Principals of Communication Systems AMPLITUDE MODULATION_18EC53

MODULE-1

Amplitude Modulation

➢ Introduction
➢ Amplitude Modulation
➢ Time & Frequency Domain
➢ Description
➢ Switching modulator
➢ Envelop detector

1. Introduction
Let m(t) denote a signal that contains information to be transmitted. The information can take
analog form or digital form. In traditional analog radio broadcast, m(t) would be an audio signal.
In digital communication systems, m(t) may be a sequence of pulses that carries binary data. The
information-bearing signal m(t) will be called a message signal for convenience. Also, we will
assume that m(t) is a baseband signal with bandwidth W Hz.
In baseband transmission systems such as wire line telephone systems, we may directly
transmit m(t). However, there are many scenarios where the physical medium or channel is
bandpass. In particular, in wireless communications, a channel operates over a certain frequency
range (or frequency band); the operating frequencies are from 30 kHz and upward. In such
scenarios, it would be appropriate to consider carrier modulation. Let
c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct)
denote a sinusoidal carrier wave, where Ac is the carrier amplitude and fc is the carrier frequency.
We wish to use the carrier wave to carry the message signal, so that the message signal can
appropriately be transmitted over a bandpass channel.
There are various carrier modulation techniques. Among them, amplitude modulation (AM)
is considered the oldest. This handout considers AM.

2 Amplitude Modulation Principles

The amplitude-modulated wave may be described by the following formula

➢ where ka is a constant and is called the amplitude sensitivity.

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➢ Figures 1.(a)-(b) gives an illustration of the AM process. In the illustration of the AM

wave in Figure 1(b), the constant ka is adjusted such that 1 + kam(t)> 0 for all t.
➢ It is observed that the envelope of the AM wave takes the same shape as the message
signal (more precisely, the waveform 1 + kam(t)).
➢ In fact, the idea of AM is to use the envelope of the modulated wave s(t) to carry the
message signal.
➢ There is a requirement for AM to operate properly. Specifically, we must have

➢ The condition in (3) implies that 1 + kam(t)> 0 for all t.

➢ Figure 1.(c) shows a situation where 1 + kam(t) < 0 for some t.
➢ We see that the envelope of the AM wave now becomes a distorted version of the
message signal. This phenomenon is sometimes known as overmodulation, which can
happen when ka is set too large.

Figure 1: An illustration of the AM process. (a) The message signal m(t). (b) The AM wave s(t) when |kam(t)|
<1 holds for all t. (b) The AM wave s(t) when we have |kam(t)|> 1 for some t.

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3. Time & Frequency Domain : AM Spectrum

➢ We are interested in the spectrum of the AM signal. From (2), it can be easily shown that
the Fourier transform or spectrum of the AM wave s(t)
• The Fourier transform or spectrum of the AM wave s(t)

(Note : cos(2πfct)=1/2[exp(j2πfct)+exp(−j2πfct)];
exp(j2πfct)⇔δ(f−fc); m(t) exp(j2πfct)⇔M(f−fc))

• where ‘f’ is the Dirac delta function, and M(f) is the Fourier transform of m(t). Figure 2
illustrates the AM spectrum. In the figure, we assume that the carrier frequency fc is
much greater than the message bandwidth W.
• We observe that the message signal m (t) is frequency-shifted from baseband to a frequency
interval [fc- W; fc + W ] (if we just look at positive frequencies).
• Also, there is a pure carrier term located at frequency fc, that is, A c
2 (f-fc) (over positive
frequencies). From Figure 2 we conclude that the transmission bandwidth of AM is
BT = 2W Hz
Notice that the AM bandwidth is twice of the message bandwidth.

Figure 2: (a) Spectrum of the message signal. (b) Spectrum of the corresponding AM signal.

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• From the spectrum of Fig. 2(b)

1.As a result of the modulation process, the spectrum of the message signal m(t) for negative
frequencies extending from –W to 0 becomes completely visible for positive frequencies,
provided that the carrier frequency satisfies the condition fc>W; wherein lies the importance of
the idea of “negative” frequencies.

