constant for long periods of time, often for the entire time interval during which the system is operational. Such
an input is often called a setpoint.

Advantages of Control Systems

Control systems are built for four primary reasons:
1. Power Amplification
For example, a radar antenna, positioned by the low-power rotation of a knob at the input, requires a large
amount of power for its output rotation. A control system can produce the needed power amplification, or
power gain.
2. Remote Control
Robots designed by control system principles can compensate for human disabilities. Control systems are
also useful in remote or dangerous location. For example, a remote-controlled robot arm can be used to
pick up material in a radioactive environment.
3. Convenience of input form

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 Control systems can also be used to provide convenience by changing the form of the input. For example, in
temperature control system, the input is a position on a thermostat. The output is heat. Thus, a convenient
position input yields a desired thermal output.
4. Compensation for disturbances
Typically, we control such variable as temperature in thermal systems, position and velocity in mechanical
systems, and voltage, current, or frequency in electrical systems. The system must be able to yield the
correct output even with a disturbance.
For example, consider an antenna system that point in a commanded direction. If wind forces the
antenna from its commanded position, or if noise enters internally, the system must be able to detect the
disturbance and correct the antenna’s position. Obviously, the system’s input will not change to make the
correction. Consequently, the system itself must measure the amount that the disturbance has re-
positioned the antenna and then return the antenna to the position commanded by the input.

Types of Control System

1. Natural – examples: biological control systems
2. Man-made – examples: robots, fully automated systems, or any system that is completely independent
from human intervention.
3. Combination – examples: biologically operated man-made devices.

Classifications of Control System

A. Open-Loop - A system that utilizes a device (controller or control actuator) to control the process without
using feedback. Thus, the output has no effect upon the signal to the process. Sometimes called
Feedforward Control System

Advantages: Simplicity and Low Cost

Disadvantage: usually inaccurate
Satisfactory if:
 Disturbances are not too great
 Changes in the desired value are not too severe
 Performance specifications are not too stringent

Actuating Process
device

B. Closed-Loop - a system whose input value is proportional to the difference of a measurement of the
actual output and desired output. Also called Feedback Control System

Advantages:
 High accuracy – cause the output to accurately follow the desired output; corrective action occurs as
soon as the controlled variable deviates from the command
 Quick Response – can give a closed-loop response speed much greater than that of the components
from which they are constructed.
 Flexibility – is tolerant of variation (due to wear, aging, environmental effects, etc.) in hardware
parameters of components in the forward path, but not those in the feedback path (e.g. sensors)
 Reduces the effect of distortion – greatly reduce the effect of the controlled variable of all external
disturbances in the forward path
An open-loop control system is converted to a closed-loop control system by adding:
 Measurement of the controlled variable (Output)
 Comparison of the measured and desired values of the controlled variable.

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Basic Elements of a Closed-Loop System

1. Comparison element – It compares the required value of the variable being controlled with the measured
value of what is being achieved and produces an error signal. This element together with control law element is
collectively known as controller unit.
2. Control law implementation element - It determines what action to take when an error signal is received. The
control law used by the element may be just to supply a signal which switches on or off when there is an error,
as in a room thermostat, or perhaps a signal which is proportional to the size of the error. With a proportional
control law implementation, if the error is small a small control signal is produced and if the error is large a
large control signal is produced. Other control laws include integral mode and derivative mode.
3. Correction element - Often called the final control element, produces a change in the process which aims to
correct or change the controlled condition. The term actuator is used for the element of a correction unit that
provides the power to carry out the control action.
4. Process - The process or plant is the system in which there is a variable that is being controlled, e.g. it might
be a room in a house with its temperature being controlled.
5. Measurement element - This produces a signal related to the variable condition of the process that is being
controlled. For example, it might be a temperature sensor with suitable signal processing.
6. Feedback path - A feedback is a means whereby a signal related to the actual condition being achieved is fed
back to modify the input signal to a process. The feedback is said to be negative feedback when the signal
which is fed back subtracts from the input value. Positive feedback occurs when the signal fed back add-up to
the input signal.

Example:
The figure shown below is a schematic diagram of a liquid-level control system. Here the automatic controller maintains the
liquid level by comparing the actual level with a desired level and correcting any error by adjusting the opening of the
pneumatic valve. Draw a closed-loop diagram of this control system and label each element of the control system.

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FEEDBACK (Close-Loop) SYSTEM REPRESENTATION

EFFECT OF FEEDBACK ON OVERALL GAIN

– Feedback may increase the gain of system in one frequency range but decrease it in another
– Gain is affected by feedback by a factor of 1  GH

EFFECT OF FEEDBACK ON STABILITY

STABILITY – is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input command or to be useful in
general.
 A system is unstable if its output is out of control.
 Feedback can improve stability or be harmful to stability.

EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK ON SENSITIVITY

 All physical elements have properties that change with environment and age. Good control system should be very
insensitive to parameter variations but sensitive to the input commands.

