ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE II

EEC 125
By Mr Elijah Emmanuel

Course Outlines:
1. The concept of magnetism and magnetic circuits
2. The concept of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction
3. The concept of inductance and its applications
4. The Fundamentals of a.c. Theory

1.0 The concept of magnetism and magnetic circuits

Introduction
A Magnet is a material with two poles that produces an invisible force field within which other
metallic or magnets materials can be attracted to or repelled from it.

Magnetic field
Magnetic field is defined as the region in space where the magnetic force can be felt. A magnetic
field is filled with the line of force called Flux which flows from North to South pole and can be
traced by placing a piece of paper on top of a magnet and sprinkle fine iron powder on top; the
shape of the invisible magnetic fields become visible as the fine iron powder clings to them.

Magnetic flux: This is defined as the number of magnetic lines of forces set up in a magnetic field or
circuit.

Magnetic flux density (B) is defined as the magnetic strength of the magnetic field. Or force acting per unit
current per unit length on a wire placed at right angles to the magnetic field. The unit of B is Tesla (T).

Magneto-motive Force
Definition: The current flowing in an electric circuit is due to the existence of electromotive
force similarly magneto-motive force (MMF) is required to drive the magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit.
The magnetic pressure, which sets up the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called Magneto-motive
Force. The SI unit of MMF is Ampere-turn (AT).

Magnetic Reluctance
Definition: The obstruction offered by a magnetic circuit to the magnetic flux is known as reluctance. As in
electric circuit, there is resistance similarly in the magnetic circuit, there is reluctance, but resistance in an
electrical circuit dissipates the electric energy and the reluctance in magnetic circuit stores the magnetic
energy. It is denoted with S and measured in Henry/meter (H/m).

Permittivity of free space, ε0:

This is a physical constant used often in electromagnetism. It represents the capability of a vacuum to
permit electric fields. The permittivity of free space, ε0
is given as ε0 = 8.8542×10−12 and measured in F/m (farads per meter)

Relative Permittivity
The relative permittivity, or dielectric constant, of a material is its (absolute) 
Permittivity expressed as a ratio relative to the vacuum permittivity. It is expressed as:
εr = ε0/ ε
Electrical Equivalent of Magnetic Circuit

Magnetic Circuits

Electrical Circuit

Analogies Between Electrical and Magnetic Circuits

S/n Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

A Similarities
1 EMF, Volt MMF, Ampere Turn
2 Current, Ampere Flux, Weber
3 Resistance, Ohm Reluctance, A/Wb
4 Current density, A/m2 Flux density, T or Wb/m2
5 Conductivity Permittivity
6 Resistivity Reluctivity
7 Conductance Permeance
B Differences
1 Current actually flow Flux is created but does not flow

2 Circuit may be open or closed Circuit is always closed

Difference between Hard and Soft Magnetic Material

1. Hard magnetic material has large hysteresis loss. Soft magnetic material has low hysteresis
loss.
2. Domain wall moment is difficult in hard magnet whereas domain wall moment is relatively
easier in soft magnet.
3. In hard magnetic material coercivity & Retentivity are large. In soft magnetic material,
coercivity & Retentivity are small.
4. Hard magnetic material cannot be easily magnetized & demagnetized. Soft magnetic
material can be easily magnetized & demagnetized.
5. Magnetostatic energy is large in the first. Magnetostatic energy is small in the soft magnet.
6. Hard magnets have small values of permeability and susceptibility soft magnets have large
values of susceptibility and permeability.
7. First one can be used to make permanent magnets. Second one can be used to make
electromagnets.
 8. Hard magnetic material examples: Iron-nickel-aluminium alloys, copper-nickel-iron alloys,
copper— nickel-cobalt alloys. Soft magnetic material examples: Iron- silicon alloys,
ferrous- nickel alloys, ferrites, garnets.

2.0 The Concept of Electromagnetism and Electromagnetic Induction

The magnetic effect of electric current
When electric current passes through current carrying conductor or coil, a magnetic field is produced around
it. The workings of appliances like electric bells are based on this principle. As opposite to this if a
continuous change in magnetic field is produced, electric current is generated by it. This is how electricity
and magnetism have become synonymous today.

Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Straight Conductor

When current passes through a straight conductor carrying current, magnetic field is formed around it as
shown below

Straight Conductor Carrying Current

Magnetic field due to parallel conductors carrying current

When the current in the parallel conductor flow in the same direction, there will be force of attraction
between the conductor but if they flow in opposite direction, the parallel conductors will repel. Below is the
diagram of illustration:

Current Flows in Opposite Direction

Current Flows in the Same Direction

Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Circular Loop

Suppose a straight wire is bent in the form of a circular loop and a current is passed through it, magnetic
field formed at every point on the wire carrying current would give rise to the magnetic field appearing as
straight lines at the centre of the loop. Below is the diagram:

Circular Coil Carrying Current

Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid

A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder is called a
solenoid. The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines. This indicates that the
magnetic field is the same at all points inside the solenoid. That is, the field is uniform inside the solenoid.
Below is the diagram.

Solenoid

Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

When a conductor carrying current is placed in a magnetic field due to some other sources, the
conductor experiences a mechanical force. Fleming in an attempt to relate the direction of the
current, the applied field and the motion, he liking them to the middle finger, the fore finger and
the thumb of the left hand respectively when held all at right angle to one another. He concluded
by giving a stating rule which is called Fleming’s left-hand rule and it states that:

The force on a conductor is always at right angle to the plane which contains both the
conductor and the direction of the field in which it is placed.

He further showed that, if the conductor makes an angle, θ with the field, the force on it is
proportional to sin θ .
i.e. F α sin θ ……………………………………………….………………………………………. 1
So, the maximum force is exerted when the conductor is perpendicular to the field
i.e Sin θ=1
Note: F is zero when the conductor is parallel to the field direction.
Experiments also showed that, the force around a current carrying conductor, F depends on the
current flowing through the conductor, I, the length of the conductor, l, and the flux density of the
field, B. The force F is directly proportional to the current I, the length l and the flux density, B.
i.e. F α I………………………………….………………………………………….……2
F α l…………………………………………………………….……………………….………3
F α B………………………………………………………………………….……….4
From the above expressions,
F α BilSin θ
F = kBIlSin θ ……………………………………………………..…………………..5
Where k is the constant of proportionality and is equal to 1.
Note: the unit of flux density, B is tesla, T.
F = BIlsin θ …………………………………………………..……………………….6
When the whole length of the conductor, l is perpendicular to the field, B, then sin θ becomes 1
since sin90 = 1, hence the equation above becomes
F = BIl……………………………………………………………………………….………..7
Example 1
A wire carrying conductor of 10A and 2m in length is placed in a field of flux density 0.15T.
What is the force on the wire if it is placed?
i. At right angle to the field
ii. At 48 o to the field
iii. Along the field
Sol.
i. F = BIl
= 0.15 x 10 x 2
= 3N

ii. F = BIlsin θ
= 0.15 x 10 x 2 x Sin48 o
= 2.3N

iii. F=0

The Concept of Electromagnetic Induction

The concept of electromagnetic induction was first investigated by Faraday in 1831 where he
completes the link between magnetism and electricity. In his investigation, he shows that,
electromotive force and current can be produced by electromagnetic induction. This is what leads
to the statement, faradays law of electromagnetic induction.

Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that, if the flux linked to a circuit is changed in
any way, then an electromotive force is induced in the circuit whose magnitude is proportional to
the rate of change of the flux linkage to the circuit.

Or Faraday’s law states that, the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of
the magnetic flux linking the circuit.

The term flux linkage is used here to include circuits such as coil in which the wire encircles the
path of the circuit more than once. In this case the flux linked to the circuit is the sum of flux
linkage to the individual turns. It is often possible to make the approximation that the flux linkage
to each turn of a coil is the same, so that the total flux linkage is the product of the flux linked to
one turn and the number of turns. Denoting flux linkage by ɸ, this relation is expressed by the
equation:

ɸ = BN……………………………………………………………………………………………..8

Where B is the magnetic flux density and N is the number of turns

From Faraday’s law, we were made to understand that, the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional
to the rate of change of flux linkage, ɸ.

dɸ
∴ The e.m.f., E α
dt
dɸ
E = -k
dt
Where K is the positive constant, the negative sign expresses Lenze’s law.
We have also seen that the direction of the e.m.f. induced in a circuit by a changing magnetic flux
linkage is always such that it tries to opposes the change of flux which caused it. This observation
gave rise to the statement called lenze’s law.