2.For positive frequencies, the portion of the spectrum of an AM wave lying above the carrier
frequency fcis referred to as the upper sideband, whereas the symmetric portion below fcis
referred to as the lower sideband.

3.For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component of the AM wave equals fc+W, and
the lowest frequency component equals fc-W. The difference between these two frequencies
defines the transmission bandwidth BT of the AM wave, which is exactly twice the message
bandwidth W;
BT= 2W

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Figure 3:

The average power delivered to a 1-ohm resistor by s(t) is comprised of three components;

• Figure 4 shows the percentage of total power in both side frequencies and in the carrier plotted
versus the percentage modulation.
• Notice that when the percentage modulation is less than 20 percent, the power in one side
frequency is less than 1percent of the total power in the AM wave.

Figure 4: variation of carrier power and total sideband power with percentage modulation in amplitude
modulation

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In any case, the ratio of the total sideband power to the total in the modulated wave is equal to
power
μ2/ (2 + μ2)
◊ Depend only on the modulation factor μ
◊ If μ=1, the total power in the two side frequencies of the resulting AM
wave is only one-third of the total power in the modulated wave.
◊ When the percentage modulation is less than 20 percent, the power in one side frequency is
less than 1 percent of the total power in the AM wave.

4 AM Modulation and Demodulation

➢ The modulation process of AM, or equivalently, generation of AM waves, can be achieved in

several ways; usually it is done by circuits.
➢ Here, we consider a modulator approach that will be considered again in some other carrier
modulation schemes to be introduced in later lectures.
➢ Figure 5 uses a simplified block diagram to illustrate the modulator of interest. The process is
nothing more than that of implementing the multiplication process in (1).
➢ The local oscillator is a device that generates the sinusoidal carrier wave. The product modulator
is a device that performs the multiplication in (1).
➢ Both the local oscillator and the product modulator are built by electronic devices and circuits.
This modulator is sometimes known as a multiplier modulator, or a mixer.

Figure 5: A modulator system diagram for AM.

4A. Example : Switching Modulator (AM Generation)

◊ One way to generate an AM wave: Switching Modulator.

◊ Assume carrier wave c(t) is large in amplitude and the diode acts as an
ideal switch.

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3.8, 3.9

Figure 6: switching modulator (a) circuit diagram (b) Idealized input-output characteristic curve

◊ From Eq. (3.9), load voltage v2(t) varies periodically between the values v1(t) and zeros at a
rate equal to the carrier frequency fc.
◊ By assuming a modulating wave that is weak compared with the carrier wave, we have
effectively replace the nonlinear behaviour of the diode by an approximately equivalent
piecewise-linear time-varying operation.
◊ We may express Eq. (3.9) mathematically as

....3.10

Figure 7: Periodic pulse train

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........3.11

Substituting Eq. (3.11) in (3.10), v2(t) consists of two component

➢ Unwanted component, the spectrum of which contains

◊ Delta function at 0, ±2fc, ±4fc and so on.
• Occupy frequency intervals of width 2W centred at 0, ±3fc, ±5fc and so on, where W is
the message bandwidth.
• Be removed by using band-pass filter with mid frequency f and bandwidth 2W, provide that fc
>2W.

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4B. AM Demodulation : AM Detection (Enveloping detection)

We are also concerned with demodulation, which is the process of recovering the message
signal from the modulated signal. As in modulation, there are several ways to achieve
demodulation. One common way is to use a simple device called the envelope detector, shown in
Figure 8.
• Enveloping detector
• The AM wave is narrow band, which means that the carrier frequency is large compared to the
message bandwidth
• The percentage modulation in the AM wave is less than 100 percent
• So that the capacitor C charges rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to the positive
peak when the diode is conducting.

• A device whose output traces the envelope of the AM wave acting as the input signal is called
envelope detector

• When D is forward-biased, the capacitor charges and follows input.

• When D is reverse-biased, the capacitor discharges through R.