EFFECTS OF FEEDBACK ON EXTERNAL DISTURBANCE OR NOISE

 All physical systems are subject to some type of extraneous signal or noise during operation.

Characteristics of Feedback
1. Increased accuracy compared with open-loop system
2. Increased tendency toward oscillation or instability
3. Reduced sensitivity (of the ratio of output to input) to variations in system parameters and other characteristics
4. Reduced effects of nonlinearities
5. Reduced effects of external disturbances or noise

Selected History Leading to the Development of Control System

Figure a – Water Clock

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 Water Clock invented by Ktesibios (see Figure a). It is operated by water trickle into a measuring
container at a constant rate. The level of water in the measuring container could be used to tell time. For
water to trickle at a constant rate, the supply tank had to be kept at a constant level. This was
accomplished using a float valve similar to the water level control in today’s flush toilets.

Dennis Papin invented the safety valve for regulating steam pressure. If the upward pressure from the
boiler exceeded the weight, steam was released, and the pressure decreased. If it did not exceed the
1681
weight, the valve did not open, and the pressure inside the boiler increased. Thus the weight on the
valve top set the internal pressure of the boiler.

Windmill speed control was invented by Edmund Lee. Increasing winds pitched the blades farther back,
1745
so that less area was available. As wind decreased, more blade area was available.

James Watt’s steam engine and governor developed. The Watt steam engine is often used to mark the
1769 beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain. During the Industrial Revolution, great strides
were made in the development of mechanization, a technology preceding automation (see figure b).

Figure b – Flyball Governor

J. C. Maxwell developed a theoretical framework for Watt’s governors by means of a differential

equation analysis relating to performance of the overall system, thereby explaining in mathematical
1868
terms the reasons for oscillations within the system. It was gradually found that Maxwell’s governor
equations were more widely applicable and could be used to describe phenomena in other systems.
Harry Nyquist, a physicist who had studied noise extensively, turned his attention to the problem of
stability in repeater amplifiers. He successfully tackled the problem by making use of standard function
1927
theory, thereby stressing the importance of the phase, as well as the gain, characteristics of the
amplifier.
Numerical control (precision technology) developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology for control
1952
of machine-tool axes was developed.
1954 George Devol develops “programmed article transfer,” considered to be the first industrial robot design.
Digital control became widespread due to computers, which were particularly relevant in the process
1960 control industries in which many variables must be measured and controlled, with a computer
completing the feedback loop.
1961 First Unimate robot was installed for tending die-casting machines.
The need for high-speed control devices has been a contributing factor and has made great use of
hardware techniques, such as parallel processors, whereas at the same time ideas from the field of
1980
artificial intelligence have been employed in an attempt to cope with increased complexity needs of
automated systems.
Export-oriented manufacturing companies emphasize automation to increase their production and lower
1990
manufacturing cost.
First ever autonomous rover vehicle, known as Sojourner, explores the Martian surface. This is the birth
1997
of “independent machines”.

Modern Applications of Control

1. Flight Control Systems
 Modern commercial and military aircraft are “fly by wire”
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  Auto-landing Systems, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are already in place
2. Robotics
 High accuracy positioning for flexible manufacturing
 Remote environments: space, sea, noninvasive surgery, etc.
3. Chemical Process
 Regulation of flow rates, temperatures, concentrations, etc.
4. Communications and Networks
 Amplifiers and repeaters
 Congestion control of the Internet
 Power management for wireless communications
5. Automotive
 Engine control, transmission control, cruise control, climate control, etc.

Emerging Application Areas

1. Material Processing
 Rapid thermal processing
 Control of vapor deposition for special purpose materials
2. Noise and Vibration Control
 Active mounts and speaker systems for noise and vibration reduction
 Variety of applications: cars, planes
3. Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems
 Platooning of cars for high speed, high density travel on freeways
4. Smart Engine
 Compression systems: stall, surge, fluttering control for increased operability
 Combustion system: operation for leaner air/fuel ratios for low emissions

Reflection/Learning Insights

Post-test

1. Many closed-loop and open-loop control systems may be found in homes. List several examples and
describe them.
2. Give two examples of feedback control systems in which a human acts as a controller.
3. Draw a closed-loop (block) diagram for the automatic temperature-regulated oven.
4. Draw a closed-loop (block) diagram for the automatic toaster.
5. An engineering organizational system is composed of major groups, such as management, research and
development, preliminary design, experiments, product design and drafting, fabrication and assembling,
and testing. These groups are interconnected to make up the whole operation. The system may be
analyzed by reducing it to the most elementary set of components necessary that can provide the
analytical detail required and by representing the dynamic characteristics of each component by a set of
simple equations. (The dynamic performance of such system may be determined from the relation
between progressive accomplishment and time). Draw a functional block diagram showing an
engineering organizational system.

Final Requirement

Suggested Readings/Content

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ANSWER KEY

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