Lenz’s law states that the induced e.m.f opposes the motion of changed flux that produces it.

Faradays’ law can be expressed mathematically as:

dɸ
E=-
dt
Where the magnetic constant, k is always equal to one.
For N turns,
dɸ
E = -N
dt
Where E = induced e.m.f.
ɸ = flux linkage
N = number of turns of the coil

Example
Suppose a single turn coil of cross-sectional area 5cm 2 is at right angle to a flux density of 2 x 10 -
2
T, which is then reduced steadily to zero in 10s. Calculate the induced e.m.f.
Sol.
The flux linkage change, Nd ɸ = Number of turn, N x change in flux density, β x area
Nd ɸ =N β A
= (1) x (2 x 10 -2 ) x (5 x 10 -4 m 2 )
= 1 x 10 -5 Wb
The change occur in time dt = 10s
dɸ
∴ E = -N
dt

= -1 x 10 -5 Wb
10s

= - 1 x 10 -6 V
If the coil had 5000 turns, the flux linkage would be 5000 times as great.
i.e Nd ɸ = 5 x 10 -2 Wb
and E = -5 x 10 -3 V
If the normal to the plane of this coil made an angle of 60 o instead of 90 o with the field, then
Nd ɸ = 5 x 10 -2 Sin60 o
= 4.3 x 10 -2 Wb
And E = -4.3 x 10 -3 V
Exercise
1. A coil of 500 turns and area 10cm 2 is placed with its plane perpendicular to the magnetic field
of 2 x 10 -3 T. If the field be uniformly reduced to zero in 10 -2 s, what will be the emf induced in the
coil? If the resistance of the coil is 50Ω, calculate the value of the current and the charge induced
in the coil.
2. Find the magnitude of the induced e.m.f in a 200 turn coil with cross sectional area of 0.16m 2 if
the magnetic field through the coil changes from 0.10T to 0.50T at a uniform rate over a period of
0.02s.
3. (a) under what circumstances is an e.m.f. induced in a conductor? What factor governs the
magnitude and direction of the induced e.m.f? (b) A straight wire of length 50cm and resistance of
10Ω moves sideway with a velocity of 15ms -1 at right angle to the uniform magnetic field of flux
density 2 x 10 -3 T. what current will flow if it ends were connected by lead of negligible
resistance?
4a. A narrow coil of 10 turns and area 4 x 10 -2 m 2 is placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux
density B of 10 -2 T so that the flux links to the turns normally. Calculate the average induced e.m.f
in the coil if it is removed completely from the field in 0.5s.
b. if the same coil is rotated about an axes through it middle so that it turn through 60 o in 0.2s in
the field β , calculate the average induced e.m.f.

Applications of electromagnetic induction

1. It is used in power generation and power transmission
2. It is used in electromagnetic induction in AC generator
3. It is used in electrical Transformers
4. It is used in magnetic Flow Meter
5. Hard drives utilize magnetic induction to read/write information.
6. Other applications of magnetic induction can be found in graphics tablets, electric and
hybrid vehicles, and in transracial magnetic stimulation.
3.0 The concept of inductance and its applications
Induction is the magnetic field which is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field.
This definition of induction holds for a conductor. Induction is also known as inductance. L is
used to represent the inductance and Henry is the S.I. unit of inductance.
Factors Affecting Inductance
Following are the factors that affects the inductance:
1. The number of turns of the wire used in the inductor.
2. The material used in the core.
3. The shape of the core.

