TAT OHOOEOGONOOCOQOCOCS OCOQOS SSO OOO CUO CO OUMU OU On” NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING HANDBOOK Second Edition VOLUME 7 ULTRASONIC TESTING Albert S. Birks Robert E. Green, Jr. Technical Editors Paul Mcintire Editor ABENDE - Biblictece AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTINGCopyright © 1991 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTIN All Rights Reserved ;. INC. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or ofhervase, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Nothing contained in this book is to be construct! as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, fr use in connection with any method? process,'apparatus, product or composition, whether or not covered by letters patent or registered trademark, nor as a defense against liability for the infringement of letters patent or registered trademark. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, its employees, and the contributors to this os volume assume no responsibility far the safety of persons using the information in this book Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ultrasonic testing / Albert S. Birks, Robert E. Green, Jr., technical editors; Paul Melntire, editor. (Nondestructive testing handbook, second edition; v. 7) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-931403-04-9 1, Ultrasonic testing. 1. Birks, Albert S. Il, Green, Robert E., Jr. Ill, Melntire, Paul IV. Series: Nondestructive testing handbook (2nd ed.);v. 7 TA417.4.U39 1991 90.2554 620.1'1274—de20 ce Published by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA COOCCECOCEECECCECCCOOCEECEEECECCOCL CCEECOCECCECCETCOSCOO ESSN OCOHOOGOOOOOOOOGOCCOCOCOCOCOCHOOACODCOOC OOH PREFACE In many ways, the Nondestructive Testing Handbook epit- ‘omizes ASNT and its history — particularly in the areas of volunteerism and education. All of the second edition Handbooks have been written and reviewed by individuals who donate their time and expertise to the project. And because there is no remuneration to the contributors, the ‘books embody the best not-for-profit, educational motives of the Society. For these reasons, and the timeliness of its publication, Ultrasonic Testing rightly commemorates ASNT's fiftieth anniversary. The production of Ultrasonic Testing is a milestone for the Society in other ways as well. Thisis the first ASNT pub- lication to be electronically assembled, with text and illus- trations combined into digitized pages from the beginning of the publishing process. It is also the longest book in the NDT Handbook’s second edition — it has the most appli- cations information, the most illustrations, the most authors. ‘And it promises to be the most widely circulated of all the second edition Handbooks. In this notable year, ASNT celebrates the successful com- pletion of its first half century. High among its accomplish- ‘ments is the Society's continuing effort to fully document the technology of nondestructive testing as it does so thor- oughly in this, the latest Nondestructive Testing Handbook, AAs part of the NDT Handbook’ second edition, this book ‘was produced under the guidance of the Sonics Committee of ASNT's Technical Council The Technical Council's Handbook Development Com- mittee also put special effort into completion of this volume. Roderic K. Stanley and A.S. Birks chaired the Handbook Development Committee during production of Ultrasonic Testing and each of them contributed chapters for the book. Al Birks also served as one ofthe volume’ two technical ed- itors. His original responsiblity was to coordinate the efforts of the vclunteer contributors, to peer review manuscripts and final'y to generate a comprehensive chapter on UT ap- plication. Birk’ organizational efforts were so succesful that eleven applications chapters were w-itten and approved for publication — nearly half the volume. Robert E. Green, Jr., produced the volume’s original outline, assigned many ‘of the first authors and served as the other technical editor. In an offort to document nondestructive testing applica- tions for an intémational audience, Ultrasonic Testing was written and reviewed by authorities from Canada, France, Germany, Japar, the United Kingdom znd from across the United States. Much effort was made to reference interna- tional specifications, procedures and equipment when they differed vom their American counterpart. In addition, as with al the second edion volumes. the International Sj tem of Units (SI) has been used throughout most ofthis text. Frovidng multiple units of measure i time-consuming task thataflects all level of book production — clea an technical Special recognition goes to Jan van den Andel of Westingl ouse Canada for again undertaking this difficult job. He tas supplied metric conversions forall of the books in the se2ond etltion, while at the same time serving as a valued technica) reviewer. From among the publishing professionals who contribut- ed to thi: project, ASNT extends its thanks to Hollis Hum- phries Back, who keyed all the text in this volume and assisted at every level of production; Eugene Turner of ‘Tumer Wainwright Design, our technical drafting source: Paula Frve, typographer, and Michael McGinn, art director for Prisiiech Corporation. The quality of the finished vol- ‘ume is representative of their skifls and the dedication ofall the book s contributors Pau) Mclatire Editor, Nondestructive Testing HandbookACKNOWLEDGMENTS Volunteer Support Ultrasonic Testing, Volume 7 of the Nondestructive Test- ing Handbook’s second edition, is quite appropriately com- pleted in coincidence with ASNT's fiftieth anniversary. Be- cause of the rapid increase in both research and practical ications of ultrasonic testing over the past two decades, this has been an extremely difficult volume to finalize. ‘Work on this revised edition first started in the 1970s and Af tt were not for the dedication and persistence of Edmund Henneke, I Virginia Polytechnic Institute, A.S. Birks, Bat- telle Memorial Institute, and especially Paul Meintire ofthe ASNT staf the me may never have been completed In addition, considerable voluntary effort has been ex- pended by lead authors, contributing authors, peer review- ers and the staff at ASNT in bringing this volume to fruition. T want to sincerely thank all of these people since th contributed much more than I did in bringing tothe non. destructive testing community what I believe to be the most valuable work on ultrasonic nondestructive testing ever published. Robert E. Green, Jr Volume technical editor Volunteer Effort and Independent Studies Essential to Publication of Ultrasonic Testing ‘The second edition of the NDT Handbook provides a vast. resource of information on the theory and application of NDT methods. Contributors to the ultrasonic Handbook have presented information on (1) the physics that govern and predict the behavior of elastic waves, (2) the acoustic properties of a vast range of materials, (3) a descrip- tion of equipment and its components and (4) information produced by ultrasonic testing. Typical applications of this method are presented along with additional references for those who are considering the implementation of ultrasonic ‘methods. Compared with those described in the first edition of the NDT Handbook, the advancements, capabilities and broad applications now afforded by the ultrasonic method are dramatic. ‘The many contributors to this volume have taken time to share experiences gained in various research projects, engi- neering developments, personnel training and application of th method olrel engineering problems. Many author had informatiod and illustrations readily available and were able to generate articles with little additional research or review. Other ajthors utilized experience accumulated over ‘many years, that had never been recorded or presented to the NDT community. Creating these chapters, gathering photographs anil organizing data required significant per- sonal effort andjuse of time that might have been spent with family or on other endeavors. We are all very grateful for their contributi Production of Ultrasonic Testing was not easily achieved. The volume wap started by Robert McMaster in the early 1970s, when it was rec that rapid advancements in ultrasonic technology necessitated that the original Hand- ‘book be updated — a second edition was urgently needed to expedite the implementation of advancements in UT. Broad implementation, was needed not only to make products ‘more reliable but also to make them less costly to manufae- ture. In 1982, ASNT hired Paul McIntire to serve as editor of the Nondestructive Testing Handbook series and he de- serves special agknowledgment for guiding Ultrasonic Test- ing to publication inthe yeas since, Without his professon- al efforts, the bpok would not yet be completed Robert Greed, Jr. volunteered to take over as technical editor of the bobk in 1984. In spite of his strenuous efforts and work already in progress, Green soon recognized the significant problems of getting such a project underway. His first accomplishments were to completely re-outline the book (the final Yersion of his outline served as a foundation for this completed text) and to begin assigning authors to the approved topics. Serious wrtitg began in 1986 and reflected UT's emer- gence as an essential and critical testing method. Industry ‘was in dire need of the latest information on this rapidly changing technology. ‘The NDT community and ASNT would like to truly thank the contributors who ultimately rolled up their sleeves and got the job done and Dr. Green for his patience and per- Sistence in completing this task. ‘Acknonedgrents should also be directed to those who ‘may not have hala direct hand in producing the contents of this book, but who served to ignite significant developments in ultrasonic testing. Such individuals have contributed to COCCCOCCCCOOCECCECCCCOCECECCCECCCCECECCOCECCCCE| TEOCOAHO OOCAOGOGHOOOHODOO COE COLNO OT EEO SELLS SL the technology by participating in a varity of research and engineering studies which produced information to better explain the limitations and reliability of ultrasonic tests. These studies include a work by the Air Force, Reliability of Nondestructive Inspection, report number SA-ALC/MME 76-6-38-1 (often referred to as Have Cracks — Will Travel) formed by Lockheed Georgia Company. The study Semonstrated the capsbilites and Limitations of ultrasonic testing and other NDT methods used by the Air Force. This milestone work not only kindled additional reliability studies within the Air Force and aircraft industry, but also interest- edithe nuclear power industry, which was heavily dependent on NDT to determine the condition of reactor components. Studies were initiated by the Pressure Vessel Research Committee (PVRC) of the Welding Research Council to evaluate the effectiveness of ultrasonic testing for examining heavy steck plates used to fabricate components. The broad lication of fracture control necessitated that Qaws not only be detected but accurately sized to