Introduction to physics module

3
a. Newton’s laws of motion
b. Law of inertia
c. Law of acceleration
d. Action-reaction

READING WARM-UP!

Before you read this

chapter, take a few
minutes to answer the
following question:
1. What will happen to
an object inside a
moving car when the
car suddenly stops?

Atom is about
99.99999999% empty
space
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Lesson 1

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Objective
Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that form
the basis for classical mechanics. They are:  Explain the Newton’s
laws of Motion
First law
 Solve word problems
There exists a set of inertial reference frames relative to concerning Newton’s
which all particles with no net force acting on them will laws of motion
move without change in their velocity. This law is often
simplified as "A body persists its state of rest or of Key Terms
uniform motion unless acted upon by an external
unbalanced force." Newton's first law is often referred to laws of motion
as the law of inertia. inertia
mass
Two Clauses and a Condition balanced
unbalanced
There are two clauses or parts to this statement - one that acceleration
action-reaction
predicts the behavior of stationary objects and the other
that predicts the behavior of moving objects. The two
parts are summarized in the following diagram.

The behavior of all objects can be described by saying that objects tend to "keep on doing
what they're doing" (unless acted upon by an unbalanced force). If at rest, they will
continue in this same state of rest. If in motion with an eastward velocity of 5 m/s, they
will continue in this same state of motion (5 m/s, East). If in motion with a leftward
velocity of 2 m/s, they will continue in this same state of motion (2 m/s, left). The state of
motion of an object is maintained as long as the object is not acted upon by an
unbalanced force. All objects resist changes in their state of motion - they tend to "keep
on doing what they're doing."

There is an important condition that must be met in order for the first law to be applicable
to any given motion. The condition is described by the phrase "... unless acted upon by an

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unbalanced force." As the long as the forces are not unbalanced - that is, as long as the
forces are balanced - the first law of motion applies.

Sample Problem

 Suppose that you filled a baking dish to the rim with water and walked around an oval
track making an attempt to complete a lap in the least amount of time. The water would
have a tendency to spill from the container during specific locations on the track. In
general the water spilled when:
 the container was at rest and you attempted to move it
 the container was in motion and you attempted to stop it
 the container was moving in one direction and you attempted to change its
direction.

The water spills whenever the state of motion of the container is changed. The water
resisted this change in its own state of motion. The water tended to "keep on doing what
it was doing." The container was moved from rest to a high speed at the starting line; the
water remained at rest and spilled onto the table. The container was stopped near the
finish line; the water kept moving and spilled over container's leading edge. The
container was forced to move in a different direction to make it around a curve; the water
kept moving in the same direction and spilled over its edge. The behavior of the water
during the lap around the track can be explained by Newton's first law of motion.

Inertia and Mass

Newton's first law of motion states that "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in
motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon
by an unbalanced force." Objects tend to "keep on doing what they're doing." In fact, it is
the natural tendency of objects to resist changes in their state of motion. This tendency to
resist changes in their state of motion is described as inertia.

Inertia: the resistance an object has to a change in its state of motion.

Newton's conception of inertia stood in direct opposition to more popular conceptions

about motion. The dominant thought prior to Newton's day was that it was the natural
tendency of objects to come to a rest position. Moving objects, so it was believed, would
eventually stop moving; a force was necessary to keep an object moving. But if left to
itself, a moving object would eventually come to rest and an object at rest would stay at
rest; thus, the idea that dominated people's thinking for nearly 2000 years prior to Newton
was that it was the natural tendency of all objects to assume a rest position.

Galileo and the Concept of Inertia

Galileo, a premier scientist in the seventeenth century, developed the concept of inertia.
Galileo reasoned that moving objects eventually stop because of a force called friction. In

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experiments using a pair of inclined planes facing each other, Galileo observed that a ball
would roll down one plane and up the opposite plane to approximately the same height. If
smoother planes were used, the ball would roll up the opposite plane even closer to the
original height. Galileo reasoned that any difference between initial and final heights was
due to the presence of friction. Galileo postulated that if friction could be entirely
eliminated, then the ball would reach exactly the same height.