According to Faraday’s Law:

Electromotive force, E = – L ΔI/Δt
Unit of Inductance = Volt Second/Ampere=Henry

Type of Induction
Two types of induction, there are:
1. Self-Induction
2. Mutual Induction
Self-Induction
If changing current or flux flowing in a ciol produces emf in the same coil, it is called self-
induction. When the current starts flowing through the coil at any instant, it is found that, that the
magnetic flux becomes directly proportional to the current passing through the circuit. The
relation is given as:

Φ∝ I

ϕ = L I

Where L is the self-inductance of the coil or the coefficient of self-inductance; the self-inductance
depends on the cross-sectional area, the permeability of the material, or the number of turns in the
coil.

The rate of change of magnetic flux in the coil is given as,

E = – dϕ/dt = – d(LI)/dt

or E = – L dI/dt

L=Nϕ/I
Were,

 L is the self- inductance in Henries

 N is the number of turns
 Φ is the magnetic flux
 I is the current in amperes
Mutual Induction
We take two coils, and they are placed close to each other.   The two coils are P- coil (Primary
coil) and S- coil (Secondary coil). To the P-coil, a battery, and a key is connected wherein the S-
coil a galvanometer is connected across it. When there is a change in the current or  magnetic
flux linked with two coils an opposing electromotive force is produced across each coil, and this
phenomenon is termed as Mutual Induction. Therefore, Mutual induction is defined as the
process whereby the changing flux or current through one coil produces emf in another coil.
The relation is given as:

ϕ  ∝ I

ϕ = MI
Where M is termed as the mutual inductance of the two coils or the coefficient of the mutual
inductance of the two coils.

The rate of change of magnetic flux in the coil is given as,

E = – dϕ/dt = – d(MI)dt

E = – MdI/dt

Mutual Inductance, M = μ0μrN1N2A/l

Were,
 μ0 is the permeability of free space
 μr is the relative permeability of the soft iron core
 N is the number of turns in coil
 A is the cross-sectional area in m2
 l is the length of the coil in m
Arrangement of Inductors
Inductors can be arranged either in series or in parallel.

Series Inductors
Consider a series connection of N  inductors, as shown below:

The equivalent inductance for the series connection inductors is the sum of the individual inductances.

Example 1: If a circuit has 3 inductors of 60 Henry, 30Henry and 20Henry connected in series, what will be
the total inductance of the series?
Sol: We know that the formula for total inductance of series, LTotal = L1 + L2 + L3 + ….. + Ln
Given that L1 = 60 Henry
L1 = 30 Henry
L1 = 20 Henry
The total inductance, LTotal = 60 + 30 + 20 = 110Henry.

Parallel Inductors
We now consider a parallel connection of N inductors, connected side by side;

The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual inductances.

The induced voltage across an inductor

We will start with making an Inductor; let’s take an insulated wire and a pencil. Take the wire and wind it
around the pencil and then slide the pencil away from the wire. We will be left with the coiled wire. This
coil is an inductor which is a very important circuit element. 

To calculate the voltage across an inductor, the formula is:

V = L di/dt

di/dt = V/L

di/dt = Vmsinωt/L

Where, Vm  = peak value of the voltage and ω = angular frequency. On integrating the above expression we
get:

where im = peak value of current. So, we may conclude that the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees, which
means the current reaches the same value as the voltage after a quarter cycle.
Example
If the current going through the inductor is 70sin(1000t) and its inductance is 50μH, what is the voltage
across the inductor?
Sol.
V = Ldi/dt
= 50μH x 70sin(1000t)/dt
= 50μH x 70 x 1000
= 3.5Cos1000t V
Inductance In coupled Coils Connected in Series

Mutually Connected Inductors in Series

Now consider that inductors are connected such that magnetic field of one coil affects the other. When two
or more inductors are connected in series, then the inductance of one inductor will be affected by the
magnetic field produced by the other coil.

This is called mutual inductance and the coils are called “Mutually connected inductors”. This mutual
inductance may increase or decrease the total inductance of the series circuit.

The factor that affects the mutual inductance of a series connected of inductors is the distance between the
coils and their orientation.
The mutually connected inductors can couple in two ways

1. Cumulatively coupled or Series Aiding

2. Differentially coupled or Series opposing

Cumulatively Coupled Inductors in Series

If the magnetic fluxes produced by the inductors are in the same direction to the flow of current through
them, then the coils are known as “Cumulatively coupled”.