determine the serviceability of the component. To respond to these needs, this work was expanded to evaluate the reliability of ultra- sonic examinations of welds and ultimately involved a world-wide effort sponsored by organizations such as the European Plate Inspection Steering Committee (PISC). ‘As a result of these studies, ultrasonic testing is now bet- ter understood arid used in a manner that allows for the capability of the method and techniques. Improvements have taken place in the development of advanced ultrasonic equipment such as the square wave pulser, broad band receivers, ultrafast gating for discontinuity detection and thickness measurement, highly efficient transducers and digi sgnl processing to accurately characterize disont nuities. Display of information has also been significantly advanced, virtually eliminating visual evaluation of A-scan presentations as @ means for evaluating discontinuity indi- cations Furthermore, industry has accepted the fact that qualified technciste are sequled Hf sccite tos dia 08 tbe obtained. This recognition has resulted in the development ‘of nationally recognized training and qualification guidelines ts recommendes by ASNT's Hecommended Practice SNT- TC-1A, Efforts are underway to further qualify UT techai- cians for specific techniques, where training and special skills are essential to ensure that a specific ultrasonic technique is reliably performed. This volume has aso relied on various code and technical society publications where advanced ultrasonie testing is re- ‘quired o referenced as part of contractual performance for building and maintaining pipelines, bridges, nuclear and fos electrical generating equipment, chemical plants, ai craft structures and power plants, to name only a few. Au- thors have made great effort to reference and credit these documents as applicable to the subjects they have discussed ‘The Society is pleased to obtain the permission to reproduce and oherwise use this information and we are certain that this intersociety cooperation will grectly benefit those seek- ing accurate information to support their implementation of ultrasonic testing methodology. Lead Authors and Reviewers Most chapters of this book were assigned their own coordinator who often served as the frimary or ead author. ‘Each uf the contributors named below produced part ofthis, book is a volunteer — many on their osm time with their own resource’, in an effort to make the technology available to the widest possible audience. Equally important is the large group of individuals who reviemed this book fa technical content. The peer reviewers are als> listed below and they deserve much recognition, for donatig the| time needed to refine these documents for presentation, Because of the reviewers, many improvements ‘were niade to extend this book's coverage and to maintain its contin sity. Abert S, Birks Volume technical editor and Handbook Development Director Handbook Development Committee Mike allgaies, GPU Nuclear Albert S. Birks, Battclie Memorial Institute Bruce Bors, Titanium Metals Corporation Al Broxn, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Lawrence Bryant, Los Alamos National Laboratory Dominick Cahtore, American Bureau of Shipping John Cavender, Duke Power Company Chedister, Circle Chemical Company collins, Exxon Research and Engineering Gene Curbow, Center for Applied Welding Research Robert Greed, fx, The Johns Hopkins University Patrici. Bouta’ Heaney, General Electric Company Edmurd Henneke, Vitginia Polytechnic Institute Frank ddings, Southwest Research Institute Ron Miller, Physical Acousties Corpo-ation, Scott Miller, Aptech Engineering Services Willians Mood, The Met-L-Chek Conipany Hamid Nayeby-Hashemi, Northeastem University J. Thornas Schmidt hare: Sherlock, CBL ‘Amos Sherwin, Sherwin Incorporated GP. Singh, Kurta Technology” Kermit Skeie, Kermit Skeie Associates Roderic Stanley, Baker Hughes Vetco Services Ming-kai Tse, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Howard Van Valkenburg Frank Vicki r Vicki AssociatesVolume 7 Lead Authors George Alers, Magnasonics Yoseph Bar-Cohen, McDonnell Douglas Corporation ibe s Biss Bele Memorial Teste Frane’s Chang, General Dynamics Brozia Clark, Nondestructive Testing Consulting and Services CM. Fortunko, ElectroSonies Karl Graff, Edison Welding Institute Robert E. Green, Jr., The Johns Hopkins University Donald Hagemaier, Douglas Aircraft Company Stephen Hart, Ultrasonics Consultancy Shirley Heller, Southwest Research Institute Edmund Henneke, I], Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Jean-Pierre Monchalin, Industrial Materials Research Institute Jean Perdijon, COGEMA, Centre d'Etudes Nucléaires GP. Singh, Karta Technology Alex Vary, NASA Lewis Research Center Jan van den Andel, Westinghouse Canada Volume 7 Contributors Laszlo Adler, The Ohio State University George Alers, Magnasonics TLL. Allen, Southwest Research Institute Glenn Andrew, Science Applications International Corporation Michael Avioli, Jr., Electric Power Research Institute Yoseph Bar-Cohen, Douglas Aircraft Company Mohamad Behravesh, Electric Power Research Institute Donald Bray, Texas A&M University Byron Brenden, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories FA. Bruton, Southwest Research Institute John Carlson, Stavely NDT Technologies Gilbert Chapman. Chrysler Corporation J.W. Davies, Karta Technology Michael Engblom, ARCO North Slope Dale Ensminger. Battelle Mernorial Institute Hormoz Ghaziary, Kaiser Aluminurs and Chemical Corporation Lawrence Goldberg, Sea Test Services Donald Hagemaier. Douglas Aircraft Company Robert Harris, Stavely NDT Technologies ‘Amos Holt, Southwest Research Institute G. Huebschen, Fraunhofer Institute fir zerstorungsfreie Priifverfahren D.R. Johnson, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Don Jolly, Southwest Research Institute Alain Jungman, University of Paris Lawrence Kessler, Sonoscan Incorporated Ted Kirk, INCO Alloys Intemational BIT. Khuri-Yakub, Stanford University David Kupperman, Argonne National Laboratory DAK Mak Deptient of Energy, Mines and Resources Ajit K. Mal, University of California at Los Angeles Tahir Mansour, Ford Motor Company Bruce Maxfield, Innovative Sciences Robert McClung, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Masta McCurdy, Krautkramer Branson William McGaughey John Mittleman, Naval Coastal Systems Center Peter Nagy, The Ohio State University Emmanuel Papadakis, Iowa State University Narendra Patel, McMaster University W. Repplinger, Fraunhofer Institut fiir zerstérungsfreie Prlertahres ° Glen Pont, GWP Services Ron Roch, Morgan Matroc, Vernitron Division Joseph Rose, Drexel University David Rosow, Southwest Research Institute HJ. Salzburger, Fraunhofer Institut flr zerstérungsfreie Priifverfahren Linda Scherefreq,, The Ohio State University Hospitals William Simpson, Jr., Oak Ridge National Laboratory R. Lowell Smith, Texas Research Institute RW. Smith, Xadtex Roderic Stanley, Baker Hughes Vetco Services R, Bruce Thompson, Iowa State University George Vezina, Railspectech James Wagner, The Johns Hopkins University Roger Wallace, Newport News Shipbuilding Rex Walters, Xatex Ansgar Wilbrand, Fraunhofer Institut fr zerstOrungsfreie Prifverfahren Volume 7 Reviewers George Alers, Magnasonics Bob Anderson, NDT Instruments Albert S. Birks, Battelle Memorial Institute Dominick Cantore, American Bureau: of Shipping Vladimir Cech, Savannah River Laboratory Jim Doherty, Magnaflux Corporation ‘Thomas Drumvright, Alcoa Technical Center Jack Duke, Virginia Polvtechnie Institute Donald Eitzen, National Institute of Standards and Technology’ Dale Ensminger, Battelle Memorial Institute Dale Fitting, Nakional Institute of Standards and Technology Lee Friant, Martin Marietta Laboratories Paul Gammell, Naval Surface Weapons Center COCCCCECCCOECOCCOCCCCECCC CCEHormoz Ghaziary, Kaiser Aluminum Center for Emmanuel Papadakis, lowa State University Technology Ken Fhillips, American Petroleum Institute Matthew Golis, Advanced Quality Concepts Geral! Posakony, Battelle Pacific Nerthwest Robert Green, Ir., The Johns Hopkins University Laporatories Stephen Hart. Uirasonies Consultancy Adrian Pollock, Physical Ac Gerry Hartman, Krautkramer Branson, Joseph: Rose, Drexel Unive David Harvey, Teledyne Wah Chang Albany John Rumbold, CalData Systems Tim Hayes Laura Santa)gelo, Sonoscan Incorporated F-H, Hotchkiss, Panametrics Incorporated GP. Singh, Karta Technology Larry House, Battelle Memorial Institute Jack Spanner, Jr., Pacific Gas and Electric George Kechter, Battelle Memorial Institute ustics Corporation Dan Kerr, Pacific Gas and Electric Tahir Mansour, Ford Motor Company Cheryl Mills, Mount Carmel Ho: J.H. Speake, Rolls Royce MatEval Roderic Stanley, Baker Hughes Vetco Services G.H. Thomas, Sandia National Laboratories Bemhard Tittman, Rockwell Scien Kathy Mills, ASM Intemational Jan van den Andel, Westinghouse Phil Mooney, Panametrics Howard Van Valkenburg Bruce Nestleroth, Battelle Memorial Institute Roger Wallace, Newport News Shipbuilding ada ICOOOOCOOCAOCCONCOSCANOCOCOCOONCOCECOOCHOOCOCCAOAQCEOCCCESYSTEME INTERNATIONALE (SI) UNITS IN ULTRASONIC TESTING Origin and Use of the SI System The Systeme Internationale (S1) wis designed so that all branches of science col we single set of interlated rmeastrement units. These established units are modified in ified ways to make them adaptable to the needs of in- vidual diseiplines. Without the SI system, this Nonde- structive Testing Handbook volume could have contained a confusing mix of Imperial units, old ogs metric units and the units preferred by certain localities or scientific specialties, ‘Aside from the consistency provided by the SI system, there is a mathematical advantage to its use. Because a com- plex equation balunces in the S} sestem (base units and their powers on both sides of the equal sign are equal), there is a Yenification of mathematical accuniey: an equation error reveals itself not only through an imbalance but through the units created by the imbalance. Every effort has been made to include all necessary SI and conversion specifications in the text of this book and in the tables that follow. If questions remain, the reader is referred to the information available through national sau dards organizations and the specialized information com- piled by technical societies ‘see ASTM E380, Standard Met- Tic Practice Guide. for example). System Internationale (SI) Units for Ultrasonic Testing Many base units (Table 1) appear in the test. Derived ‘units (Table 2) are also used. especially hertz (Hz), newton 2, pascal (Pa), watt (W), joule (J) farad (F) and temper- ature (°C or K}). In the SI system, fime is officially given only in seconds (s) butt hour is used occasionally: Decibel The devibel js not an SI unit. It is an indication of the ratio between txo conditions of the same dimension (such as voltages oF powers! anc is extensively used in electronics The futidamental decibel is: an = & Non = 10 logue vm (Eq) where P is the measured power and P,, is the reference power. The power i, in a sense, a square