Galileo further observed that regardless of the angle at which the planes were oriented,
the final height was almost always equal to the initial height. If the slope of the opposite
incline were reduced, then the ball would roll a further distance in order to reach that
original height.

Galileo's reasoning continued - if the opposite incline were elevated at nearly a 0-degree
angle, then the ball would roll almost forever in an effort to reach the original height. And
if the opposing incline was not even inclined at all (that is, if it were oriented along the
horizontal), then ... an object in motion would continue in motion.

Forces Don't Keep Objects Moving

Isaac Newton built on Galileo's thoughts about

motion. Newton's first law of motion declares
that a force is not needed to keep an object in
motion. Slide a book across a table and watch it
slide to a rest position. The book in motion on the
table top does not come to a rest position because

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of the absence of a force; rather it is the presence of a force - that force being the force of
friction - that brings the book to a rest position. In the absence of a force of friction, the
book would continue in motion with the same speed and direction - forever! (Or at least
to the end of the table top.) A force is not required to keep a moving book in motion. In
actuality, it is a force that brings the book to rest.

Mass as a Measure of the Amount of Inertia

All objects resist changes in their state of motion. All

objects have this tendency - they have inertia. But do some
objects have more of a tendency to resist changes than
others? Absolutely yes! The tendency of an object to resist
changes in its state of motion varies with mass. Mass is that
quantity that is solely dependent upon the inertia of an
object. The more inertia that an object has, the more mass
that it has. A more massive object has a greater tendency to resist changes in its state of
motion.

Suppose that there are two seemingly identical bricks at rest on the physics lecture table.
Yet one brick consists of mortar and the other brick consists of Styrofoam. Without
lifting the bricks, how could you tell which brick was the Styrofoam brick? You could
give the bricks an identical push in an effort to change their state of motion. The brick
that offers the least resistance is the brick with the least inertia - and therefore the brick
with the least mass (i.e., the Styrofoam brick).

A common physics demonstration relies on this principle that the

more massive the object, the more that object resist changes in its
state of motion. The demonstration goes as follows: several massive
books are placed upon a teacher's head. A wooden board is placed on
top of the books and a hammer is used to drive a nail into the board.
Due to the large mass of the books, the force of the hammer is
sufficiently resisted (inertia). This is demonstrated by the fact that the
teacher does not feel the hammer blow. (Of course, this story may
explain many of the observations that you previously have made concerning your "weird
physics teacher.") A common variation of this demonstration involves breaking a brick
over the teacher's hand using the swift blow of a hammer. The massive bricks resist the
force and the hand is not hurt. (CAUTION: do not try these demonstrations at home.)

Balance and Unbalanced Force

Newton's first law of motion has been frequently stated throughout this lesson.

An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed
and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

Balanced Forces

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But what exactly is meant by the phrase unbalanced force? What is an unbalanced force?
In pursuit of an answer, we will first consider a
physics book at rest on a tabletop. There are two
forces acting upon the book. One force - the Earth's
gravitational pull - exerts a downward force. The
other force - the push of the table on the book
(sometimes referred to as a normal force) - pushes
upward on the book.
 

Since these two forces are of equal magnitude and in

opposite directions, they balance each other. The book is said
to be at equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting
upon the book and thus the book maintains its state of
motion. When all the forces acting upon an object balance
each other, the object will be at equilibrium; it will not
accelerate.

Consider another example involving balanced forces - a

person standing on the floor. There are two forces acting
upon the person. The force of gravity exerts a downward
force. The floor exerts an upward force.

Since these two forces are of equal magnitude and in opposite directions, they balance
each other. The person is at equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting upon the
person and thus the person maintains its state of motion.

