Angle of repose

• The angle of repose is the steepest angle at which a material can be piled up or stacked

without slumping or sliding. Angle of repose is another important physical property used in
particulate foods such as seeds, grains, and fruits. When granular solids are piled on a flat
surface, the sides of the pile are at a definite reproducible angle with the horizontal. This angle
is called the angle of repose of the material.

• The angle of repose is important for the design of processing, storage, and conveying systems
of particulate material. When the grains are smooth and rounded, the angle of repose is low.
This is because smooth and rounded grains are more easily able to slide past each other when
piled up, allowing them to form a shallower angle of repose.

• For very fine and sticky materials the angle of repose is high. This is because the fine particles
tend to stick together due to their cohesive forces, which makes it harder for them to flow and
settle into a stable pile. As a result, the pile may have a steeper slope before it reaches a stable
equilibrium. For determination of this property, a box with open sides at the top and bottom is
placed on a surface.

The angle of repose can be classified into two categories:

Static angle of repose: This is the angle at which a pile of material will come to rest under the influence
of gravity alone.

Dynamic angle of repose: This is the angle at which a material will start to flow or slide when subjected
to an external force, such as shaking or vibration.

There are several methods to measure the angle of repose, but two commonly used methods are:

Method 1: Fixed Funnel Method

 In this method, a funnel with a fixed diameter is filled with the material and allowed to flow
through the bottom opening to form a conical pile.

 The height and radius of the pile are measured, and the angle of repose can be calculated using
the following equation: Angle of Repose = tan^-1 (h/r) Where h is the height of the pile and r is
the radius of the base.

Method 2: Tilted Tray Method

 In this method, a tray or a flat surface is gradually tilted until the material begins to slide or flow.

 The angle of the tilted tray at the point where the material starts to slide is measured, and this is
considered as the angle of repose.

 This method is more appropriate for cohesive materials, such as powders and fine particles,
which may not flow freely through a funnel.

Both methods have their advantages and limitations, and the choice of method depends on the
properties of the material being measured and the accuracy required for the application.
The moisture content of a material can have a significant effect on its angle of repose. In general, an
increase in moisture content can decrease the angle of repose of a material.

For dry materials, the particles have low cohesion and tend to interlock with each other, leading to a
relatively steep angle of repose. As moisture is added, it can act as a lubricant between the particles,
reducing their interlocking and increasing their ability to flow. This can result in a decrease in the angle
of repose.

However, if the moisture content becomes too high, it can cause the particles to stick together,
increasing cohesion and reducing the flowability of the material. This can result in a higher angle of
repose.

Therefore, it is important to control the moisture content of a material when measuring its angle of
repose, as the results can vary depending on the moisture content. In some cases, it may be necessary
to use a range of moisture contents to determine the optimum angle of repose for the material.

Measurement of angle of repose. Method I: A wooden frame full of grain sample is mounted on a tilting
top drafting table. The table top is tilted till the grain starts moving over the inclined surface. The angle
of inclination is measured which is angle of repose of the grain sample.

The method you described is similar to the Tilted Tray Method for measuring the angle of
repose of a granular material. Here are the steps to follow for this method:

1. Prepare a wooden frame with a fixed base that can hold a quantity of the grain sample.

2. Fill the frame with the grain sample until it is level with the top edge.

3. Place the frame on a tilting drafting table or similar inclined surface.

4. Gradually tilt the table until the grain sample starts to flow or slide down the inclined surface.

5. Measure the angle of the table at the point where the grain begins to move. This angle is the
angle of repose of the grain sample.

6. Repeat the test several times with different samples of the same material and take the average
of the results to obtain a more accurate measurement.
• Sphericity is the degree to which an object resembles a sphere.

• The geometric foundation of the concept of sphericity rests upon the isoperimetric property of a
sphere.

