MES 2204

Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

MODULE I
Analysis of Stresses

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Course Overview

Course Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Credit Units 3
Schedule

Term Offered
Pre-requisite/s Engineering Mechanics
Co-requisite/s

Instructor Information

Name ENGR. KHARELJOY S SUNGCAD

Office DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING
E-mail [email protected]
Phone 032 230 0100 LOC 154
Consultation time

Course Description
This course is designed to let the students understand how bodies respond to applied loads. A thorough
mastery of strength of materials is necessary for a successful machine or structural design. This idealization
is necessary to simplify the problem under investigation for the sake of analyzing external forces and
moments. The field of deformable body mechanics, on the other hand, does not treat the body as rigid, but
incorporates the deformability (ability to undergo shape change) and the material properties of the body
into the analyses. This field of applied mechanics utilizes the experimentally determined and/or verified
relationships between applied forces and corresponding deformations.

Course Outcomes

CO1 Have an expanded knowledge on stress and strain and the relationship of the two in
the deformable bodies subjected to various types of loading,
CO2 Be able to analyze three types of loading: the axial, torsional and flexural,

CO3 Be able to derive the relations between bending moments in beams and the flexural
stresses these bending moments cause,
CO4 Be able to determine beam deflections using the double integration method and the
conjugate-beam method,
CO5 Be able to analyze the stresses involved in riveted, bolted and welded connections.

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

MODULE I: Analysis of Stresses

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES
LO1: To understand the fundamental concepts of stress
LO2: To know the difference of tensile and compressive stress
LO3: To know the concept of shearing and bearing stress
LO4: To understand stress concentration and stress concentration factors

MODULE ACTIVITIES
Synchronous Learning
• Class instructions and discussions
Asynchronous Learning
• Independent review of topics
• Solving sample problems
Module Assessment
• Assignment
• Short quiz

TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
1.2 Analysis of Internal Forces
1.3 Tensile and Compressive Stress
1.4 Shearing Stress
1.5 Bearing Stress
1.6 Stress Concentration
Sample Problems

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

The three fundamental areas of engineering mechanics are statics, dynamics, and mechanics of materials.
Statics and dynamics are devoted primarily to the study of the external effects upon rigid bodies—that is,
bodies for which the change in shape (deformation) can be neglected. In contrast, mechanics of materials
deals with the internal effects and deformations that are caused by the applied loads. Both considerations
are of paramount importance in design. A machine part or structure must be strong enough to carry the
applied load without breaking and, at the same time, the deformations must not be excessive.

Mechanics of Materials is a basic engineering subject that must be understood by anyone concerned with
the strength and physical performance of structures, whether those structures are man-made or natural. The
subject matter includes such fundamental concepts as stresses and strains, deformations and displacements,
elasticity and inelasticity, strain energy, and load-carrying capacity. These concepts underlie the design and
analysis of a huge variety of mechanical and structural systems.

1.2 Analysis of Internal Forces

The equilibrium analysis of a rigid body is concerned primarily

with the calculation of external reactions (forces that act external
to a body) and internal reactions (forces that act at internal
connections). In mechanics of materials, we must extend this
analysis to determine internal forces—that is, forces that act on
cross sections that are internal to the body itself. In addition, we
must investigate the manner in which these internal forces are
distributed within the body. Only after these computations have
been made can the design engineer select the proper dimensions
for a member and select the material from which the member Figure 1. 1 External forces acting on a body
should be fabricated.

If the external forces that hold a body in equilibrium are known, we can compute the internal forces by
straightforward equilibrium analysis. For example, consider the bar in Figure 1.1 that is loaded by the

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

external forces F1, F2, F3, and F4. To determine the internal force system acting on the cross section
labeled 1, we must first isolate the segments of the bar lying on either side of section 1. The free-body
diagram of the segment to the left of section 1 is shown in Figure 1.3 In addition to the external forces F1,
F2, and F3, this free-body diagram shows the resultant force-couple system of the internal forces that are
distributed over the cross section: the resultant force R, acting at the centroid C of the cross section, and
CR, the resultant couple (we use double-headed arrows to represent couple-vectors). If the external forces
are known, the equilibrium equations ∑𝐹 = 0 and ∑𝑀! = 0 can be used to compute R and CR.

Figure 1. 4 Free-body diagram for Figure 1. 4 Resolving the internal force R Figure 1. 4 Resolving the internal couple CR
determining the internal force system into the axial force P and the shear force V into the torque T and the bending moment M
acting on section 1

It is conventional to represent both R and CR in terms of two components: one perpendicular to the cross
section and the other lying in the cross section, as shown in Figures 1.2 and 1.4. These components are
given the following physically meaningful names:

P: The component of the resultant force that is perpendicular to the cross section, tending to
elongate or shorten the bar, is called the normal force.