function of voltage and the ‘ecibel pould also be written as: Nan = 10 loti ()” (eq ‘This in turn translates to: v Nyp = 20 logio (q.3) and explains why there are often two definitions given for the decibel (sorhetimes written dBV for voltage decibels) ‘No connotations are attached to SI units and conditions are expressed parenthetically, such as dB(V), Systeme internationale Multipliers Very lange or very small units are expressed using the SI multipliers, prefixes that are usually of 10° iatervals. The range covered inthis text is shown in Table 3. The multiplier becomes a property of the SI unit. For example, a centime- ter (em) is 1/100 of a meter. The volume unit, cubic cen- timeter (em), js (1/100)? or 10-* m?. Units such as the centimeter, decimeter, decameter and hectometerare avoid- ed in technical uses of the Systeme Intemationale because of their variance from the 10° interval Most units are used with several of the multipliers. The decibel does not use the SI multipliers The multiplier tables in earlier volimes fist the range covered only in the Nondestructive Testing, Handbook. The complete range, including newly proposed multipliers, is shown here in Table 3. Jan van den Andel Westingholise Canada TABLE 1. Base SI Units ‘Quaneity ‘Unit Name_ Unit Symbol Tengin meter ™ mass alogram tg time second s electric current ampere A teimodynanpic temperature Kelvin k amount of substance mole mot luminous intensity candela a plane angle radian rad slid angie steragian sTABLE 2. Derived SI Units TABLE 3. SI Multipliers io Prefik ‘Symboi Maltipier to Other = _ Quantity Name __symbot ‘St unite, eel : i zeta z 108 eaueey new heise ex é 108 toe ewan Nes? eta ’ 10 presive ess) pasa Po Ne is G i egy won) ute 2 im a eae ee , S on s io foe ee eS mes ' te tle poensat v Me do capactance tas ' or ecto n oe secre resstance om 2 vw deca a 0 Conaitance —Semens : rar dec @ 10" mmagrese ix weber ws cent ¢ 102 pee at il 5 2 s esa + wom : 2 indore erty eee rico “ 10 temperature degees Ces Ko nano ° 10 Tumnus fsa me pico P tow strane wm mm temo f Jo“ ‘adam meow ge ato 2 10-" ‘adancn . 210 ? 07 Sesovee cose gay -! sedation cose Be ad yocto" y low one : =— OES a vo” oroteD Eee ch he le Nec he alcCONTENTS SECTION 1; INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC TESTING PART 1: CONTEMPORARY NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Ultrasonic Waves in Materials Ultrasonic Attenuation Nonlinear Elastie Waves PART 2: BASIC METHODS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING 1... Transmission and Reflection Techniques Ultrasonic Test Systems PART 3: GENERATION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS Ultrasonic Sources ‘Typical Transducer Characteristics PART 4: BASIC INSTRUMENTATION AND TECHNIQUES .... Classification of Equipment Through-Trassmision Systems Ample and Transit Tie Systems B-Scan Presentation C-Scan Presentation PART 5; SYSTEM CALIBRATION Major System Parameters Evaluation of System Parameters PART 6: ULTRASONIC TEST FEATURES Advantages of Ultrasonic Tests Limitations of Ultrasonic Tests Criteria for Successful Testing. SECTION 2: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF ULTRASONIC TEST DEVELOPMENT PART 1: EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN HIGH FREQUENCY ACOUSTICS Studies of High Frequency Acoustic Events Discoveries in Acoustics Developments in Electroacoustics PART 2: THE BEGINNINGS OF ULTRASONICS ‘Onins of Practical Ultrasonics Submarine Uisasonic Detection Experiments with the Piezoelectric Effect PART 3: EARLY ULTRASONIC NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Discontinuity Detection with Ultrasonic Techniques Acoustoopties and Imaging Tubes a 24 35 26 26 26 28 28 xi PART 4: DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ULTRASONIC TESTING ‘Wartime Developments Discontinuity Detectors =... Development of the Pulse Echo Ultrasonic Technique Other Developing Techniques. Conelusion SECTION 3: JAMENTAL PRINCIPLES ‘OF ULTRASONIC WAVE PROPAGATION. PART 1; INTRODUCTION TO WAVE PROPAGATION Definiionlof Wave and Wave Properties Types of = PART 3 WAVE PROPAGATION IN ISOTROPIC MATERIALS Plane Bod Waves . Surface Waves PART 3: EXTENSIONS TO OTHER TYPES OF ‘SURFACE WAVE: Leaky Rayleigh Waves Layered Half Space ...... Fiuid Coupled Layered Half Space Shear Horjzontal Waves PART 4: REFLECTION AT A PLANE, BOUNDARY, Incident Longitudinal P Wave Incident Shear Horizontal Mode Incident Shear Vertical Mode .... PART 5: BEAM DIVERGENCE .....-..... Fundamentals of Beam Divergence ‘Theory of Beam Divergence Experiments in Beatn Divergence ‘Applications SECTION 4: ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS AND PIEZOELECTRIC CHARACTERISTICS PART 1: THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT Piezoelectric Materials Applications of Simple Piezoelectric Elements Mechanica aid Acoust Impedance Considerations Flexing Piezoelectric Elements Piezoelectric Element Performance Properties of Piezoelectric Materials Properties of Piezoelectric Elements 29 29 29 30 30 31 42 2 4B 45 45 48, 48, 49 50 32 52 36 58. BS 69 6 73 77KOOOO OO ACOH OONOCOOCOHSCOSAO OO COD OO OOHAOHOGOOQOOC HCH PART 2: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DESIGN OF ULTRASONIC ‘TRANSDUCERS .. Instrumentation Considerations «..... Factors Contributing to Differences in Transducer Performance... Matching Network Design Procedures .... Generic Fabrication Process ‘Typical Transducer Fabrication Procedures SECTION 5: ULTRASONIC TESTING EQUIPMENT PART 1: BASIC ULTRASONIC TEST SYSTEMS ‘Types of Instrumentation Portable Instruments... Operation of Portable Ui Equipment Capabilities of General Purpose Ultrasonic antl Eauipment oratory Ultrasonic Test Equipment Modular Uitasonc Equipment Special Purpose Ultrasonic Equipment . eration in Large Testing Systems PART 2: GENERATION AND RECEPTION OF ULTRASONIC SIGNALS Transducer Excitation Auxiliary Devices Signal Reception and Conditioning « Signal Processing .. SECTION 6: WAVEFORM AND DATA. ‘ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES INTRODUCTION PART 1: SIGNAL ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING METHODS Definition of Signal Signal Classification .. Data Acquisition and Analog toDgtal . Conversion Gating Procedures al Processing PART 2: RECOGNITION PRINCIPLES IN ULTRASONIC TESTING Defining Pattern Recognition Early Signature Techniques ‘The Role of Pattern Recognition Feature Vectors Data Structure «00... Space Scattering Diagrams. Clustering, Minimum Distance Classifier mie Test 101 102, 102 104 104 132 133 133 135 139 M40 M7 7 a7 48, M9 151 151 154 Mullticlass Problems Feature Mapping PART 3: ULTRASONIC SPECTROSCOPIC SYSTEMS .. Systgm Model... Electrical Coupling Network Transmitting Transducer Ultrdsonic Coupling Systqm Amplifier Spectrum Analyzer is Techniques Complete Ultrasonic Spectroscopic Systems... PART 4: APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC SPECTRAL ANALYSIS Amplitude of Scattered Waves Theory of Wave Scattering Surface Properties... Frequency Dependent Attenuation Velotity Dispersion Disepntinuity Detection and Characterization ... Conclusion SECTION 7: ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO CONTACT TECHNIQUES INTRODUCTION PART 1: STRAIGHT BEAM PULSE ECHO TESTS Instrumentation for Straight Beam Tests Straight Beam Test Procedures... Applications of Straight Beam Contact Tests . Discontinuity Diserimination .... Discontinuities Detected by the Straight Beam Method Sizing Discontinuities Mechanical Scanning . Selection of Ultrasonic Test Frequencies Effects of Ultrasonic Transducer Diameter Transducer Near Field ..... Divergence of Ultrasonic Beams in the Far Field Ultrasonic Beam Attenuation by Scattering . Selection of Test Frequencies Effect of Discontinuity Orientation on Signal Amplitude 0. .svvesereeees Efigct of Geometry of Discontinuity on Echo Signal Amplitude Dati Presentation .... Tests of Multilayered Structures and. Composites 167 170 173 173 180 187 198PART 2: ANGLE BEAM CONTACT ‘TESTING Verification of Shear Wave Angle Ranging in Shear Wave Tests Ultrasonic Tests of Tubes Weld Testing Pitch and Catch Contact Testing » Surface Wave Testing Techniques PART 3: COUPLING MEDIA FOR CONTACT TESTS «...... Use of Transducer Shoes Use of Couplant and Membranes Use of Delay Lines «..... Selection and Use of Coupling Media Selection of Couplants Operator Techniques to Ensure Good Coupling PART 4: IMAGING OF BUTT WELD PULSE ECHO CONTACT TESTS Ultrasonic Imaging Procedures... Contact Weld Tess SECTION 8: ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO IMMERSION TECHNIQUES PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC TESTING Contact Coupling Immersion Coupling oe Limitations of Immersion Coupling Advantages of Immersion Coupling PART 2: IMMERSION COUPLING DEVICES: Immersion Tanks Bubbler Devices Water Jet Devices Wheel Transducers Boot Attachment «1... PART 3: WATER COUPLANT CHARACTERISTICS Frequency Downshift Wave Velocity in Water PART 4: ULTRASONIC SCANNING ‘TECHNIQUES . ‘The A-Scan Method The B-Scan Method The C-Sean Method PART 5: PULSE ECHO IMMERSION TEST PARAMETERS Parameter Analysis «1... Back Surface Reflection Amplitude Amplitude of Extraneous Reflections Time of Flight Measurements ........-- Frequency Domain Analysis 210 210 21 au 212 212 213 24 214 215 219 225 225 225 207 207 227 297 229 229 229 BL 4 PART 6: INTERPRETATION OF ULTRA- SONIC IMMERSION TEST INDICATIONS Indications from Reference Standards ..... Indications from Small Diseontinvities Indications from Large Discontinuities Indications from Three-Dimensional Discqntinuities ... - Loss of Back Surface Reflection Nietallurpical Factors in Indication Formation «1... - i2st Indications Requiring pec Consberaion steers Location of Discontinuities Grain Size Discontinuities Interpretation of Indications from Rotor Wheels : PART 7: IMMERSION TESTING OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS . Discontinuities in Composite Laminates... Ultrasonic Testing of Composite Laminates Tests of Composite Tubing... . PART &: ANGLE BEAM IMMERSION TECHNIQUES ....... Principles of Angle Beam Tests Angle Béam Testing Techniques and Procedures... Co Interpretation of Angle Beam Test Tadictions oo Specifications for Angle Beam Tests . ‘Angle Beam Tests for Misalignment Uitrasonie Backscattering PART 9 FOCUSED BEAM IMMERSION TECHNIQUES ....... : Focused ‘Transducers U trasonie Lenses Focused Beam Profile and d Intensity Focal Acoustic Mics Laminate Test In Simulated Ultrasor Applicaton of Arif! Inteligence Conclusion SECTION 9: MULTIPLE TRANSDUCER ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUES PART I: INTRODUCTION TO MULTIPLE ‘TRANSDUGER TESTS PART 2: TESTS WITH SEPARATED ‘TRANSDUGERS Through-Transmission Tests Pirch and Catch Tests Dual Element Transducers Other Two-Transducer Systems CCCCCEECCCECECCCCCECCECECCECECECC CECE CE Cececec’ePET CCIE OOOOSOCOOOHOCOOCOOCODOOCOONOOOOOOCOO COO INTRODUCTION .... PART 1: OPTICAL GENERATION AND | PART 3: TESTS WITH CLOSELY POSITIONED TRANSDUCERS Multiple Transducer Systems . Phased Arrays .....es00- Linear Phased Arrays Phased Planar Arrays Phased Annular Arrays PART 4: COMPUTER ASSISTED TESTS WITH MOVING TRANSDUCERS Ultrasonic Tomography ... Reflection Tomography .. Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique Conclusion SECTION 10: OTHER ULTRASONIC ‘TECHNIQUES DETECTION OF ULTRASOUND .. ‘Advantages of Optical Ultrasound Generation and Detection .. Optical Generation of Elastic Waves =... Optical Detection of Ultrasound Ultrasonic Metrology Applications Laboratory and Materials Characterization Applications . Production and Inservice Laser Ultrasonic Tests sone Future Developments in Laser Ultrasonics PART 2; AIR COUPLED TRANSDUCERS Physical Principles of Air Coupling Low Frequency Transducers High Frequency Transducers... PART 3: ELECTROMAGNETIC ACOUSTIC ‘TRANSDUCERS ......... Physical Principles Probe Configurations ... ‘Advantages of Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers " Modeling Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer Measurements Thickness Gaging with Electromagnetic ‘Acoustic Transducers Weld and Cladding Tests High Temperature Tests Moving EMAT Tests Ultrasonic Testing in a Vacuum High Speed Self Aligning Probes Stress Measurements Conclusion 3 312 313. 313 313 35 317 3i7 3i7 319 320 320 321 304 326 326 326 3e7 RESONANCE METHODS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING . ‘Transfér Functions ...... Applicttions and Hardware for Impedance Tests Equivalent Circuit Models Regression Analysis etd ‘Analysis of Resonance Testing ications . stant Wave Resonance Me hods Conekdsion PART 4: es ‘SPECTROSCOPY AND SECTION 11: METHODS FOR VELOCITY AND ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT PART 1: ULTRASONIC CHARACTERISTICS ‘OF SOLIDS Ultrasonic Velocity Ultrasonic Attenuation PART 2: TEST CONFIGURATIONS AND PROCEDURES ‘Contact Methods .. Immersion Methods ... Noncontact Methods = PART 3: VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS ... Broad Bandwidth Signals Tone Burst Signals .. Contirjuous Wave Methods PART 4: ATTENUATION MEASUREMENTS Components of Total Attenuation .......-. Experimental Techniques for Attenuation “Measurement Atteniation Test Setups... Conclusion .. SECTION 12: MATERIAL PROPERTY CHARACTERIZATION PART I: FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL, PROPERTY CHARACTERIZATION ........ Rationale for Using Ultrasonic Techniques Relation to Materials Research .... Relation to Fracture Analysis Relation to Structural Materials PART 2: MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION METHODS Sonie and Dynamic Vibration Methods Acoustic Emission Methods . Pulse Echo Method Backsgatter Method -......0. Dual Transducer Methods ..... Ultraspnic Spectroscopy ..... Ultraspnie Imaging Techniques 351 357 358, 365 366 367 369 370 373. 374 374 374 376 37 377 377 378PART 3: MEASUREMENT OF ELASTIC PROPERTIES Fundamental Elastic Property Relations «.. Dynamic Resonance ..... Velocity and Elastic Constants Acoustoclastcity Application of Velocity Measurements PART 4: MICROSTRUCTURE AND DIFFUSE DISCONTINUITIES Overview of Microstructure and Ultrasonic Methods - Fundamental Microstructure Quantities Ultrasonic Velocity and Microstructure Ultrasonic Attenuation and Microstructure Applications in Microstructure ‘Characterization PART 5: ULTRASONIC TESTING FOR MECHANICAL PROPERTIES .....00..0-- Ukrasonics and Mechanical Properties Tensile and Yield Strength Fracture Toughness... ‘Composite and Bond Strengths ...... PART 6: ACOUSTOULTRASONIC TESTS FOR MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Interlaminar Shear Strength Adhesive Bond Strength... Modulus Degradation . Limitations of Acoustoultrasonic Techniques Conclusion... SECTION 13: ULTRASONIC REFERENCE STANDARDS AND CONTROL OF TESTS INTRODUCTION PART 1: ULTRASONIC REFERENCE STANDARDS WITH FLAT BOTTOM HOLE REFLECTORS Precautions for Use of Ultrasonic Reference Standards ‘The Need for Standards .. “The Purpose of Reference Standards ‘Types of Ultrasonic Reference Standards Propagation Requirements for Ultrasonic Reference Blocks PART 2: ULTRASONIC REFERENCE STANDARDS WITH MULTIPLE USE CAPABILITIES ..... see Decibel Unit and Seale of Signal ‘Amplitudes itrasonic Calibration 406 410 410 410 412 415. aT 417 418 418 418 420 433 434 435 435 435 436 438 442 && Correlation of Decibel Scale to Flat Bottom Hole Reflectors ...... oe Factors Determining Amplitude of Discontinuity Echo Signal Point of Maximum Ultrasonic Test Sensitivity Along Beam Axis Concepts of the DGS Diagram Techniques for IW Type Ultrasonic Block Reference Standards one Techniques for T.0. 39B-1-1 Ultrasonic Block Reference Standards ......... Techniques for Use of Miniature ‘Angie Beam Calibration Block . Use of Step and Setup Block ‘Thickness Measuring Taper Gages PART 3: ULTRASONIC REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR CONTOURED TEST OBJECTS ., Product Standards for Ultrasonic Tests Concave Surface Reference Standards Standardng Ultrasonic Tests of Concave Surface Test Objects Typical Concave Surface Ultrasonic Reference Standards Factors Influencing Sensitivity on Convex Test Object Surfaces Reference Standards for Test Objects with Convex Surfaces Procedure to Compensate for Curved Entry Surf shear Wave Reference Standard for Cylindrical Stock Methods pf Fabricating and Checking Ultrasonic Reference Standards Holes in Cylindrical Ultrasonic Reference Standards ..... Notches in Hollow Cylindrical Reference ference Standards for Fabrcatidnand Verification of Notched Tube Standards = Flot Surface Shear Wave Reference Standards PART 4: REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR EVALUATING ULTRASONIC TEST SYSTEM PERFORMANCE, Ultrasoni¢ System Performance Checks « Vertical Linearity Limits ...... Attenuator and Decade Switch Check Alternate Attenuator Check Reference Standards Used for Determining ‘Transducer Characteristics 445, 45, 446 “a7 449 450 452 BBB COCEOCOCECCCCCCCCCECOCCCCOCCECECCCCLECCCECCCE cece 454 454 456 456 458 458 458, 460 461 465 465 466 467 468 468LOCCOHOOGOCOCAOONOOCOOHOOOCCOCOCOCOCOCOOCAOCOCOOCNDECOCOECES PART 5: REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR BONDED, BRAZED, WELDED AND COMPOSITE ASSEMBLIES Reference Standards Manufactured from Production Test Objects ... Reference Standards for Adhesive Bonded Assemblies .. - Fabrication of Bond Reference Standards Construction of Crushed Core Discontinuity Reference Standards Construction of Porous Bondline Reference Standards Lead Tape Reference Discontinuities ... Reference Standards for Tests of Carbon Epoxy Laminates . Titanium Bondline Reference Standards .. Composite Honeycomb Sandwich Reference Standard ....... Fabrication of Porous Composite Laminate Reference Standards .. ees Fabrication and Use of Reference Standards for Diffusion Bonding Fabrication and Use of Reference Standards for Brazed Assemblies Ultrasonic Reference Standards for Fusion Weldments . PART 6: ULTRASONIC REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR MAINTENANCE TESTING ....... Ultrasonic Reference Standards for Aircraft Maintenance oe SECTION 14: STATISTICS APPLIED TO ‘ULTRASONIC TESTING ... INTRODUCTION PART 1: STATISTICS APPLIED TO ULTRASONIC TEST MEASUREMENTS ‘Nondestructive Testing Statistics ‘The Measured Quantity Measuring the Quantity Measurement Precision Other Measurement Qualities Monitoring System Adjustments ...... PART 2: STATISTICS APPLIED TO DISCONTINUITY DETECTION .. Accuracy of Test Measurements .. Discontinuity Distribution .. Measurement of the Distribution .. PART 3; STATISTICS APPLIED TO THE ‘ACCEPTANCE DECISION IN ULTRASONIC TESTING Specification of Quality an an an an a4 474 405; 475 476 an an an 478 479 480 480 483 Acceptance by the Producer Acceptance by the Consumer Conclusion .. see SECTION 15: ULTRASONIC TESTING APPLICATIONS IN ADVANCED MATERIALS AND PROCESSES PART 1: ULTRASONIC TESTS FOR ‘ADVANCED STRUCTURAL CERAMICS Discontinhity Detection in Ceramics Green State Ceramics Sintered Ceramics Detection of Discontinuities Detection of Surface Properties PART 2: ULTRASONIC TESTS OF ADHESIVE, BONDING. ‘Tap Testing Characteristics of Adhesive Bonds Resonance Tests Ultrasoni¢ Pulse Echo and ‘Through-Transmission Tests Ultrasonié Spectroscoy Leaky Lamb Waves Assessment of Ultrasonic Tests of Bonds PART 3: ULTRASONIC TESTS OF COMPOSITE LAMINATES Sources of Discontinuities Role of Ultrasonic Testing Theory of Wave Propagation in Composites... Testing Composites at Normal Incidence Testing Composites at Oblique Incidence ....... Leaky Lamb Wave Applications Computerized Testing Conclusion SECTION 16: ULTRASONIC TESTING APPLICATIONS IN WELDING PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC ‘TESTS OF WELDS ... Beam Path Calibration with the AWS/DG Block .... Depth Amplitude Calibration on ASME. alibytion Block... Weld Testing Procedures : Discontinuity Indication Acceptance Discontinuity Indication Sizing Testing Austenitic Welds . Testing Stainless Steel Weld Overlay Testing Pipe Welds. 497 501 510 512 514PART 2: ULTRASONIC TESTING OF SPOT WELDS IN THIN GAGE STEEL Monitoring Spot Welds .. Theory of Weld Tests ... Ultrasonic Wave Pr Comparison with Other Tests ooo Verification of the Pulse Echo Method Spot Weld Application Trials ...... Elements of Successful Spot Weld Tests Conclusion a jon in Welds ..... Nondestructive SECTION 17: ULTRASONIC TESTING ‘APPLICATIONS IN UTILITIES PART 1: ULTRASONIC TESTING IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY Introduction to Power Plant Test Procedures Crack Deteetion «2... Ultrasonic Test Systems . Signal Processing PART 2: ULTRASONIC TESTING OF NUCLEAR REACTOR COMPONENTS Effect of Microstructure an Ultrasonic Testing - Ultrasonic Testing of Clad Components Steam Turbine Testing . Inservice Testing for Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking Uses of Automated Test Systems Ultrasonic Testing of Cast Stainless Steel Power Plant Components Testing Cast Stainless Stee! Ultrasonic Testing of Pressure Vessels Testing Dissimilar Metal Welds PART 9: OIL FIELD APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING Tests of Tubular Goods Tests of Tubes Using Two Transducers in Tandem ...... ‘Automated Inservice Tests of Oil Fi Pressure Vessels eld SECTION 18: ULTRASONIC TESTING APPLICATIONS IN THE TRANSPORTATION INDUSTRIES .. PART 1: ULTRASONIC APPLICATIONS IN ‘THE RAILROAD INDUSTRY .. Testing Motive Power and Car Equipment .. Principles of Ultrasonic Aule Testing 569 570 570 571 572 573 375 375 575 375 376 579 585 585 586 387 593 594 504 Ultrasoni¢ Indications from Railroad cles Soe eesee Characteristics of the Axle Testing Regions Ultrasoni¢ Axle Testing Procedures Semiautomated Testing of Car Axles Full Length Tests of Locomotive Axles ‘Axle Testing with Multiplex Ultrasound Scanning Transducer ‘Tests of Hollow Aules in Urban Transit Systems... ‘Tests of Aules for Mamlacturing Discontinuities Testing Wheels for Tread Discontinuities Texture Induced Anisotropy in the Wheel Rim «1... Stress Measurement in Railroad Wheels Testing Rotary Couplers in Unit Coal Trains once Tests of Cylinder Head Studs Tests of Gylinder lead Valves Testing Standards and Performance Testing seperti Quality Afsurance of New Components with Ultrasound Rail Testiag Fundamentals Basic Techniques in Rail Discontinuity Detection... Rail Discstinnity Systems... Operating Speeds for Rail Discontinuity Detection Ultrasonic| Properties of Railroad Rail Effect of Wave Speeds on Rail Discontinuity Detection Locating and Sizing Rail Discontinuit Shear Horizontal Waves and Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers . Calibration Practices in Rail Discontinuity Detection Ultrasonic Stress Measurement Ultrasonic Texture Studies in Railroad Rail PART 2: ULTRASONIC MAINTENANCE ‘TESTING OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES ‘Ultrasonic’ Testing Procedures for Aircraft Reference Standards for Tests of Aircraft ‘Techniques for Ultrasonic Tests of Aircraft Applications of Ultrasonic Tests for ‘Aireraft ; PART 3: ULTRASONIC TESTS OF AUTOMOTIVE COMPOSITES Quality Control Procedures Composite Quality Relationship of Quality and Cost. Quality Process Capability So g w ~ wy vw w ~~ v ~ wy ~~ ~ ~ ~ w v wy wy w wy w w w wy wv o i] w yw yw yy w w w wo w vw ow w Y “IFOOCOONHOCOCOONONOCOOOOCOECOOCOOOCOCOHOACOOOCKDOCOOCCOC ‘Testing Methods for Composites ........ Methods for Determining Fiber Orientation and Concentration Determining Fiber Orientation ... Ultrasonic Pulse Echo Testing for Fiber Concentration and Thickness Analysis of Analytical Chemistry Data .. Testing for Interlaminar Integrity Ultrasonic Methods for Detecting Porosity Methods for Testing Adhesive Bonds .. Bond Testing Instrumentation Bond Testing System Modes .. Bond Reference Standards Testing for Regional Bond Integrity Mechanical Testing Disbond Detection .. Bond Strength ... Other Ultrasonic Test Methods PART 4: ULTRASONIC TESTING IN THE MARINE INDUSTRY Ultrasonic Material Tests Fabrication Tests Inservice Tests SECTION 19: ULTRASONIC TESTING APPLICATIONS FOR STRUCTURES .. PART 1: ULTRASONIC TESTING OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS Need for Ultrasonie Tests of Structures ... Highway Bridge Structures ... Ultrasonic Tests of Concrete Structures Ultrasonic Tests of Steel Structures Ultrasonic Tests of Wooden Structures Ultrasonic Field Tests of Bridges Urasonic Tet of Bulkings Conclusion PART 2: ULTRASONIC TESTING OF ‘OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Steel Jacketed Platform Characteristics Testing Requirements Thickness Gaging with Ultrasonic Techniques Corrosion Testing with Ultrasoni Techniques Differences Required by Underwater Testing Underwater Weld Testing Flooded Member Detection : Choice of Transducers for Underwater Ultrasonic Testing 650 651 651 655 Choice of Cabling for Underwater Ultragonie Tests ....... Choice of Instrumentation for Underwater Ultrayonic Testing Surface Preparation for Underwater Tests Diver Location for Underwater Tests Conclusion .. SECTION 20 ULTRASONIC TESTING APPLICATIONS IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES PART 1: USES OF ULTRASONIC TESTING IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES Proceduyes for Ultrasonic Tests PART 2: TESTING BASE MATERIALS, NEW CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT IN SERVICE . New Construction Tests... PART 3: Testing Degraded Equipment... PART 4: Ultratonie Distances in Tess of Tubing Solution SECTION 21; ULTRASONIC TESTING APPLICATIONS IN PRIMARY METALS PART 1: ULTRASONIC TESTS OF STEEL AND WROUGHT ALLOYS Discontinuities Originating in the Ingot Discontitiuities Caused by Processing .. oes Testing Procedures for Ingots... kraonfe Immersion Testing of Metals System Calibration sossoreeonee Tests of Other Metal Shapes PART 2: ULTRASONIC TESTS OF PRIMARY ‘ALUMINU} ‘Typical Discontinuites in Rolled Aluminum Plated... Ultrasonic Test Procedures for Alu Selection of Ultrasonic Frequenc Measurement of Discontinulty Size Effect of the Transducer Size Front arld Back Surface Resolution Transduters for Tests of Wrought ‘Aluminum Products Paintbrush Transducers for Testing ‘Aluminum Ultrasonic Testing of Aluminum Plates Instrumentation for Tests of Aluminum Duty Acton Stems fo Amin Flat Rolled Products . Ultrasonic Tests of Forgings... Application of Surface Weve Ultrasound in Aluniinum Testing. Conclusion .. 696 6a7 699 705 705 735 735 738 739 740 743 44 744‘SECTION 22: INSERVICE APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING INTRODUCTION ... PART 1: INSERVICE TESTS OF PRESSURE ‘VESSELS ‘vtomated Inside Surface Testing Cladded Vessel Tests Inner Radius Tests with Computer Modeling, Discontinuity Sizing Procedures PART 2: TESTS OF PIPING Intergranlar Stress Corrosion Cracking in Cladded Pipes .. Multibeam and Multimode Transducers Gast and Disimlor Metal Welds Austenitic Pipi Computerized “Thickness Measurement ia Piping ... Creep Damage Hydrogen Damage Chlindrically Guided Wave Technique for Cylindrical Shape PART 3; INSERVICE TESTS OF TURBINES . ‘Turbine Rotor Test System Tests of Turbine Disk Rirns Turbine Disk Keyway Tests... PART 4: OTHER INSERVICE ULTRASONIC TESTS Tests of Vehicular Axle Housing Seam Welds... Tests of Expansion Bellows : Underatet Thickness Measurements for Corrosion 1... Failed Fuel Pin Tests Real-Time Ultrasonic Imaging of | ‘Composites . Pulse Echo Squirter for Teas af Composite Delamination Analysis System for Large Volumes of Ulrasonie Testing Dts Conclusion SECTION 23: SPECIAL ULTRASONIC ‘TESTING APPLICATIONS PART 1: APPLICATION OF AIR COUPLED ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS ..... Instrumentation for Air Coupled Tests Air Coupled Transduces Design Air Coupled Distance Measurement Compensation for Environmental Conditions eee ‘Area Scanning Capabilities .. mT 748. 749 749 750 752 753 755 785 764 785 786 786 786 791 PART 2: ACOUSTICAL HOLOGRAPHY . Focused Piezoelectric Crystal Liquid Surface Detector PART 3; ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPY: INDUSTRI APPLICATI ‘ec of Acoustic Micoseapy L AND ELECTRONICS Methods... : Acoustic Microscopy Applications»... ‘Acoustic Microscopy Tests of Composite Ses 7 Acoustic Microscopy Tests of Ceramic Materials ..... Acoustic Microscopy Tests of Metals ‘Acoustic Microscopy Tests of “Microelectronic Components... PART 4: DIAGNOSTIC MEDICAL, ULTRASONICS ......... Diagnostic! Ultrasound Classifications Biophysical Mechanisms Therapeutic Ultrasound Instrumentation for Medical Ulrrasound Medical Ultrasound Imaging . Medical Ultrasound Procedures ‘Typical Ultrasonic Examinations... SECTION 24: TABLES AND CONVERSION FACTORS |....,..... PART 1: COMPUTATION AND USE OF CONVERSION FACTORS Calculation of Acoustic Velocities Acoustic Constants Tables Near Fields ‘Beam Spreads Refraction . Transducers « Calculating Optimum Piezoelectric Element Size vee Focal Quality ee Transducer Material Characteristics Curvature Corrections Relationship Between Decibels and ‘Amplitude Ratio... Acoustic Velocity in Water PART 2: TABLES AND CONVERSION FACTORS ... SECTION 25: der OF TERMS FOR ‘ULTRASONIC TESTING INDEX 222 97 797 801 803, 836 861ax JE CCOSCOOOCOOOOGDOGOCOOCCHOOCOOCOOCODHODGGNDGCACCOCES SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC TESTING Robert E. Green, Jr., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland21 ULTRASONIC TESTING PART 1 CONTEMPORARY NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Historically, nondestructive testing has been used almost exclusively for detecting macroscopic discontinuities in structures after they have been in service for some time. It tas become increasingly evden that it practical and cost effective to expand the role of nondestructive testing to include all aspects of materials production and application Research efforts are being directed at developing and perfecting nondestructive techniques capable of monitoring (1) materials production processes, (2) material integrity fol- lowing transport, storage and fabrication and (3) the amount and rate of degradation during service. In addition, efforts are underway to develop techniques capable of quantitative discontinuity sizing, permitting determination of material response using fracture mechanics analysis, as well as tech- niques for quantitative materials characterization to replace the qualitative techniques used in the past. Ultrasonic Waves in Materials Ultrasonic techniques play a prominent role in these derlopmens becake the? ated sch Sa cenetle Sake fr eahsdag arodracein eeoiated cha Bi pope tobe leery miners eal eaao: scopic discontinuities in solid materials. Although the pos- sibility of using ultrasonic waves for nondestructive testing applications was suggested by Russian and German scien- tists as early as 1929 and 1931, it was Floyd Firestone's development of the Supersonic Reflectoscope in 1942 that ele eee aisec en ere seeeias ‘United States today. Wave Propagation An ultrasonic wave propagating through a sol body can be used to measure material properties and property alter- ations throughout the volume of an object. The use of such an intemal examination offers definite advantages over other techniques which rely on surface measurements alone. Many properties exhibited by the surface layer of a solid are not identical with the behavior of the bulk material. if surface characteristics are of interest, ultrasonic surface waves may also be used 0 evaluate the zone near the surface. Because the penetration depth of such waves increases with degreasing frequency, tests can be performed Bt various matenal depths. Moreaver, a variety of guided ‘waves is finding fncreased application for testing, taterfaces between different materials, The use of ultrasound in nondestructive tests has as a prerequisite the ¢areful documentation of the propagational characteristics of ultrasonic waves. In order for the test to be truly nondestructive, ultrasonic waves cannot alter the test ‘material and it is therefore necessary to work with very low amplitude waves which normally obey linear elasticity theory. Material Anisotropy Although most practical uses of ultrasonics are applied to solid marly ipevenntaline agregter acme tbe isotropic), with teal crystalline solids and composites the condition of eal tropy esl imposible tata The primary reason fbr this is that the solidification or forming and heating assogiated with materials processing do not per- mit random disksbution of crystallographic orientations ee —— ‘uniform grain sthicture. ‘Therefore, most polycrystalline aggregates possess a tex- ture that stronglp influences the mechanical properties of the anisotropic material, including its propagation of ultra- sonic waves. In the case of composite materials, the pres- tence of anisotropy is even more pronounced than in crystal- ‘ine metals and ceramics because of the particular filament placement processes involved. Linear Elastic Waves in Anisotropic Materials In general, three different linear elastic waves may prop agate along a given direction in an anisotropic material ‘These three waves are usualy not pure modes because each wave typically has particle displacement components, both ‘anallel nd perpendicular tothe wave normal, One ofthese ‘components is usually much larger than the other. The wave with a large parallel