Figure 8a: Envelope detector

Figure 8b: AM wave input Figure 8c:Envelope detector output

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➢ Assume that diode is ideal, presenting resistance rf to current flow in forward-biased region and
infinite resistance in the reverse-biased region.
➢ The AM wave applied to the envelop detector is supplied by a voltage source of internal
impedance Rs.
➢ The charging time constant (rf+Rs)C must be short compared with the carrier period 1/fc, that is,

➢ So that capacitor C charges rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to the positive
peak when the diode is conducting.
➢ The discharging time constant RlC must be long enough to ensure that the capacitor discharges
slowly through the load resistor Rl between positive peaks of the carrier wave, but not so long
that the capacitor voltage will not discharge at the maximum rate of change of the modulating
wave, that is,

➢ Where W is the message bandwidth.

➢ The result is that the capacitor voltage detector output is nearly the same as the envelope of the
AM wave.

5. Virtues, Limitations, and Modifications of Amplitude

Modulation
Practical Limitation
❖ Amplitude modulation is wasteful of transmitted power
▪ The transmission of the carrier wave therefore represents a waste of power
❖ Amplitude modulation is wasteful of channel bandwidth
▪ In so far as the transmission of information is concerned, only one sideband is necessary, and
the communication channel therefore needs to provide only the same bandwidth as the message
signal.
▪ It requires a transmission bandwidth equal to twice the message bandwidth

Three modifications of amplitude modulation

❖ Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation
▪ The transmitted wave consists of only the upper and lower sidebands, suppressed carrier wave.
▪ But the channel bandwidth requirement is the same as AM.
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❖ Single sideband (SSB) modulation

▪ The modulated wave consists only of the upper sideband or the lower sideband.

▪ To translate the spectrum of the modulating signal to a new location in the frequency domain.

❖ Vestigial side band (VSB) modulation

▪ One sideband is passed almost completely and just a trace, of the other side band is retained.
▪ The required channel bandwidth is slightly in excess of the message bandwidth by an amount
equal to the width of the vestigial sideband.

Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation

◊ Product of the message signal m(t) and the carrier wave c(t):

• The modulated signal s(t) undergoes a phase reversal whenever the message signal m(t)
crosses zero.
• The DSB SC modulated signal is different from the message signal envelope of a DSB-
signal.

Figure 9: (a) Message signal m(t) (b) DSB-SC modulated wave s(t)

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Figure 10:
➢ Its only advantage is saving transmitted power, which is important enough when the
available transmitted power is at a premium.

GENERATION OF DSB-SC WAVES

The circuitry needed for the generation of a DSB-SC modulated wave consists of a ring
modulator followed by a band-pass filter.

RING MODULATOR

➢ Ring modulator is the most widely used product modulator for generating DSBSC wave and is
shown below.
◊ The diodes are controlled by a square-wave carrier c(t) of frequency fc, which is applied
longitudinally by means of two center-tapped transformers.
◊ If the transformers are perfectly balanced and the diodes are identical, there is no leakage of the
modulation frequency into the modulation output.
◊ The operation of the circuit.
◊ Assuming that the diodes have a constant forward resistance rf when switched on and a
constant backward resistance rb when switched off. And they switch as the carrier wave c(t) goes
through zero.
◊ On one half-cycle of the carrier wave, the outer diodes are switched to their forward resistance
rf and the inner diodes are switched to their backward resistance rb. On other half-cycle of the
carrier wave, the diodes operate the half in the opposite condition.

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Figure 11: (a) Ring modulator circuit diagram (b) Illustrating the condition when the outer diodes
are switched on and the inner diodes are switched off. (c) Illustrating the condition when the outer
diodes are switched off and the inner diodes are switched on.

Figure 12: Waveforms illustrating the operation of the ring modulator for a sinusoidal modulating
wave. (a) Modulating wave (b) Square-wave carrier (c) Modulated wave.

The four diodes form a ring in which they all point in the same direction.
▪ The diodes are controlled by square wave carrier c(t) of frequency fc, which is applied
longitudinally by means of two centre-tapped transformers. Assuming the diodes are ideal, when
the carrier is positive, the outer diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased where as the inner diodes
D3 and D4 are reverse biased, so that the modulator multiplies the base band signal m(t) by c(t).
▪ When the carrier is negative, the diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and D3 and D4 are
forward, and the modulator multiplies the base band signal –m(t) by c(t).