V: The component of the resultant force lying in the plane of the cross section, tending to shear
(slide) one segment of the bar relative to the other segment, is called the shear force.

T: The component of the resultant couple that tends to twist (rotate) the bar is called the twisting
moment or torque.

M: The component of the resultant couple that tends to bend the bar is called the bending
moment.

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Figure 1. 5 Deformations produced by the components of internal forces

The deformations produced by these internal forces and internal couples are shown in Figure 1.5.

The manner in which the internal forces are distributed is equally important in design. This consideration
leads us to introduce the force intensity at a point, called stress, which plays a central role in the design of
load-bearing members.

Figure 1.6(a) shows a small area element ΔA of the cross section located at the arbitrary point O. We assume
that ΔR is that part of the resultant force that is transmitted across ΔA, with its normal and shear components
being ΔP and ΔV, respectively. The stress vector acting on the cross section at point O is defined as

∆𝑹
𝑡 = lim
∆#→% 𝛥𝐴

Figure 1. 6 Normal and shear stress acting on the cross section at point O

Its normal component 𝜎 (lowercase Greek sigma) and shear component 𝜏 (lowercase Greek tau) as shown
in Figure 1.6(b) are

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

∆𝑃 𝑑𝑃 ∆𝑉 𝑉𝑃
𝜎 = lim = 𝜏 = lim =
∆#→% 𝛥𝐴 𝑑𝐴 ∆#→% 𝛥𝐴 𝑑𝐴

The dimension of stress is [F/L2]—that is, force divided by area. In SI units, force is measured in newtons
(N) and area in square meters, from which the unit of stress is newtons per square meter (N/m2) or,
equivalently, pascals (Pa): 1.0 Pa = 1.0 N/m2. Because 1 pascal is a very small quantity in most engineering
applications, stress is usually expressed with the SI prefix M (read as ‘‘mega’’), which indicates multiples
of 106: 1.0 MPa = 1.0 x 106 Pa. In U.S. Customary units, force is measured in pounds and area in square
inches, so that the unit of stress is pounds per square inch (lb/in2), frequently abbreviated as psi. Another
unit commonly used is kips per square inch (ksi) (1.0 ksi = 1000 psi), where ‘‘kip’’ is the abbreviation for
kilopound.

The commonly used sign convention for axial forces is to define tensile forces as positive and compressive
forces as negative. This convention is carried over to normal stresses: Tensile stresses are considered to be
positive, compressive stresses negative. A simple sign convention for shear stresses does not exist; a
convention that depends on a coordinate system will be introduced later in the text. If the stresses are
uniformly distributed, then,

𝑃 𝑉
𝜎 = 𝜏 =
𝐴 𝐴

Where A is the area of the cross section. If the stress distribution is not uniform, then the equation above
should be viewed as the average stress acting on the cross section.

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

1.3 Tensile and Compressive Stress

Consider the prismatic bar under loading as shown in
Figure 1.7. Assuming that the stresses acting on cross
section mn (Figure 1.7c) are uniformly distributed over
the area. Then the resultant of those stresses must be
equal to the magnitude of the stress times the cross-
sectional area A of the bar, that is, P = 𝜎 A. Therefore,
we obtain the following expression for the magnitude
of the stresses:

𝑃
𝜎 =
𝐴

When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the stresses

are tensile stresses such that it causes deformation that
results an increase in length due to the loads as denoted
by the Greek letter 𝛿 (delta); if the forces are reversed
in direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we Figure 1. 7 Prismatic bar under axial loading: (a) free-body
diagram of a segment of the bar, (b) segment of the bar
obtain compressive stresses. Inasmuch as the stresses
before loading, (c) segment of the bar after loading, and (d)
act in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, they normal stresses in the bar

are called normal stresses.

When a sign convention for normal stresses is required, it is customary to define tensile stresses as positive
and compressive stresses as negative.

Asynchronous Learning Activity I

1. Discuss the Saint Venant’s principle

2. Derive the stresses in inclined plane for an axially loaded bars

Write your answers on a short size paper. If hand written, make sure the solution is well
presented and discussed thoroughly. STRICTLY NO ERASURES.