Unbalanced Forces

Now consider a book sliding from left to right across a tabletop. Sometime in the prior
history of the book, it may have been given a shove and set in motion from a rest
position. Or perhaps it acquired
its motion by sliding down an
incline from an elevated
position. Whatever the case,
our focus is not upon
the history of the book but
rather upon the current
situation of a book sliding to
the right across a tabletop. The
book is in motion and at the
moment there is no one
pushing it to the right.
(Remember: a force is not

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 needed to keep a moving object moving to the right.) The forces acting upon the book are
shown in the figure.

 The force of gravity pulling downward and the force of the table pushing upwards on the
book are of equal magnitude and opposite directions. These two forces balance each
other. Yet there is no force present to balance the force of friction. As the book moves to
the right, friction acts to the left to slow the book down. There is an unbalanced force;
and as such, the book changes its state of motion. The book is not at equilibrium and
subsequently accelerates. Unbalanced forces cause accelerations. In this case, the
unbalanced force is directed opposite the book's motion and will cause it to slow down.  

To determine if the forces acting upon an object are balanced or unbalanced, an analysis
must first be conducted to determine what forces are acting upon the object and in what
direction. If two individual forces are of equal magnitude and opposite direction, then the
forces are said to be balanced. An object is said to be acted upon by an unbalanced
force only when there is an individual force that is not being balanced by a force of equal
magnitude and in the opposite direction.

There are many more applications of Newton's first law of motion. Several applications
are listed below. Perhaps you could think about the law of inertia and provide
explanations for each application.

 Blood rushes from your head to your feet while quickly stopping when riding on a
descending elevator.
 The head of a hammer can be tightened onto the wooden handle by banging the
bottom of the handle against a hard surface.
 A brick is painlessly broken over the hand of a physics teacher by slamming it with
a hammer. (CAUTION: do not attempt this at home!)
 To dislodge ketchup from the bottom of a ketchup bottle, it is often turned upside
down and thrusted downward at high speeds and then abruptly halted.
 Headrests are placed in cars to prevent whiplash injuries during rear-end collisions.
 While riding a skateboard (or wagon or bicycle), you fly forward off the board
when hitting a curb or rock or other object that abruptly halts the motion of the
skateboard.
Lesson 2
Second law

Observed from an inertial reference frame, the net force on a particle is equal to the time
rate of change of its linear momentum: F = d(mv)/dt. When mass is constant, this law is
often stated as, "Force equals mass times
acceleration (F = ma): the net force on an object is
equal to the mass of the object multiplied by its
acceleration."

Newton's first law of motion predicts the behavior

of objects for which all existing forces are

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balanced. The first law - sometimes referred to as the law of inertia - states that if the
forces acting upon an object are balanced, then the acceleration of that object will be 0
m/s/s. Objects at equilibrium (the condition in which all forces balance) will not
accelerate. According to Newton, an object will only accelerate if there is
a net or unbalanced force acting upon it. The presence of an unbalanced force will
accelerate an object - changing its speed, its direction, or both its speed and direction.

Newton's second law of motion pertains to the behavior of objects for which all existing
forces are not balanced. The second law states that the acceleration of an object is
dependent upon two variables - the net force acting upon the object and the mass of the
object. The acceleration of an object depends
directly upon the net force acting upon the
object, and inversely upon the mass of the
object. As the force acting upon an object is
increased, the acceleration of the object is
increased. As the mass of an object is increased,
the acceleration of the object is decreased.

The BIG Equation

Newton's second law of motion can be formally

stated as follows:

The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the

magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.

This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows:

a = Fnet / m

The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as shown below. The net
force is equated to the product of the mass times the acceleration.

Fnet = m • a

In this entire discussion, the emphasis has been on the net force. The
acceleration is directly proportional to the net force; the net force equals
mass times acceleration; the acceleration in the same direction as the net
force; an acceleration is produced by a net force. The NET FORCE. It is
important to remember this distinction. Do not use the value of merely
"any 'ole force" in the above equation. It is the net force that is related to
acceleration. As discussed in an earlier lesson, the net force is the vector sum of all the
forces. If all the individual forces acting upon an object are known, then the net force can
be determined. 