component is called quaslongitudinal ‘Waves with a large perpendicular component are called quasishear. In the event that the material is isotropic, then alll modes become pure modes — the particle displacements are either parallel or perpendicular to the wave normal and the two quasishear modes degenerate into one pure shear mode. ~ | YMOCCOHOOCOOCOSNOCOOANCOOOKOOOOCOCOCOCCOCOCOOGCONCECOCOCCES The energy flux vector is also of practical importance to elastic wave propagation in anisotropic materials. The diree- tion of energy flow per unit time per unit area (the energy flux vector) does not generally coincide with the wave ‘normal as it does in the isotropic case. That is, the ultrasonic ‘beam exhibits refraction even for normal incidence. Ultrasonic Attenuation For all real solids, the assumption of pure linear elasticity is an approximation because all real ultrasonic waves are attenuated as they propagate. If this more realistic case is considered, to the lowest order of approximation, the gen- ‘eral propagation characteristics of such waves in solid ‘materials are found to be identical with linear elasticity. This is true of the wave speeds, particle displacements, energy flux vectors and diffraction spread. However, as a result of ‘various mechanisms, there is energy lost from these prop- agating waves ‘Although geometric effects can cause energy loss, such losses are not indicative of intrinsic loss mechanisms asso- ciated with the microstructure. Once proper precautions are taken to eliminate or control these geometric effects, ultra- sonic attenuation measurements serve as a very sensitive indicator of intemal loss mechanisms caused by micro- structures and microstructural alterations in the test mate- rial. This sensitivity derives from the ability of ultrasonic waves (of an appropriate frequency) to interact with a variety of discontinuities, including cracks, inclusions, pre- cipitates, grain boundaries, interphase boundaries, voids and dislocations Nonlinear Elastic Waves Nonlinear effects associated with ultrasonic wave propa gation arise from several causes. First, the amplitude of the INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC TESTING /3 clastic wave may be sufficiently lange so that finite strains, arise. Second, 4 material may behave in a nonlinear fashion when infinite ip ultrasonic waves are propagated, provid- ed that a sufficient amount of external static stress is super- imposed or residual stress is present. This can occur even if the material behaves in a linear fashion in its undeformed state, Finally, the material itself may contain various energy absorbing mechanisms so that it is locally nonlinear. Nonlinear elastic waves differ from linear elastic waves in several importhnt ways. An initially sinusoidal nonlinear longitudinal elistic wave of a given frequency distorts as it propagates and energy is transferred from the fundamental {othe harmonies that appear. The degree of distortion and harmonie generation is directly dependent on the amplitude of the wave. A pure mode nonlinear longitudinal wave may propagate alone but a pure mode nonlinear transverse wave cannot propagate without an accompanying longitudinal wave. On the ather hand, a nonlinear transverse wave does not distort when it propagates in a solid that is free of dis- continuities. Nonlinear elastic waves can interact with other waves in the solid. At the intersection of two ultrasonic beams, ad- ditional ultrasqnic frequencies can be generated. Interac- tion with therjaal vibrations causes energy loss from the ‘wave. The degree of interaction in all cases is directly de- pendert on the amplitude of each wave. Ultrasonic Waves in Inhomogeneous Materials Additional problems arse with ultrasone wave propaga tion in inhomogeneous materials. The presence of a single bounding surface complicates the propagational charac- teristics and can lead to erroneous interpretation of veloc- ity and attenuation measurements. The presence of many bounding surfijces, such as those in grossly porous or lange ‘grained ceramles and composites, complicates the propaga- tion characteristics even more. Except for a few special ceases, these pioblems have not been solved analytically4 / ULTRASONIC TESTING PART 2 BASIC METHODS OF ULTRASONIC TESTING Transmission and Reflection Techniques Ultrasonic testing is typically performed in two ways. A beam of ultrasonic energy is directed into the test object and () the energy transmitted through it is measured or (2) energy rellected from discontinuities in the object is Such tests are possible because an ultrasonic beam travels with litde loss through homogeneous material. Energy loss occurs when the ultrasonic beam is intercepted and reflect- ced by grain boundaries or discontinuities in the elastic con- tinuum, Figure I shows these two basic techniques as they are used for internal discontinuity detection. In Fig. 1a, the discontinuity is detected by the decrease of transmitted energy at the receiver. In Fig, Ib, itis detected by energy reflected to the receiver. FIGURE 1, Basic ultrasonic testing methods: {a) discontinulty detected by decrease of energy at receiver and (b} discontinuity detected by energy reflected to receiver fa) TRANSATTER TRANSDUCER ACOUSTIC COULANT Test Bet INTENAL Decenrvuiry RECEIVER TRANSDUCER pb) "TeansMTe® TRANSOUCER ‘ACOUSTIC COUPLANT RECEVERTRAnSOUCER est ons] escontnuty Ultrasonic Test Systems Basic ultrasonic testing methods are shown in Fig. 1, including: (1) a transmitting transducer, (2) couplant to transfer acoustie energy to the test object, (3) the test object, (4) couplant to transfer acoustic energy to the seeever and (8 receiving trnsducer i tipment stlection, design and arrangement depend primary on thi specific characteristics of ultrasonic wave ion beibg used for detection and measurement of test object progerties. The phenomena involved may in- clude: (1) cof wave propagation, (2) beam geometry (focusing field pattem o dual transdacer systems), (3) en- ergy transfer (reflection, refraction or mode conversion) or (A) energy lossed (scattering, absorption) Uttrasonic Frequency Ranges Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency elastic waves to nondestructively inspect manufactured materials. Most com- mercial ultrasonje testing is done at frequencies between 1 and 25 Mitz. However, applications exist for frequencies as low as 25 kHz and as high as hundreds of gigahertz ‘Various ultrasonie testing techniques and instruments have been developed to send ultrasonic energy directly through test objects. Low frequen teat object 8 not be confuse beam is typical object volume. resonance methods (in which the entire jsed to vibrate at sonic frequency) should. with ultrasonie methods whose probing restricted to a small fraction of the test Ultrasonic Stress Ranges All mechanical testing methods use similar phenomena deserbed by the undastestal ws of mechanics and acous- tics. The various methods differ primarily in the frequency and magnitude of stresses developed in the test material Sonic and ultrasonic nondestructive tests use low amplitude stresses that operate well below the yield stress of the material and donot permanently affect the test object. Destructive mechanical tests, such as sae physica fests and forced vibration fatigue testing, typically involve high wC © CG © Co Ce o G co co Co o Cc o © Cc Cc Cc Co c c c co Cc Co Cc o Cc o o o CG c Cc Oo Cc o Cc Cc Cc U C u amplitude stresses, These may cause heating, nonlinear effects, permanent deformation and eventual rupture of the ‘component. Applications of Ultrasonic Techniques Because ultrasonic techniques are basically mechanical yhenomena, they are particularly adaptable for determining the structural integrity of engineering materials. Their ‘principal applications consist of: (1) discontinuity detection, (2) thickness measurerment, (3) determination of elastic moduli, (4) study of metallurgical structure and (5) evalua- tion ofthe effect of processing variables on the component. ‘Advantages and Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Tests ‘The desirable features of ultrasonic tests include: (1) high sensitivity, permitting detection of minute discontinuities; (2) good penetrating power, allowing examination of ex- tremely thick sections; (3) accuracy in the measurement of discontinuity position and estimation of discontinuity size; () fast respons, permiting rapid and automated testing, and (5) need for access to only one surface of the test object. Test conditions that may limit the application of ultrason- ic methods typically relate to one of the following factor: 1) unfivorable test objet geomet size, contour, sufce roughness, complexity and discontinuity orientation) and (2) undesirable intemal structure (grain size, structure porosity inclusion content or fine, dispersed precipitates) Development of Tests ‘The possibilty of using ultrasonic waves for nondestruc- tive testing was recognized in the late 1920s and early 1930s in Germany by O. Mulhauser,! A. Trost? R. Pohlman® and in Russia by S. Sokoloff all of whom investigated various continuous wave techniques. Discontinuity detection eq: ‘ment was eventually deriopes based on the principh of ultrasonic energy interception by a gross discontinuity in tl path ofthe beat This technique later became teas he ODUCTION 7 ULTRASONIC TESTING / 5 through-transmission method. An ingenious transmission system developed by Poblman produced shadow images of {internal discontinuities Later, several transmission discon- tinuity detectors were marketed During this early period, efforts were also made to use reflected! waves. as well as ¢ransmitted ultrasonic waves. ‘These tests were intended to overcome certain limitations of the earker methods, especially the need for access to both test object surfaces. No practical method was found until Floyd Firestone invented an apparatus using pulsed ultra- sonie wave trains to obtain reflections from minute dis- continuities.©” This development was aided by a contempo- rary growth of plectronic instrumentation and technology. During the 1940s, Firestone’s efforts led to the marketing of practical ultrasdnic discontinuity detectors in the United States and abroad. In the same period, ultrasonic test equipment was developed independently in England. As with early industrial X-ray equipment, the first ultrasonic instruments were primarily considered laboratory tools, typically installed in metallurgical research facilites. Early Industrial Applications Production applications were soon found for this technol- ogy and ultrasbnic testing was applied to many critical quality control problems. Among the outstanding early applications was the testing of railway axles and the first jet engine rotor forgings for internal discontinuities.” In the meantime, fundamental and applied research continued and many significant contributions were made. irestone and his associates at the University of Michigan stigated transducer mechanisms,"° polarized sound us- ing shear waves,” applications of Rayleigh or surface waves,"? a device for variable angle testing," the delay column for near surface testing,14 a pulsed resonance meth- od for thickness measurement > and a variety of Lamb or late wave ner Other developments included irequency modulated resonance thickness gages."