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

1.4 Shearing Stress

By definition, normal stress acting on an interior plane is directed perpendicular to that plane. Shear stress,
on the other hand, is tangent to the plane on which it acts. Shear stress arises whenever the applied loads
cause one section of a body to slide past its adjacent section

The examples of shear stress are illustrated in Figure 1.8. Figure 1.8(a) shows two plates that are joined by
a rivet. As seen in the free body diagram, the rivet must carry the shear force V = P. Because only one cross
section of the rivet resists the shear, the rivet is said to be in single shear. The bolt of the clevis in Figure
1.8(b) carries the load P across two cross-sectional areas, the shear force being V = P/2 on each cross
section. Therefore, the bolt is said to be in a state of double shear. In Figure. 1.8(c) a circular slug is being
punched out of a metal sheet. Here the shear force is P and the shear area is similar to the milled edge of a
coin. The loads shown in Figure 1.8 are sometimes referred to as direct shear.

Figure 1. 8 Examples of direct shear (a) single shear in a rivet; (b) double shear in a bolt; and (c) shear in a metal
sheet produced by a punch

The distribution of direct shear stress is usually complex and not easily determined. It is common practice
to assume that the shear force V is uniformly distributed over the shear area A, so that the shear stress can
be computed from

𝑉
𝜏 =
𝐴

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

1.5 Bearing Stress

Figure 1. 9 Example of bearing stress: (a) a rivet in a lap joint; (b) bearing stress is not constant; (c) bearing stress caused by the
bearing force Pb is assumed to be uniform on projected area td.

If two bodies are pressed against each other, compressive forces are developed on the area of contact. The
pressure caused by these surface loads is called bearing stress. Examples of bearing stress are the soil
pressure beneath a pier and the contact pressure between a rivet and the side of its hole. If the bearing stress
is large enough, it can locally crush the material, which in turn can lead to more serious problems. To reduce
bearing stresses, engineers sometimes employ bearing plates, the purpose of which is to distribute the
contact forces over a larger area.

As an illustration of bearing stress, consider the lap joint formed by the two plates that are riveted together
as shown in Figure 1.9(a). The bearing stress caused by the rivet is not constant; it actually varies from zero
at the sides of the hole to a maximum behind the rivet as illustrated in Figure 1.9(b). The difficulty inherent
in such a complicated stress distribution is avoided by the common practice of assuming that the bearing
stress 𝜎& is uniformly distributed over a reduced area. The reduced area Ab is taken to be the projected area
of the rivet:

𝐴& = 𝑡𝑑

where t is the thickness of the plate and d represents the diameter of the rivet, as shown in the FBD of the
upper plate in Figure 1.9(c). From this FBD we see that the bearing force Pb equals the applied load P (the
bearing load will be reduced if there is friction between the plates), so that the bearing stress becomes

𝑃& 𝑃
𝜎& = =
𝐴& 𝑡𝑑

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

1.6 Stress Concentration

The elementary formulas for the computation of stresses that we have
been using in previous chapters assumed that the cross sections of the
members are either constant or change gradually. We now consider the
effect of abrupt changes in cross section on the stress distribution. These
changes produce localized regions of high stress known as stress
concentrations. Stress concentrations are, in general, of more concern in
brittle materials than in ductile materials. Ductile materials are able to
yield locally, which redistributes the stress more evenly across the cross
section. On the other hand, brittle materials, which cannot yield, are
susceptible to abrupt failure caused by stress concentrations. Figure 1. 10 Normal stress
distribution in a uniformly stretched
As an example of stress concentration, consider the plate with a small plate with a small round hole

circular hole in Figure 1.10. Although the plate is subjected to the

uniform tensile stress 𝜎% , the stress distribution across the section
through the center of the hole is nonuniform. From the theory of
elasticity, this stress distribution is known to be

𝜎% 𝑑' 3𝑑(
𝜎= 62 + ' + =
2 4𝑟 16 𝑟 (

where, d is the diameter of the hole and r is the distance from the center
of the hole. From the above equation, the stresses at points B and C are
3𝜎% , which is three times the average stress.

A similar stress concentration is caused by the small elliptical hole

shown in Figure 1.11. The maximum stress at the ends of the horizontal
axis of the hole is given by Figure 1. 11 Uniformly stretched plate
with a small elliptical hole

𝑏
𝜎)*+ = 𝜎% >1 + 2 A
𝑎

Because this stress increases with the ratio b/a, a very high stress concentration is produced at the ends of
a narrow crack (b/a >>1) that is perpendicular to the direction of the tensile stress. Therefore, such cracks
tend to grow and may lead to catastrophic failure. The spreading of a crack may be stopped by drilling small

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

holes at the ends of the crack, thus replacing a very large stress concentration by a smaller one. In ductile
materials, localized yielding occurs at the crack tip, which has the same expect as a hole.