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Consistent with the above equation, a unit of force is equal to a unit of mass times a unit
of acceleration. By substituting standard metric units for force, mass, and acceleration
into the above equation, the following unit equivalency can be written.

1 Newton = 1 kg • m/s2

The definition of the standard metric unit of force is stated by the above equation. One
Newton is defined as the amount of force required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of
1 m/s/s.

In conclusion, Newton's second law provides the explanation for the behavior of objects
upon which the forces do not balance. The law states that unbalanced forces cause objects
to accelerate with an acceleration that is directly proportional to the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass.

Finding Acceleration

As mentioned earlier, the net force is the vector sum of all the individual forces. In the
previous topic, we learned how to determine the net force if the magnitudes of all the
individual forces are known. In this lesson, we will learn how to determine the
acceleration of an object if the magnitudes of all the individual forces are known. The
three major equations that will be useful are the equation for net force (Fnet = m•a), the
equation for gravitational force (Fgrav = m•g), and the equation for frictional
force (Ffrict = μ • Fnorm).

The process of determining the acceleration of an object demands that the mass and the
net force are known. If mass (m) and net force (Fnet) are known, then the acceleration is
determined by use of the equation.

a = Fnet / m

In a previous unit, it was stated that all objects (regardless of their mass) free fall with the
same acceleration - 9.8 m/s/s. This particular acceleration value is so important in physics
that it has its own peculiar name - the acceleration of gravity - and its own peculiar
symbol - g. But why do all objects free fall at the same rate of acceleration regardless of
their mass? Is it because they all weigh the same? ... because they all have the same
gravity? ... because the air resistance is the same for each? Why? These questions will be
explored in this module.

In addition to an exploration of free fall, the motion of objects that encounter air
resistance will also be analyzed. In particular, two questions will be explored:

Why do objects that encounter air resistance ultimately reach a terminal velocity?

In situations in which there is air resistance, why do more massive objects fall faster than
less massive objects?

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To answer the above questions, Newton's second law of motion (Fnet = m•a) will be
applied to analyze the motion of objects that are falling under the sole influence of
gravity (free fall) and under the dual influence of gravity and air resistance.

Free Fall Motion

As learned in an earlier unit, free fall is a special type of motion in which the only force
acting upon an object is gravity. Objects that are said to be undergoing free fall, are not
encountering a significant force of air resistance; they are falling under the sole influence
of gravity. Under such conditions, all objects will fall with the same rate of acceleration,
regardless of their mass. But why? Consider the free-falling motion of a 1000-kg baby
elephant and a 1-kg overgrown mouse.

If Newton's second law were applied to their falling

motion, and if a free-body diagram were constructed,
then it would be seen that the 1000-kg baby elephant
would experiences a greater force of gravity. This
greater force of gravity would have a direct effect upon
the elephant's acceleration; thus, based on force alone,
it might be thought that the 1000-kg baby elephant
would accelerate faster. But acceleration depends upon
two factors: force and mass. The 1000-kg baby elephant
obviously has more mass (or inertia). This increased
mass has an inverse effect upon the elephant's acceleration. And thus, the direct effect of
greater force on the 1000-kg elephant is offset by the inverse effect of the greater mass of
the 1000-kg elephant; and so each object accelerates at the same rate - approximately 10
m/s/s. The ratio of force to mass (Fnet/m) is the same for the elephant and the mouse
under situations involving free fall.