™"* im- ‘proved immersion testing systems'®° and several ultrasonic imaging and discontinuity plotting techniques 2"2*6/ ULTRASONIC TESTING PART 3 GENERATION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS Ultrasonic Sources Mechanical vibrations for nondestructive tests can be generated byeeeromechaical transducer — devices with the ability to transform electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa. For ultrasonic testing at frequencies shove 200 kis, plezoelectrstraneucers are general wed Such materials generate electric charges when mechani- callystressed and conversely bocomestesed when elect cally excited. Piezoelectric elements mounted for ultrasonic testing are commonly identified as transducers, transmitters (or receivers) or crystals. Ultrasonic Transducer Types Examples of common transducer materials having char- acteristics suitable for ultrasonic transducers are (1) natural ‘quartz crystals, (2) lithium sulfate monohydrate cxystals, and ) polarized polycrystalline ceramics and lead zirconate titanate. Transducer elements that operate as thickness ‘expanders are widely used. These produce motion similar to that of an oscillating piston and generate compressional ‘waves in the test abject. Typical Transducer Characteristics The p frequency for thickness: erties of typical transducer element sith ‘or area A can be found using the relationship (Eq. 1) and for capacitance cra xtxa (Eq. 2) Where: 1 = thickness (millimeters); ty = 1 MHz thickness (millimeters); F = frequency (megahertz); capacitance (picofarads); unit capacitance (capacitance per square mieten; and " A = area (square millimeters). Temporal Resolution and Sensitivity ‘The temporal resolution of a transducer is directly pro- portional to its bandwidth (Af) and this is primanly a function of the damping produced by mechanical loading. Conversely, the Inumber of cycles required for crystal vic bration to reach full amplitude when driven by constant al- temating curen voltage i gven by ts mechanical @ (the reciprocal of barldwidth expressed in percentage) Because the sensitivity of a given system increases direct- ly with the of its components (transducer, pulser and electrical amplifier), a compromise is needed to achieve op- timum sensitivity and resolution. For a given Q, resolution increases directly with system frequency. Transducer Design Requirements In the design of practical transducers for various applica tions, additional requirements include mechanical eset area, wear resistance, waterproofing and connectors), elec- trial (oktages, yave shapes, capacity and grounding) and acoustic (noise level, beam’ divergence and face piates) Construction of three types of transducer assemblies is shown in Fig. 2 Figure 20° shows a straight beam contact transducer. These use thin wear plates to prevent crystal breakage and to protect the front electrode which provides intemal {lounding, Facigs of ceramic, meta plastic and mbber wwe been used. Applications include tests of rough surfaces and electrical noneonductors ‘Angle beam transducers direct the ultrasonic beam away from normal incldence toward selected areas within a test object using a wedge between the crystal and the test object (see Fig. 2b). Various materials have been used for these ‘wedges or shoes. ‘Transducers produce shear or surface waves by refraction and mode conversion, Most of the commercial angle beam units operate in the 1 to 5 MHz range. Special types include curved ss for pipe testing and vanable angle units for axle testing CCOCCOCOCOCCCELECCCOCCOECECECECCECCCECCCCCCECCCeFOOCOSOOOOOOSOCSN ES OOCOOOG OCHO OCS COOCOCOOCOOCOOEOS FIGURE 2. Typical ultrasonic testing transducers: {a) straight beam contact unit, (b} angle beam transducer and (¢} immersion transducer (b) SS poet eetenr FS — xx connection PEZOELEC IAC ELEMENT INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC TESTING / 7 Transducers used in immersion testing are separated from the test Sbjct bya couplant of considerable thickness ‘The crystal mounting must be thoroughly waterproofed and. a grounding electrode must be provided on the front face. Such transducers are available forall standard test frequen- ies in the range from 200 kHz to 25 MHz. ‘The addition of acoustic lenses to the front face of im- mersion transducers makes possible the focusing of ultra- sonic beams. Cylindrical curvatures permit focusing the sound energy for entering cylindrical surfaces or along a line focus. Spheridal lens curvatures focus the sound at @ point determnined by the radius of curvature. Special Transducer Configurations For applications requiring uncommon transducers, vari- ous special stfles, sizes and frequencies have been devel- coped, including: (1) dual elements with a common holder, (2) large paintbrush elements of 25 x 100 mm (1 x 4 in.) and larger, (3] multiple element arrays, (4) small piezoelec- tric crystals of 3 mm (0.125 in.) diameter and less, (5) high frequency (up to 100 MHz fundamental), (6) alternate ma- terials (lithium sulfate, fired titanate ceramics, lithium ni- ‘bate’, (7) santwich and tandem arrangements and (8) Y-cut, crystals for direct contact shear wave generation,8 / ULTRASONIC TESTING PART 4 BASIC INSTRUMENTATION AND TECHNIQUES Classification of Equipment Equipment selected for ultrasonic testing of solid mate rials typically falls into one of three categories, based on the ‘measured parameter: (I) amplitude of reflected energy conly, (2) amplitude and transit time of reflected energy and (8) loading of the transducer by the test object. Other arbitrary subdivisions are possible and in some techniques, combination effects must be considered. Through-Transmission Systems ‘Transmission systems using only amplitude information depend on the principle that specific material characteris- tics of a test object produce significant changes in the inten- sity of an ultrasonic beam passing through it. The entire thickness of the object can be tested with this technique. Structurally, the equipment must consist only of an ultrasound source, receiver, test object and suitable couplant (see Fig. 3). Typically, however, a scanning mechanism, gating and a recording or alr device are needed because ultrasonic beam area is likely to be much smaller than the test object eross section. The discontinuity detectability of such a system depends principally on (1) the ratio of discontinuity area to beam size and (2) the separation between discontinuity and the transducers. In addition to these limitations, other problems may arise from this system configuration, including spurious signals from multipath reflections, amplitude variations caused by minor geometry changes, undesirable resonances of text object or couplant and direct electrical cross talk between transducers. If contact coupling is used, pressure effects are large. If immersion is used, standing waves can sometimes ‘occur when waves interfere after reflection. To minimize such variables, the electric signal applied to the transducer {soften pulsed. In this way, resonances are averaged out and standing waves are reduced Amplitude and Transit Time Systems The most vefsatile techniques for ultrasonic testing of solid materials use two parameters simultaneously: (1) the amplitude of signals obtained from internal discontinuities and (2) the time or phase shift required fr the eam to travel between specific surfaces and these discontinuities AsScan Equipment The basic components of a pulse echo system are shown in Fig. 4. Simildr techniques are used in some radar and depth sounding pquipment, although the problems relating 10 inter ah ‘and frequency range may be very different. |\ short electric pulse is generated and applied to the elkctrodes of the transducer. This produces a short train of elpstic waves that are coupled into the test object. Timing circuits then measure the intervals between the transmittal of the initial pulse and the reception of signals from within the test object. This cycle is Fepeated (at rates varying from 60 Hz to 130 KHz) at regulir periods so that a contintious indication is obtained. The piise repetition rate on a pulse echo system is adjusted so that reverberations within the test object decay completely between pulses. Several Spe ‘instrumentation are possible, depending principally on the methods of timing and indicating. Many applications can hlso be used, depending on the number and style of transduders, the frequency range covered and the means for coupling or scanning. In addition, numerous var- iations and comibinations of circuit components can be incorporated into the equipment. A breakdown of basic equipment types relates primarily to the method of present- ing discontingty data as shown fn Table 1 : AsScan a Most ultrasonic test systems use a basic A-scan presenta- (see Fig. 5). [The horizontal baseline on the oscilloscope es elapsed time (from left to right) and the vertical J COCCOCEECOCEOCCCCCCCCCCECCCCCCECECCCCCCCCCCCCCECEIOOCCOOCOOOOGOOCONOCCOOCOCOCOODOOOOOOOOCOHOOCOECOCEOCCCO INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC TESTING / 9 FIGURE 3. Types of through-transmission testing systems fa) (b) teh (a) | PADOFREQUENCY ore MoouLaror o=-9(h) ans (R) ie suet? caneenton oO10/ ULTRASONIC TESTING TABLE 1. Types of ultrasonic system displays FIGURE 4. Pulse echo testing system Means of Display Type _ Presentation Inateation nacan ‘osclloscope —_dicontinurty depth fanaa) ‘nd amplitude of Signal scan recording paper dscontinuty depth ‘ana computer and dtibution in monitor cross secvonal view scan recording paper _ascontiuity ‘and computer dstbution in pan monitor wew rae Gated system electrical Signal determines by technique, used for ‘marker, facsimile oF chat recorder TABLE 2. Values for total reflection time in typical materials Longitudinal Waves Shear Waves, {mleroseconds {microseconds Material per millimeter) per millimeter] 135 074 034 quia ‘Aci resin Stee! 143 062 deflection shows signal amplitudes. For a given ultrasonic velocity in the test object. the sweep can be calibrated di- rectly in terms of distance or depth. Conversely, when the ‘through-wall dimensions of the test object are known, the sweep time can be used to determine ultrasonic velocities irom which elastic moduli can be calculated. The signal amplitudes represent the intensities of transmitted or re- flected beams. These may be related ta discontinuity size tet object attenuation, beam spread and ater Factors ‘As shown in Fig. 6, several test techniques can be used, including through-transmission or reflection, single or dou. ble transducer systems and contact or immersion coupling. Other possibilities include angle beam and surface wave techniques using single or dual transducers and various combinations of methods. In the United States, single trans- ducer operation is used for most reflection testing applica- tions. The