In this series aiding or cumulative coupled circuit, the current enters or leaves the terminals of coils at any
instant of time are in the same direction.

The figure below shows the connection of two inductors in series aiding arrangement.

If we pass the current through the cumulatively coupled coils (between the nodes A & D) in the same
direction, the voltage drop of each individual coil will affect the total inductance of the series.

Let self-inductance of the coil-1 is L1, self-inductance of the coil-2 is L2 and the mutual inductance is M
between coil 1 and coil2.

Self-induced emf in coil-1 is

E1 = – L1 di/ dt

Mutual induced emf in coil-1 due to change of current in coil-2 is

EM1 = – M di/ dt

Similarly, Self-induced emf in coil-2 is

E2 = – L2 di/ dt

Mutual induced emf in coil-2 due to change of current in coil-1 is

EM2 = – M di/ dt

Therefore, total induced emf in the series aiding circuit is given as

E = – L1 di/ dt– L2 di/ dt– 2M di/ dt

= – (L1+ L2 + 2M) di/ dt

If LT is the total inductance of the circuit, the total induced emf will be equivalent to
E = – LT di/ dt

Substituting in the above equation, we get

– LT di/ dt = – (L1+ L2 + 2M) di/ dt

Therefore, LT = (L1 + L2 + 2M)

Cumulatively Coupled Inductors in Series Example

Ex: If two coils of inductance 70mH and 30mH are connected in series, then find the total cumulative
inductance of the series connected inductors. Consider the mutual inductance of the combination of the two
coils is 40mH.

Sol:

Given that, L1 = 70mH

L2 = 30 mH

M = 40 mH

Applying the formula for cumulatively connected inductors, LT = L1 + L2 + 2M

LT = 70 + 30 + 2 (40)

= 100 + 80

=180mH

Therefore, the cumulative inductance of the coil is 180 milli Henry.

Differentially Coupled Inductors in Series

If the magnetic fluxes produced by the inductors are in the opposite direction to each other, then the coils are
known as “Differentially coupled”.

In this differential coupled or series opposition connection, the current enters or leaves the terminals of coils
at any instant of time are in the opposite direction.

The figure below shows the connection of two inductors in series opposition arrangement.
In differentially coupled coils, the magnetic flux fields may produce in same direction or opposite direction.
Let the self inductance of the coils are L1 and L2 and the mutual inductance is M.

Here mutual inductance will be aided to each coil self inductance due to the circuit configuration.
Therefore, total induced emf in the series opposing circuit is given as

e = – L1 di/ dt– L2 di/ dt + 2M di/ dt

= – (L1+ L2 – 2M) di/ dt

If LT is the total inductance of the circuit, the total induced emf will be equivalent to

e = – LT di/ dt

Substituting in the above equation, we get

– LT di/ dt = – (L1+ L2 – 2M) di/ dt

Therefore, LT = (L1 + L2 – 2M)

Differentially Coupled Inductors in Series Example

Example: If two coils of inductance 70 mH and 30 mH are connected in series, then find the total differential
inductance of the series connected inductors. Consider the mutual inductance of the combination of the two
coils is 40 mH.

Sol:

Given that, L1 = 70 mH

L2 = 30 mH

M = 40 mH

Applying the formula for differentially connected inductors, LT = L1 + L2 – 2M

LT = 70 + 30 – 2 (40)

= 100 – 80

= 20 mH
Therefore the Differential inductance of the coil is 20 milli Henry.
Energy in an Inductor
When a electric current is flowing in an inductor, there is energy stored in the magnetic field. Considering a
pure inductor L, the instantaneous power which must be supplied to initiate the current in the inductor is

so the energy input to build to a final current i is given by the integral

where

E = energy stored (joules, J)

L = inductance (henrys, H)

I = current (amps, A)

Example

Calculate the energy stored in an inductor with inductance 10H with current 5A.