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 This ratio (Fnet/m) is sometimes called the gravitational field strength and is expressed as
9.8 N/kg (for a location upon Earth's surface). The gravitational field strength is a
property of the location within Earth's gravitational field and not a property of the baby
elephant nor the mouse. All objects placed upon Earth's surface will experience this
amount of force (9.8 N) upon every 1 kilogram of mass within the object. Being a
property of the location within Earth's gravitational field and not a property of the free
falling object itself, all objects on Earth's surface will experience this amount of force per
mass. As such, all objects free fall at the same rate regardless of their mass. Because the
9.8 N/kg gravitational field at Earth's surface causes a 9.8 m/s/s acceleration of any object
Lessonplaced
3 there, we often call this ratio the acceleration of gravity.

Third law

A force is a push or a pull that acts upon an object as a results of its interaction with
another object. Forces result from interactions! As discussed in the previous topic, some
forces result from contact interactions (normal, frictional, tensional, and applied forces
are examples of contact forces) and other forces are the result of action-at-a-distance
interactions (gravitational, electrical, and magnetic forces). According to Newton,
whenever objects A and B interact with each other, they exert forces upon each other.
When you sit in your chair, your body exerts a downward force on the chair and the chair
exerts an upward force on your body. There are two forces resulting from this interaction
- a force on the chair and a force on your body. These two forces are
called action and reaction forces and are the subject of Newton's third law of motion.
Formally stated, Newton's third law is:

“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction”

The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two
interacting objects. The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on
the second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction
of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite
action-reaction force pairs. 

Examples of Interaction Force Pairs

A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the propulsion of a
fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a push on the
water will only serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from mutual interactions,
the water must also be pushing the fish forwards, propelling the fish through the water.
The size of the force on the water equals the size of the force on the fish; the direction of
the force on the water (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the fish
(forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction)
reaction force. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for fish to swim.

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 Consider the flying motion of birds. A bird flies by use of its
wings. The wings of a bird push air downwards. Since forces
result from mutual interactions, the air must also be pushing
the bird upwards. The size of the force on the air equals the
size of the force on the bird; the direction of the force on the
air (downwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the
bird (upwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size)
and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force
pairs make it possible for birds to fly.

Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car is equipped with wheels that
spin. As the wheels spin, they grip the road and push the road backwards. Since forces
result from mutual interactions, the road must also be pushing the wheels forward. The
size of the force on the road equals the size of the force on the wheels (or car); the
direction of the force on the road (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the
wheels (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction)
reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for cars to move along a roadway
surface.

Identifying Interaction Force Pairs

According to Newton's third law, for every action

force there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in
direction) reaction force. Forces always come in
pairs - known as "action-reaction force pairs."
Identifying and describing action-reaction force
pairs is a simple matter of identifying the two
interacting objects and making two statements
describing who is pushing on whom and in what
direction. For example, consider the interaction
between a baseball bat and a baseball.

The baseball forces the bat to the left; the bat

forces the ball to the right. Together, these two forces exerted upon two different objects
form the action-reaction force pair. Note that in the description of the two forces, the
nouns in the sentence describing the forces simply switch places.

Consider the following three examples. One of the forces in the mutual interaction is
described; describe the other force in the action-reaction force pair.

Enclosed air particle

Baseball pushes glove Bowling ball pushes pin
push balloon wall
leftwards leftwards
outwards. 12
MODULE 3 Section Activity

Name: Date Submitted:

Subject: Program&Block:

A. Multiple Choice Test: Read the questions very carefully and encircle the letter of
the correct answer.

1. Who is the scientist that developed the laws of motion?

a. Albert Einstein c. Galileo Galilei

b. Stephen Hawking d. Isaac Newton

2. What is another name for the first law of motion?

a. Law of Movement c. Law of Motion

b. Law of Inertia d. Law of Rest

3. Which law best explains the reasons we have to wear seatbelts?

a. First Law c. Third Law

b. Second Law d. Law of acceleration

4. Which law best explains how rockets work?

a. First Law c. Third Law

b. Second Law d. Law of acceleration

5. Which law best explains why heavier objects require more force to be moved?

a. First law c. Second Law

b. Law of inertia d. Third Law

6. A child on a swing requires less force in the push, whereas an adult on the same
swing requires a greater force.

a. First law c. Second Law

b. Law of inertia d. Third Law

7. A magician pulls a tablecloth out from underneath some dishes without disturbing
them.
a. First Law c. Third Law
b. Second Law d. Action-reaction Law