time intervals for sweep length can also be computed from the known velocities in the materials of interest. The values in Table 2 are approximated for the total reflection time in typical materials A‘Scan Sensitivity The resolution of such systems (the ability to detect a small signal immediately alter a large one) is limited to FIGURE 5. Diagram of a pulse echo A-scan system res, about 5 oyles, depending on the absolute signal amplitudes involved. In industri esting, theses of commercial Aan instraments is t{pically adequate for detecting the smallest discontinuities f concer (including cracks, rnlosions and porosity), atnough ather imitations such as resolution may exist Reasonable amplifier linearity is desirable for caibration and discontinuity comparison. Reading accuracies of one part in twenty are sufficient, since discrepancies due to other variables puch as coupling and alignment predomi- hate. Precision sharkers of high sweep linearity are ordinari- Iy not required for discontinuity detection, although one or Ccccccccccecooonqqonnqqongocdooacocoacoacocaoccocanc TOOCOOOCCOOCOO FIGURE 6. Basic ultrasonic testing methods: {a} through-transmission, (b] double transducer reflection, (¢} single transducer reflection, {) angle beam contact and (e) Immersion (ay me? 1h (by fe) (a) 1 7 fe) ad INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC TESTING / 11 the other may He necessary for accurate thickness or velocity ‘measurements, In some cases precision markers are provid- ced as special system accessories. Alternative System Features and Construction Among the altemative configurations for ultrasonic cir- cuit components are those listed in Table 3. Special instrumentation needed for some testing appli- cations may inelude the following: (1) provision for dual transducer operation, (2) interference elimination circuitry, (3) compensation for long transducer cables, (4) stabiliza tion for extreme line voltage changes, (5) exponential cal- ‘brator for attenuation measurements, (6) exceptional por- tability for field use, (7) remote indicators, (8) extended frequency range (above 100 MH2), (9) high resolution and (10) computer interface and on-board digital memory. B-Scan Presentation When the supe of lage discontinuities or their distibu- tion within a fest object cross section is of interest, the B-scan display is the most useful. In addition to the basic components of the A-scan unit, provision must be made for these additiong] B-scan functions: (1) intensity modulation or brightening bf the oscilloscope spot (pixel) in to Hise of the: iscontinuity signal, (2) deleetion of the oscilloscope trace in synchronism with the motion of the transducer along the test object and (3) retention of the ‘oscilloscope image by a long persistence phosphor. A system for producing a section view in rectangular coordinates is hown in Fig, 7. B-Scan Equigment Often a B-scan display is used in conjunction with A-scan testing oF as an attachment to standard A-scan equipment. Therefore, the system design criteria depend on A-scan ‘equipment and the testing application. Where high speed scanning is required, the longer persistence of the B-scan display may bd an advantage to the operator. Discontinuity Detectibility The effectiveness of the B-scan in showing discontinu- ity detail depends on the relationship of discontinuity size, beam area and wavelength. Optimum results are obtained with larger discontinuities, smaller transducers and higher frequencies. For other conditions, beam sharpening tech- niques such aj focusing and electronic contrast enhance- ment may be needed,12/ ULTRASONIC TESTING TABLE 3. Alternative circult components for ultrasonic test systems ‘Component ‘Characteristic: Options, ‘Synchronizer Pulse repetition rate. fixed, adjustable with fixed range. stepped with sweep range, variable [50 He to 1,000 Hz) focking signal: line volage (or harmonic), internal Pulser wave shape’ impulse spike, gated sine wave, damped wave tain ype tunable, impedance matched, vanable amplitude creat thyfat0n, pulsed oxcilator ‘Amplifier ype: tuned radioequenty, wide band response linear, sharp cut of, logarithmic sensitivity time vanable gain or constant ons in, input attenuation, reject. variable band width ‘Signal display ‘ype: radiotrequency wave tan, video. source: fadiofequency output rectified [envelope differentiated vices Sweep ‘ype: logarithmic, high linearity. convertional cetay adjustable, automatic, none ‘expansion fed, adjustable related to sweep Marker ‘ype: fixed scale on cathode ray tube, precision electronic. adjustable square wave, movable step mark source crystal oscilatt, adjustable muttivbratr, precision integrator display superimposed on signals alternate sweep, sepatate tafe, intensity modulated ‘Signat gate ‘ype: amplitude proportional curput direct curent level, modulated, rectangular wave, pulse stetched System requercy range single, selectable. continuous tuning, low (50 t© 200 kHz, intermediate (200 ke? to 5 Ma} high (5 to 25 MHz} FIGURE 7. Diagram of typical ultrasonic B-scan presentation TRANSOUCER C-Scan Presentation ettiaor By synchroniding the position of the oscilloscope spot withthe transducer scanning motion along two coordinates, aplin view of the test object can be developed similar to the common plan pdsition indicator (PPI) radar display. to Fase] In addition to the circuitry required for a B-scan, provi- sion must be magle for eliminating mwanted signals such as the initial pulse, interface echo or back reflection, which obscure internal discontinuity signals. An electronic gate is used to render the display circuits sensitive only for the short intervals of sweep time when signals from the desired depth range occur (see Fig. 8) In certain casds, hybrid systems present some data about discontinuity size and location with a sacrifice in disconti- ry shape and position detail. C c COCCCCECC LLCO OCC EE ECOCCCOCECCECCOCCCOCCCCOECEOOOSCQOOCODCCCOCCOC0CKCCCACHA DO. 00.0 O0000 OC [QOCOO000 FIGURE 8. Diagram of simple ultrasonic C-scan presentation Ax POSTION rue as posmign, SSE ea INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC TESTING / 13 Gated Systems In general, sting is needed for all automatic C-scan systems that alarm, mark, record, chart or otherwise replace visual interpretation, Such gating circuits may be built into the discontinuity detector or supplied as separate attachments ‘Commercial recording attachments typically provide at least two gates, one toindicate the presence of discontinuities in the test object and the second to show a decrease in back reflection. Some units provide additional discontinuity gates so that two or more alarm levels can be set or so that different depth jncrements can be tested. If the cross stetion of the test object varies during the scanning cycle in an automatic test, the gating periods must bbe simultaneously adjusted. In addition, other functions such as sensitivity, transducer angle and recorder speed may have to be controlled.14/ ULTRASONIC TESTING PART 5 SYSTEM CALIBRATION Interpretation of test indications is discussed in detail in several subsequent sections. To permit such an evaluation, appropriate calibration techniques and reference standards are necessary. This is particularly true in the application of pulse echo instruments because of the large number of Variables. There is no equivalent of the X-ray penetrameter in ultrasonic testing. In most ultrasonic tests, only an indirect calibration procedure is practical. This typically involves ‘comparison with indications from reference blocks contain- ing drilled test holes or, i 2 limited number of eases, from relerence surfaces within the test object COURANT Piva) Bre EPRACTON = Gun ANT ATENLImION FIGURE 9. Parameters affecting signals in ultrasonic pulse echo tests CCOCCCCCCCCECCCCCECECCCCCCCCCCCCECCCCCCCCECCCECCE |[COCOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOO OOOO OOOOO OOOO OOOO OOO OOH FIGURE 10. Typical reference blocks used for studles of ultrasonic system calibration TI {b) ta HED te) r = 2a suo Ta esr use 2S Caete F rest src IwfroDUcTON 7 ULTASON TESTING 15 FIGURE 11. tude distance data for standard contact tr rs DEPTH rmilimeters finches} § $88 § S883 F & [S88 @ Sees E SSES F PEAK AMPUTUDE FIGURE 12, arrow band beam profile varlation with Increasing distance from 25 mm {1 in.) to 300 mm (12 In.) at 5 MHz for 2.28 mm (1.125 in.) dlameter quartz contact ‘transducer ‘AMPUTUDE (measured from base line) i c E 8 DEPTH (BEAM DISTANCE IN ALUMINUM) {not to scale}16 / ULTRASONIC TESTING FIGURE,13. Comparative amplitude distance data for a 19 mm (0.75 in.} contact transducer at 5 MHz for different test hole sizes COMPARATIVE SIGNAL AMPUTUDE @ DEPTH rmilimeterslinches) Hover (003 ni 2 Smee} 32am igor) Sinmun 5 Ame 015 FIGURE 14. Comparative amplitude distance data for a 28 mm (1.125 In.) contact transducer at 5 MHz for various hole shapes see 88 COMPARATIVE SIGNAL AMPLITUDE Soy 5 set & o% 2 332 2 384% Be oer imimeters inches) eaeno Heinen Howe SA Borr0M Fue 2 OUNOREAL HOE Neither method provides a direct calibration of system response to discontinuities that may be located anywhere ‘within the test object cross section. Except for certain types of curved test objects, the signals obtained from the front face (interface reflection) or back surface (first back reflee- tion) are typically of far too great an amplitude for use as references during tests at high sensitivity for small discon- ‘imuities. However, the use of precision decibel attenuators makes it possible to determine the ratio between back re- flection and discontinuity reflection amplitudes. The use of small reflecting surfaces placed at some point in the beam path but exer tothe et abject nthe manner of X-ray penetrameters has only limited advantages and is usually ‘impractical, except for certain conditions in immersion test- ‘ng, For the most part, calibration of ultrasonic instruments is done with sets of special reference blocks intended for specific applications. ‘The required accuracy of calibration can vary greatly with the application, In some cases. only a crude check on in- strument performance is necessary. In other tests, only ref- erence settings are needed, so that results can be duplicated later. When acceptance of material is based on rigid ultra- sonic test specifications, considerable attention must be given to calibration techniques. Fabrication of duplicate sets, of reference blocks required for such applications can prove to be a serious problem. Major System Parameters ‘The components of an ultrasonic testing system and their principal variables are shown in Fig. 9. Some of the harateritis f sch a stem can be anipated from fundamental principles of ultrasonic testing. Others may be related primarily to the specific components used in the instrument or td the transducers, wave shape, amplifier re- covery time and transducer field patterns. Operator oo Parameters The major parameters controlled by the operator relate ment type and transducer type and size are an initial de-

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