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▪ Thus the ring modulator in its ideal form is a product modulator for square wave carrier and the
base band signal m(t).
▪ The square wave carrier can be expanded using Fourier series as

Therefore ring modulator output given by,

➢ From the above equation it is clear that output from the modulator consists entirely of
modulation products.
➢ If the message signal m(t) is band limited to the frequency band − w < f < w, the output
spectrum consists of side bands centred at fc.

Figure 12A: Illustrating the spectrum of ring modulator output.

◊ It is sometimes referred to as a double-balanced modulator, because it is balanced with

respect to both the baseband signal and the square-wave carrier.
➢ Assuming that m(t) is limited to the frequency band -W ≤ f ≤ W, the spectrum of the
modulator output consists of sidebands around each of the odd harmonics of the square-
wave carrier m(t).
◊ To prevent sideband overlap fc >W.
◊ We can use a band-pass filter of mid-band frequency fc and bandwidth 2W to select the desired
pair of sidebands around the carrier frequency fc.
◊ The circuitry needed for the generation of a DSB-SC modulated wave consists of a ring
modulator followed by a band-pass filter. Assuming that m(t) is limited to the frequency band -W

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≤ f ≤ W, the spectrum of the modulator output consists of sidebands around each of the odd
harmonics of the square-wave carrier m(t).
◊ To prevent sideband overlap fc >W.
◊ We can use a band-pass filter of mid-band frequency fc and bandwidth 2W to select the desired
pair of sidebands around the carrier frequency fc.
OR
Quick recap; working operation of Ring Modulator

It operates in two modes

•Mode1:Without modulating signal x(t)
•Mode2: With modulating signal x(t)

Mode1:c(t)is positive
•Diodes D1,D2 forward biased,D3,D4 Reverse biased

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•Output of ring modulator will be zero.

C(t)is negative
•DiodesD1,D2 reverse biased,D3,D4forward biased
•Output of ring modulator will be zero.

Mode2:
•When modulating signal is present, during positive half cycleD1, D2 will be ON and secondary
of T1 is directly applied to primaryofT2.
•Output will be positive
•During negative half cycle of modulating signal D3, D4 will be ON producing positive voltage.
]

Detection of DSB-SC waves: Demodualtion of DSB-SC

Coherent Detection
The baseband signal m(t) can be recovered from a DSB-SCwave s(t) by first multiplying s(t)
with locally generated sinusoidal wave and then low pass filtering the product as shown 13.

Figure 13: Coherent Detector

• It is assumed that the local oscillator signal is exactly coherent or synchronized, in
both frequency and phase, with the carrier wave c(t) used in the product
modulator to generate s(t). This method of demodulation is known as coherent
detection or synchronous detection.

For a more general demodulation process, we assume φ is a arbitrary phase difference.

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◊ The first term in Eq.(3.18) is removed by low-pass filter, provided that the cut-off frequency of
this filter is greater than W but less than 2fc – W. This is satisfied by choosing fc >W.
➢ Therefore,

Figure 14: Spectrum of output of the product modulator

From the spectrum, it is clear that the unwanted component (first term in the expression) can be
removed by the low-pass filter, provided that the cut-off frequency of the filter is greater than W
but less than 2fc-W. The filter output is given by

The demodulated signal vo(t) is therefore proportional to m(t) when the phase error ϕ is constant.
➢ vo(t) is proportional to m(t) when the phase error φ is a constant. Attenuated by a factor
equal to cosφ.

➢ When the phase error φ is constant, the detector provides an undistorted version of the
original baseband signal m(t).
➢ In practice, we usually find that the phase error φ varies randomly with time, due to
random variations in communication channel. The result is that at the detector output, the
multiplying factor cosφ also varies randomly with time, which is obviously undesired.