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 8. According to Newton’s first law of motion, what will happen to a moving object
that is not acted on by an unbalanced force?

a. remain in motion c. change its momentum

b. eventually come to a stop d. accelerate

9. A sled sliding on a flat, icy surface with a constant velocity is best described by
what Newton’s law?

a. Newton’s first law of motion for objects at rest.

b. Newton’s first law of motion for objects in motion.
c. Newton’s second law of motion.
d. Third law of motion.

10. A person steps out of the boat and onto the dock.  As the person moves forward onto
the dock, the boat moves backward.  Which statement best describes the backward
motion of the boat as the person steps forward?

a. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

b. Every mass exerts a force on every other mass.
c. An object at rest tends to stay at rest.
d. Friction opposes the motion of an object.

B. Problem Solving. Show proper solution and box your final answer.

1. A 2-kg object is moving horizontally with a speed of 4 m/s. How much net force is
required to keep the object moving at this speed and in this direction?

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 2. The Fnet = m • a equation is often used in algebraic problem solving. The table
below can be filled by substituting into the equation and solving for the unknown
quantity. Try it yourself and then use the click on the buttons to view the answers.
Net Force Mass Acceleration
 
(N) (kg) (m/s/s)
1. 10 2

2. 20 2

3. 20 4

4. 2 5

5. 10 10

3. An applied force of 50 N is used to accelerate an object to the right across a

frictional surface. The object encounters 10 N of friction. Use the diagram to
determine the normal force, the net force, the mass, and the acceleration of the
object. (Neglect air resistance.)

4. An applied force of 20 N is used to accelerate an object to the right across a

frictional surface. The object encounters 10 N of friction. Use the diagram to
determine the normal force, the net force, the coefficient of friction (μ) between the

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 object and the surface, the mass, and the acceleration of the object. (Neglect air
resistance.)

5. Determine the accelerations that result when a 12-N net force is applied to a 3-kg
object and then to a 6-kg object.

6. A net force of 15 N is exerted on an encyclopedia to cause it to accelerate at a rate of 5

m/s2. Determine the mass of the encyclopedia.

 
 

7. For years, space travel was believed to be impossible because there was nothing that
rockets could push off of in space in order to provide the propulsion necessary to
accelerate. This inability of a rocket to provide propulsion is because ...

a. ... space is void of air so the rockets have nothing to push off of.

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b. ... gravity is absent in space.

c. ... space is void of air and so there is no air resistance in space.

d. ... nonsense! Rockets do accelerate in space and have been able to do so for a long
time.

8. Many people are familiar with the fact that a rifle recoils when
fired. This recoil is the result of action-reaction force pairs. A
gunpowder explosion creates hot gases that expand outward allowing
the rifle to push forward on the bullet. Consistent with Newton's third
law of motion, the bullet pushes backwards upon the rifle. The
acceleration of the recoiling rifle is ...

a. greater than the acceleration of the bullet.

b. smaller than the acceleration of the bullet.

c. the same size as the acceleration of the bullet.

9. In the top picture (below), Kent Budgett is pulling upon a rope that is attached to a
wall. In the bottom picture, Kent is pulling upon a rope that is attached to an elephant. In
each case, the force scale reads 500 Newton. Kent is pulling ...

a. with more force when the rope is attached to the wall.

b. with more force when the rope is attached to the elephant.

c. the same force in each case.

10. Consider the interaction depicted below between foot A, ball B, and foot C. The three
objects interact simultaneously (at the same time). Identify the two pairs of action-
reaction forces. Use the notation "foot A", "foot C", and "ball B" in your statements.

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11. Identify at least six pairs of action-reaction force pairs in the following diagram.

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