• Sphericity = di/dc

• Where, di = diameter of largest inscribed circle

• dc = diameter of smallest circumscribed circle

Importance:

Engineering properties are important in the food industry because they provide valuable information
for optimizing food processing operations, ensuring consistent product quality, and developing new and
innovative food products

Engineering properties are important in the food industry because they can help to optimize food
processing operations and ensure consistent product quality. By characterizing the physical and
mechanical properties of food materials, engineers can better understand how these materials will
behave during processing and how processing parameters can be adjusted to achieve desired outcomes.

Engineering properties play an important role in the food industry as they provide crucial information
about the physical and mechanical characteristics of food materials. These properties are used to
optimize the design and operation of food processing equipment, improve product quality, and ensure
food safety.

1. Process Design and Optimization: Engineering properties of food help in the design and
optimization of various food processing operations such as drying, milling, mixing, and
packaging. For example, knowledge of the flow properties of food powders is essential for
designing hoppers, feeders, and conveying systems that ensure efficient handling and
processing.

2. Product Quality: The engineering properties of food also have a significant impact on product
quality. For instance, understanding the rheological behavior of dough is critical in determining
the quality of bread, while knowledge of the thermal properties of food is essential in ensuring
optimal cooking and preservation.

3. Shelf-life and Storage: Food engineers use engineering properties to predict the shelf-life of
food products and design appropriate storage conditions that maintain product quality and
safety. For example, knowledge of the water activity of food is essential in determining the
susceptibility of the product to microbial growth and spoilage.

4. Safety: The engineering properties of food also play an essential role in ensuring food safety.
Understanding the behavior of food materials during processing, transportation, and storage
helps in identifying potential hazards and designing appropriate measures to mitigate them.

5. New Product Development: Knowledge of the engineering properties of food is crucial in the
development of new products. Understanding the physical and chemical properties of
ingredients and their interactions during processing helps in the development of innovative food
products with desirable properties.
CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD PROPERTIES

1. Rheological Properties: Rheology is the study of the flow and deformation of materials, and
rheological properties describe how materials respond to mechanical stress, such as shear or
extension. In the context of food, rheological properties are important because they determine how
foods flow, deform, and break down during processing and storage. Common rheological properties
of food include viscosity, elasticity, and viscoelasticity.

2. Thermal properties: These properties describe how food materials respond to temperature
changes, including their specific heat, thermal conductivity, and melting and freezing points.
Knowledge of thermal properties is essential for designing processes such as heating, cooling, and
freezing. Thermal Properties: Thermal properties describe how materials respond to changes in
temperature. In the context of food, thermal properties are important because they determine how
foods cook, freeze, and store. Common thermal properties of food include heat capacity, thermal
conductivity, and freezing point.

3. Physical Properties: Physical properties describe the physical characteristics of materials, such as
their size, shape, and density. In the context of food, physical properties are important because they
determine how foods behave during processing, storage, and consumption. Common physical
properties of food include particle size, porosity, and texture. Understanding physical properties is
essential for designing and optimizing packaging, storage, and transportation

i. Shape ii. Size iii. Weight iv. Volume v. Surface area vi. Density vii. Porosity viii. Color ix.
Appearance x. Drag coefficient xi. Center of gravity

4. Electrical properties: These properties describe how food materials respond to electric fields, and
they are important for applications such as food preservation and sterilization. Electrical Properties:
Electrical properties describe how materials respond to electrical fields or currents. In the context of
food, electrical properties are important because they can be used to measure the moisture
content, conductivity, and other properties of foods. Common electrical properties of food include
dielectric constant, conductivity, and impedance.

5. Optical properties: These properties describe how food materials interact with light, including their
color, opacity, and refractive index. Knowledge of optical properties is important for food quality
control and inspection. Optical Properties: Optical properties describe the behavior of food
materials when interacting with light, such as absorption, reflection, and transmission. These
properties are critical in designing processing operations such as sorting, grading, and packaging,
which require precise measurement and control of product quality.

6. Frictional Properties: Frictional properties describe the behavior of food materials under the
influence of a frictional force, such as sliding or rolling. These properties are essential in designing
 processing equipment, such as conveyors and rollers, and can affect the energy consumption and
efficiency of processing operations.