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➢ Provision must be made in the system to maintain the local oscillator in the receiver in
perfect synchronism, in both frequency and phase, with the carrier wave used to generate
the DSB-SC modulated signal in the transmitter.
➢ The resulting system complexity is the price that must be paid for suppressing the carrier
wave to save transmitter power.

Costas Receiver (Costas Loop)

➢ One method of obtaining a practical synchronous receiver system, suitable for
demodulating DSB-SC waves.
➢ Costas receiver is a synchronous receiver system, suitable for demodulating DSBSC
waves. It consists of two coherent detectors supplied with the same input signal,

Figure 15: Costas Receiver for the demodulation of a DSB-SC modulated wave

The frequency of the local oscillator is adjusted to be the same as the carrier frequency fc, which
is assumed known a prior.
◊ In the upper path is referred to as the in-phase coherent detector or I-channel, and that in the
lower path is referred to as the quadrature-phase coherent detector or Q-channel.
➢ These two detectors are coupled together to form a negative feedback system designed in
such a way as to maintain the local oscillator synchronous with the carrier wave.
➢ Suppose that the local oscillator phase drifts from its proper value by a small angle ϕ
radians.
➢ The I-channel output will remain essentially unchanged, but there will be some signal
appearing at the Q-channel output, which is proportional to sin⁡(𝜙)≈𝜙 for small ϕ.

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➢ This Q-channel output will have same polarity as the I-channel output for one direction of
local oscillator phase drift and opposite polarity for the opposite direction of local
oscillator phase drift.
➢ Thus by combining the I-channel and Q-channel outputs in a phase discriminator (which
consists of a multiplier followed by a LPF), a dc control signal is obtained that
automatically corrects for the local phase errors in the voltage-controlled oscillator
(VCO).

Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

➢ The quadrature null effect of the coherent detector also used in the construction of
quadrature-carrier multiplexing or Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation.
➢ QAM enables two DSB-SC modulated waves to occupy the same channel bandwidth.
Therefore this scheme is called as a bandwidth-conservation scheme.
➢ A block diagram of the quadrature-carrier multiplexing system is as shown in figure 16.
➢ The transmitter part of the system, involves the use of two separate product modulators
that are supplied with two carrier waves of the same frequency but differing in phase by -
90degrees.

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➢ The transmitted signal s(t) consists of the sum of these two product modulator outputs, as
shown by

➢ Where m1(t) and m2(t) denote the two different message signals applied to the product
modulators.
Thus s(t) occupies a channel bandwidth of 2W centred at the carrier frequency fc, where W is the
message bandwidth of m1(t) and m2(t).

Figure 16: Quadrature-carrier multiplexing system (a) Transmitter (b) Receiver

➢ The receiver part of the system is as shown in figure16b. The multiplexed signal s(t) is
applied simultaneously to two separate coherent detectors that are supplied with two local
carriers of the same frequency, but differing in phase by -90degrees.
➢ The output of the top detectors is ½ Ac’m1(t), where as the output of the bottom detector
is ½ Ac’m2(t).
➢ It is important to maintain the correct phase frequency relationship between the local
oscillators used in the transmitter and receiver parts of the system.
➢ To maintain the synchronization costas receiver may used. Another method used is
send a pilot signal outside the passband of the modulated signal.

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Single-Sideband and Vestigial- Sideband Methods of Modulation

➢ With double-sideband modulation, we are transmitting only one such signal and the
question that comes to mind is whether the bandpass bandwidth of 2W is actually
required.
◊ In actual fact, it can be shown that due to the symmetry of the DSB signal about the carrier
frequency, the same information is transmitted in the upper and lower sidebands, and only one of
the sidebands needs to be transmitted.
◊ There are two bandwidth conservation methods:
◊ Single-sideband (SSB) modulation.
◊ Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation.

