The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to

behavioural sciences. Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of
investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent.
Advantage:1. subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately2. Secondly, the
information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not
complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.3. Thirdly, this method
is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of
active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the
questionnaire method.4. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects
(i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or
the other..Disadvantage: Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the information provided
by this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task.
units\kinds: structured: the style of recording the observed information, standardised
conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent ata of observation, then the observation is
called as structured observation. participant observation: If the observer observes by making
himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the
members of the group experience, the observation is called as the participant observation. non-
participant observation when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt
on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is
often termed as non-participant observation
Interview Method:The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses advantage; (i) More information and that
too in greater depth can be obtained. (ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the
resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost
perfect sample of the general population. (iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the
opportunity to restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method. (vi) Samples can be
controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns; non-response
generally remains very low. (vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will
answer the questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group
discussions may also be held. viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus
may secure the most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is
used.Disadvantage: (i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread
geographical sample is taken. (ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well
as that of the respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of
interviewers. (iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people
in high income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the
data may prove inadequate. (iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when
the sample is large and re- calls upon the respondents are necessary. (v) The presence of the
interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he
may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting. (vi) Under the interview
method the organisation required for selecting, training and supervising the field-staff is more
complex with formidable problems. (vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic
errors. Questionnaire: In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons
concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire
advantage: 1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread
geographically. 2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own
words. 3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers. 4. Respondents,
who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently. 5 Large samples can be made
use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.
Disadvantage: 1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response
is often indeterminate. 2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating. 3.
The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent. 4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because
of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have been despatched. 5. There is
also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult. 6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are
truly representative. 7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Schedule: This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are being filled in by the
enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.This method of data collection is very
useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES
1.The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered. The schedule is
generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator.

2.To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical To collect data through
schedules is relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money has to be spent in
appointing enumerators.

3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire non-response is generally very low in case of
schedules

4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the
identity of respondent is known

5. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method but in case of
schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.

6.Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but
in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to
be illiterate
Requirement in collecting secondary data:
Reliability of data: he reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data, a) Who
collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using
proper methods (d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(t) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?

Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found
suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be
used by the researche

Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose
of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher.

SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION

1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry: The method selected should be such that it suits the type of
enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the
data already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to
be collected.
2. Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent
the method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are
very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient
and effective as some other costly method
3. Time factor: The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects
the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the
time of selecting the method of collection of data.

.some other method: 1. Warranty cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards
which are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products.
2. Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well
as manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals. Pantry audits: Pantry audit
technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the consumer
level.Consumer panels: An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known
as ‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to
maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to
investigator on demands. Use of mechanical devices: The use of m
Exploratory research is conducted when the researcher is not sure about the nature of the
research problem or the variables involved. In such cases, the research design should be flexible,
open-ended, and adaptable. The main objective of exploratory research is to generate insights
and ideas that can be used to develop a more specific research problem and design. Literature
review: The researcher reviews existing literature to identify gaps or areas that need further
investigation. Focus groups: The researcher conducts small group discussions to explore the
attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs of the participants regarding the research problem. Case
studies: The researcher conducts an in-depth analysis of a single case or a small number of cases
to gain insights into the research problem.
\Descriptive and Diagnostic Studies:The main objective of descriptive research is to provide a
detailed picture of the phenomenon being studied. On the other hand, diagnostic research is used
to identify the causes or factors that contribute to a problem or situation. Some common research
designs used in descriptive and diagnostic research are :Surveys: The researcher administers a
questionnaire to a sample of respondents to collect data about the phenomenon being studied.
Observational studies: The researcher observes the phenomenon being studied in its natural
setting to collect data about its characteristics, behavior, or patterns. Case-control studies: The
researcher compares the characteristics of two groups - one with the phenomenon being studied
and one without - to identify the factors that contribute to the phenomenon.
Hypothesis Testing Research Studies: Hypothesis testing research is conducted to test a
hypothesis or research question.The main objective of hypothesis testing research is to determine
whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected by the data. Some common research designs used
in hypothesis testing research are:Experimental studies: The researcher manipulates one or more
variables and measures the effect on an outcome variable to test a hypothesis. Quasi-
experimental studies: The researcher compares two or more groups that differ on a variable to
test a hypothesis. Correlational studies: The researcher measures the strength and direction of
the relationship between two or more variables to test a hypothesis.

Exploratory studies are characterized by an open-ended approach and aim to generate new ideas
and insights about a research topic. In this type of study, the research design must be flexible to
allow for exploration of different research questions and hypotheses, and to adapt to unexpected
findings. However, this flexibility may increase the risk of bias and reduce reliability, which can
be addressed by ensuring rigor in data collection and analysis.On the other hand, descriptive
studies aim to describe and quantify the characteristics of a population or phenomenon. In this
type of study, the research design must be more rigid to minimize bias and maximize reliability.
This typically involves defining the population of interest, selecting a representative sample,
using standardized measurement tools, and controlling for potential confounding variables.
Needs for r. design:The research design is necessary because it provides a blueprint for
conducting a research study. It outlines the procedures and methods for collecting and analyzing
data, and ensures that the study is systematic and structured. The design also helps to ensure that
the research is valid, reliable, and generalizable to the population of interest. Without a research
design, a study may lack rigor and credibility, and its findings may not be trustworthy.features
of good design: (i) the means of obtaining information; (ii) the availability and skills of the
researcher and his staff, if any; (iii) the objective of the problem to be studied; (iv) the nature of
the problem to be studied; and(v) the availability of time and money for the research work.
parts of r.design.: (a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study; b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under
which the observations are to be made; (c) the statistical design which concerns with the question
of how many items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analysed; and (d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.