7. Chemical properties: Chemical properties refer to the behavior of food materials under different
chemical conditions or reactions. Examples of chemical properties include pH, water activity, and
chemical composition.

8. Mechanical properties: Mechanical properties refer to the response of food materials to external
forces or loads. Examples of mechanical properties include tensile strength, compression strength,
and hardness. Hardness • Compressive strength • Tensile strength • Shear resistance •
Compressibility • Coefficient of expansion • Elasticity • Plasticity • Bending strength • Aerodynamic
properties • Hydrodynamic properties

Expressions of volume

1. Solid volume (Vs) is the volume of the solid material, including any water or other fluids within the
solid, but excluding any interior pores that are filled with air. It can be determined by the gas
displacement method.

2. Apparent volume (Vapp) is the volume of a substance, including all internal pores within the material.
For regularly shaped samples, the apparent volume can be calculated using the characteristic
dimensions. For irregularly shaped samples, solid or liquid displacement methods can be used.

3. Bulk volume (Vbulk) is the volume of a material when they are stacked together. This includes all
internal pores as well as any void volume outside the boundary of individual particles The bulk
volume is important for understanding the density and packing efficiency of a material.

Density is a physical property of matter that represents the mass of a substance per unit volume. It is a
fundamental property of materials and is often used in engineering and scientific applications. There are
different types of density that can be used depending on the specific application:

1. True density: True density refers to the density of a material without any pores or voids. It is
calculated by measuring the mass and volume of the material, excluding any air or gas trapped
within the material.

2. Material density: Material density refers to the density of a material with all of its pores and voids.
It is calculated by measuring the mass and volume of the material, including any air or gas trapped
within the material.

3. Particle density: Particle density refers to the density of individual particles within a material. It is
calculated by measuring the mass and volume of individual particles.

4. Apparent density: Apparent density is the density of a material including all pores or voids within
the material. It is calculated by dividing the mass of the material by its total volume, including any
internal pores or voids.

5. Bulk density: Bulk density is the density of a material when it is packed or stacked in bulk. It includes
all internal pores as well as any void volume outside the boundary of individual particles when they
 are stacked together. Bulk density is calculated by dividing the mass of the material by its bulk
volume.

A shape is the form of an object or its external boundary, outline, or external surface, as opposed to
other properties such as color, texture or material type.

A Size , on the other end, is the magnitude or dimensions of a thing. Size can be measured as length,
width, height, diameter, perimeter, area, volume, or mass.

For instance, when we consider a box, the shape of the box is said to be cuboidal in nature whereas it's
dimensions, i.e. length, breadth and height, define it's size.

@ Roundness is a measure of how closely a particle or object approaches the shape of a perfect sphere.

Hydrometer Method to measure density

The hydrometer method is a simple and widely used method for measuring the density of liquids,
including solutions and suspensions. Here are the steps involved in using a hydrometer to measure
the density of a liquid:

1. Obtain a hydrometer calibrated for the specific liquid being tested. Hydrometers are typically
made of glass and consist of a cylindrical body with a weighted bulb at the bottom and a
graduated scale on the stem.

2. Fill a clean, dry container with enough of the liquid to cover the hydrometer when it is placed
in the container.

3. Gently lower the hydrometer into the liquid, taking care not to touch the sides or bottom of
the container.

4. Allow the hydrometer to come to rest in the liquid, ensuring that it is floating freely and not
touching the sides or bottom of the container. The level of the liquid on the scale of the
hydrometer indicates the density of the liquid.

5. Take the reading at the level of the meniscus, which is the curved surface of the liquid around
the hydrometer. The density of the liquid can be determined by reading the scale at the point
where the meniscus intersects the scale.

6. If the temperature of the liquid differs from the standard temperature for which the
hydrometer is calibrated, a correction factor may need to be applied to the reading to obtain
the correct density value. Hydrometers are typically calibrated for use at a specific
temperature, often 20°C or 25°C.