Single-Sideband Suppressed carrier (SSB-SC)

➢ Standard AM and DSBSC require transmission bandwidth equal to twice the message
bandwidth. In both the cases spectrum contains two side bands of width W Hz, each.
➢ But the upper and lower sides are uniquely related to each other by the virtue of their
symmetry about the carrier frequency.
➢ That is, given the amplitude and phase spectra of either side band, the other can be
uniquely determined.
➢ Thus if only one side band is transmitted, and if both the carrier and the other side band
are suppressed at the transmitter, no information is lost.
➢ This kind of modulation is called SSBSC and spectral comparison between DSBSC and
SSBSC is shown in the figures 17 and 18.

Figure 17: Spectrum of DSBSC wave

Figure 18: Spectrum of SSBSC wave

◊ The generation of a SSB signal is straightforward.

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◊ First, generate a double-sideband signal

◊ Then apply an ideal pass-band filter to the result with cutoff frequencies of fc and fc +W
(or fc – W) for the upper sideband (or lower sideband).
◊ Practically, the approximate construction of an ideal filter is very difficult.

Figure 19: (a) Spectrum of a message signal m(t) with an energy gap centred around the origin. (b) Idealized
frequency response of band-pass filter. (c) Spectrum of SSB signal containing the upper sideband

➢ There by Single side band is transmitted, the resulting SSB modulated wave has the
spectrum shown in figure 19.
➢ Similarly, the lower side band is represented in duplicate by the frequencies below fc and
those above -fc and when only the lower side band is transmitted, the spectrum of the
corresponding SSB modulated wave shown in figure 19c.
➢ Thus the essential function of the SSB modulation is to translate the spectrum of the
modulating wave, either with or without inversion, to a new location in the frequency
domain.
➢ The advantage of SSB modulation is reduced bandwidth and the elimination of high
power carrier wave. The main disadvantage is the cost and complexity of its
implementation.

Vestigial Sideband Modulation

➢ A vestigial-sideband system is a compromise between DSB and SSB. It inherits the

advantages of DSB and SSB but avoids their disadvantages.
◊ VSB signals are relatively easy to generate and their bandwidth is only slightly (typically 25
percent) greater than that of SSB signals.
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◊ In VSB, instead of rejecting one sideband completely as in SSB, a gradual cutoff of one
sideband is accepted. All of the one sideband is transmitted and a small amount (vestige) of the
other sideband is transmitted as well.
◊ The filter is allowed to have a nonzero transition band.
◊ The roll-off characteristic of the filter is such that the partial suppression of the transmitted
sideband in the neighborhood of the is transmission of the carrier exactly compensated for by the
partial corresponding part of the suppressed sideband.
➢ Our goal is to determine the particular H( f ) required to produce a modulated signal s(t)
with desired spectral characteristics, such that the original baseband signal m(t) may be
recovered from s(t) by coherent detection.

➢ To obtain baseband signal m(t) at coherent detector output, we require V0( f ) to be a

scaled version of M ( f ). Therefore, we can choose:

o Equation V0(f) becomes;

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Figure 20: (a) Filtering scheme for processing sidebands. (b) Coherent detector for recovering the
message signal

Figure 21: Amplitude response of VSB filters; only positive-frequency portion is shown.
fv: width of vestigial sideband

Sideband Shaping Filter

The band-pass filter is referred to as a sideband shaping filter
The transmitted vestige compensates for the spectral portion missing from the other sideband.
The sideband shaping filter must itself satisfy the following condition.

Two properties of the sideband shaping filter

1.The transfer function of the sideband shaping filter exhibits odd symmetry about the carrier
frequency

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2. The transfer function Hv(f) is required to satisfy the condition of Eq. (3.26) only for the
frequency interval -W≤f≤W

Figure 22: VSB modulator using frequency discrimination

❖Television Signals

➢ The video signal exhibits a large bandwidth and significant low-frequency content, which
suggest the use of vestigial side band modulation.
➢ The circuitry used for demodulation in the receiver should be simple and therefore
inexpensive. This suggests the use of envelope detection, which requires the addition of a
carrier to the VSB modulated wave.

Figure 23: (a) Idealized amplitude spectrum of a transmitted TV signal. (b) Amplitude response of a VSB
shaping filter in the receiver.