The stress concentration factor, k, is defined as

𝜎)*+
𝑘=
𝜎,-)

where, 𝜎)*+ is the maximum stress and 𝜎,-) denotes the nominal stress (the stress calculated from an
elementary formula). Thus, the maximum stresses for axial, torsional, and flexural loads on bars and beams
are given by

𝑃 𝑇𝑟 𝑀𝑐
𝜎)*+ = 𝑘 𝜏)*+ = 𝑘 𝜎)*+ = 𝑘
𝐴 𝐽 𝐼

Figure 1.12 shows the sample of available data of stress concentration factors derived either experimentally
or by numerical solution. The equations for the stress concentration factors were obtained by fitting cubic
polynomials to data points computed for various values of r/D from elasticity theory. The stress
concentration factors in Figure 1.12 assume that the nominal stress 𝜎,-) is calculated using the net cross-
sectional area passing through the point of maximum stress (the shaded areas in Figure 1.12).

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Figure 1. 12 Stress concentration factors for rectangular and circular bars

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Sample Problems

1. The bar ABCD in Figure (a) consists of three cylindrical steel segments with different lengths and
cross-sectional areas. Axial loads are applied as shown. Calculate the normal stress in each
segment.

Solution:
Creating the free-body diagram of Figure (a).

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Solution to Problem 1: (cont’n)

2. Figure (a) shows a two-member truss supporting a block of

weight W. The cross-sectional areas of the members are 800
mm2 for AB and 400 mm2 for AC. Determine the maximum
safe value of W if the working stresses are 110 MPa for AB
and 120 MPa for AC.

Solution:
Creating the free-body diagram of Figure (a).

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Solution to problem 2: (cont’n)

3. The rectangular bar of cross-sectional dimensions D = 250 mm and b = 20 mm contains a central

hole of radius r = 50 mm. The bar carries a longitudinal tensile load P of eccentricity e = 50 mm as
shown in Fig. (a). Determine the largest value of P for which the maximum normal stress at the
edge of the hole does not exceed 150 MPa.

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Solution:

From Figure 1.12(a), the stress concentration factors are kb = 2 and

2𝑟 2𝑟 " 2𝑟 #
𝑘! = 3.00 − 3.13 ) - + 3.66 ) - − 1.53 ) -
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝑘! = 3.00 − 3.13 (0.4) + 3.66 (0.4)" − 1.53 (0.4)# = 2.236

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

4. The lap joint shown in Fig. (a) is fastened by four rivets of 3/4-in. diameter. Find the maximum
load P that can be applied if the working stresses are 14 ksi for shear in the rivet and 18 ksi for
bearing in the plate. Assume that the applied load is distributed evenly among the four rivets, and
neglect friction between the plates.

Solution:
Creating the free-body diagram:

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Solution: cont’n for problem 4

Design for Bearing Stress in Plate

The shear force V = P/4 that acts on the cross section of one rivet is equal to the bearing
force Pb due to the contact between the rivet and the plate. The value of P that would
cause the bearing stress to equal its working value is computed from the equation:

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Take Home Exercises:

Instruction: Practice solving the following problems on your asynchronous learning schedule. This is an
ungraded activity but this might be included in your quizzes. The answers are given in every problem.

1. The bar in the figure below has a constant width of 35 mm and a thickness of 10 mm. Determine
the maximum average normal stress in the bar when it is subjected to the loading shown.

Ans. 85.7 MPa

2. The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and

BC as shown in a figure below. If AB has a diameter
of 10 mm and BC has a diameter of 8 mm,
determine the average normal stress in each rod

Ans. 7.86 MPa, 8.05 MPa

3. The casting shown in the figure below is made of steel

having a specific weight of 𝛾./ = 490 lb/ft3. Determine the
average compressive stress acting at points A and B.

Ans. 9.36 psi

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

4. Determine the average shear stress in the 20-mm-diameter pin at A and the 30-mm-diameter pin at
B that support the beam in the figure below.

Ans. 34 MPa, 17.7 Mpa

5. If the wood joint in the figure below has a

width of 150 mm, determine the average shear
stress developed along shear planes a–a and b–
b. For each plane, represent the state of stress
on an element of the material.

Ans. 200 kPa, 160 kPa

6. Solve problems 104-129 from the book of Pytel, A., and Singer, F., (1987) Strength of Materials,
4th Edition, HarperCollingsPublisher, Inc.

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc
 MES 2204
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

References:
Pytel, A., Kiusalaas, J., (2012) Strength of Materials (Philippine Edition), Cengage Learning Asia Pte
Ltd., Singapore
Gere, J., Goodno, B., (2009) Mechanics of Materials (7th Edition), Cengage Learning, Canada
Pytel, A., and Singer, F., (1987) Strength of Materials, 4th Edition, HarperCollingsPublisher, Inc.

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of San Carlos
Prepared by: Engr. Khareljoy S Sungcad, MSc