Frequency Translations
➢ The basic operation involved in single-sideband modulation is in fact a form of frequency
translation.
◊ SSB modulation is sometimes referred to as frequency changing, mixing, or heterodyning.
◊ The mixer consists of a product modulator followed by a band-pass filter.
◊ Band-pass filter bandwidth: equal to that of the modulated signal s1(t) used as input.

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Figure 24: Block diagram of mixer.

Figure 25: (a) Spectrum of modulated signal s1(t) at the mixer input (b) Spectrum of the corresponding signal
s`(t) at the output of the product modulator in the mixer
➢ Due to frequency translation performed by the mixer : We may set

◊ The band-pass filter rejects the unwanted frequency and keeps the desired one.
◊ Mixing is a linear operation.

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Frequency-Division Multiplexing

To transmit a number of these signals over the same channel, the signals must be kept apart so
that they do not interfere with each other, and thus they can be separated at the receiving end.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)

Figure 26: Block diagram of FDM system.

➢ Multiplexing is a scheme, whereby a number of independent signals can be

combined into a composite signal suitable for transmission over a common
channel. Voice frequencies transmitted over telephone systems, for example,
range from 300 to 3100 Hz.
➢ To transmit a number of these signals over the same channel (e.g. cable), the
signals must be kept apart so that they do not interfere with each other, and
thus they can be separated at the receiving end.
➢ This is accomplished by separating the signals either in frequency or in time.
The technique of separating the signals in frequency is referred to as
frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), whereas the technique of separating
the signals in time is called time-division multiplexing (TDM).

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➢ Following each signal input, we have shown a low- pass filter, which is
designed to remove high-frequency components that do not contribute
significantly to signal representation but are capable of disturbing other message
signals that share the common channel.
➢ These low-pass filters may be omitted only if the input signals are sufficiently
band-limited initially. The filtered signals are applied to modulators that shift
the frequency ranges of the signals so as to occupy mutually exclusive
frequency intervals.
➢ The necessary carrier frequencies needed to perform these frequency
translations are obtained from a carrier supply. For the modulation, we may
use any one of the methods described in previous sections of this chapter.
➢ However, in telephony, the most widely used method of modulation in
frequency-division multiplexing is single sideband modulation, which, in the
case of voice signals, requires a bandwidth that is approximately equal to that
of the original voice signal.
➢ In practice, each voice input is usually assigned a bandwidth of 4 kHz. The
band-pass filters following the modulators are used to restrict the band of
each modulated wave to its prescribed range.
➢ The resulting band-pass filter outputs are next combined in parallel to form the
input to the common channel. At the receiving terminal, a bank of band-pass
filters, with their inputs connected in parallel, is used to separate the message
signals on a frequency-occupancy basis.
➢ Finally, the original message signals are recovered by individual
demodulators.

EXAMPLE: Modulation steps in a 60-channel FDM system

The practical implementation of an FDM system usually involves many steps
of modulation and demodulation, as illustrated in Figure The first multiplexing step
combines 12 voice inputs into a basic group, which is formed by having the nth input
modulate a carrier at frequency fc= 60+4nkHz, where n =1, 2,12. The lower sidebands
are then selected by band- pass filtering and combined to form a group of 12 lower
sidebands (one for each voice input). Thus, the basic group occupies the frequency band
60–108 kHz. The next step in the FDM hierarchy involves the combination of five basic

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groups into a super group. This is accomplished by using the nth group to modulate a
carrier of frequency fc= 372+48n kHz, where n=1, 2,. , 5. Here again the lower
sidebands are selected by filtering and then combined to form a super group occupying
the band 312–552 kHz. Thus, a super group is designed to accommodate 60 independent
voice inputs. The reason for forming the super group in this manner is that economical
filters of the required characteristics are available only over a limited frequency range.
In a similar manner, super groups are combined into master groups, and master- groups
are combined into very large groups.

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Comparison of AM Techniques

Applications of different AM systems

• Amplitude Modulation: AM radio, short wave radio broadcast

• DSB-SC: Data Modems, Color TV’s color signals.
• SSB: Telephone
VSB: TV picture signals

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