W = 1/2 (10 H) (5 A)2

    = 125 J
Operation of the Induction Coiled in a Car Ignition
An ignition coil (also called a spark coil) is an induction coil in an automobile's ignition
system that transforms the battery's voltage to the thousands of volts needed to create an electric spark in
the spark plugs to ignite the fuel. Some coils have an internal resistor, while others rely on a resistor wire or an
external resistor to limit the current flowing into the coil from the car's 12-volt supply. The wire that goes from
the ignition coil to the distributor and the high voltage wires that go from the distributor to each of the spark
plugs are called spark plug wires or high tension leads.
An ignition coil consists of a laminated iron core surrounded by two coils of copper wire. Unlike a
power transformer, an ignition coil has an open magnetic circuit — the iron core does not form a
closed loop around the windings. The energy that is stored in the  magnetic field of the core is the
energy that is transferred to the spark plug.
The primary winding has relatively few turns of heavy wire. The secondary winding consists of
thousands of turns of smaller wire, insulated from the high voltage by enamel on the wires and
layers of oiled paper insulation. The coil is usually inserted into a metal can or plastic case with
insulated terminals for the high voltage and low voltage connections. When the contact breaker
closes, it allows current from the battery to flow through the primary winding of the ignition coil.
The current does not flow instantly because of the  inductance of the coil. Current flowing in the
coil produces a magnetic field in the core and in the air surrounding the core. The current must
flow long enough to store enough energy in the field for the spark. Once the current has built up to
its full level, the contact breaker opens. Since it has a capacitor connected across it, the primary
winding and the capacitor form a tuned circuit, and as the stored energy oscillates between the
inductor formed by the coil and the capacitor, the changing magnetic field in the core of the coil
induces a much larger voltage in the secondary of the coil. More modern electronic ignition
systems operate on exactly the same principle, but some rely on charging the capacitor to around
400 volts rather than charging the inductance of the coil. The  timing of the opening of the contacts
(or switching of the transistor) must be matched to the position of the piston in the cylinder so that
the spark may be timed to ignite the air/fuel mixture to extract the most  angular
momentum possible.
4.0 The Fundamentals of a.c. Theory
A current (or voltage) is called alternating if it reverses periodically in direction, and its
magnitude undergoes a definite cycle of changes in definite intervals of time. Each cycle of
alternating current (or voltage) consists of two half cycles, during one of which the current (or
Voltage) acts in one direction; while during the other in opposite direction.
Alternating current is a periodically varying current, the average value of which, over a period, is
zero. The graphical representations of alternating current are given in below:

The Reasons for Generation of Electrical Energy in the form of Alternating Current
At present a large percentage of the electrical energy (nearly all) being used for domestic and
commercial purposes is generated as alternating current. In fact, almost the whole of the vast
amount of electrical energy used throughout the world for every imaginable purpose is generated
by alternating current generators. The reasons for generation of electrical energy in the form of
alternating current are given below:

1. AC generators have no commutator and can, therefore, be built in very large units to run at
high speeds producing high voltages (as high as 11,000 volts), so that the construction and
operating cost per kW is low, whereas dc generator capacities and voltages are limited to
comparatively low values.
2. Alternating current can be generated at comparatively high voltages and can be raised and
lowered readily by a static machine called the transformer which makes the transmission
and distribution of electrical energy economical. In direct current use of transformers is not
possible.
3. AC induction motor is cheaper in initial cost and in maintenance since it has got no
commutator and is more efficient than dc motor for constant speed work, so it is desirable
to generate power as alternating current.
 4. The high transmission efficiency in ac makes the generation of electrical energy
economical by generating it in large quantities in a single station and distributing over a
large territory.
5. The switchgear (e.g. switches, circuit breakers etc.) for ac system is simpler than that
required in a dc system.
6. The maintenance cost of equipment is less.

Generation of Alternating EMF by a rotating coil in a magnetic field

We know that an alternating emf can be generated either by rotating a coil within a stationary
magnetic field, as illustrated in Fig. (a) or by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as
illustrated in Fig. (b). The emf generated, in either case, will be of sinusoidal waveform. The
magnitude of emf generated in the coil, E depends upon the number of turns on the coil, N the
strength of magnetic field B and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates ω. The
former method is employed in case of small ac generators while the later one is employed for
large sized ac generators.

Now consider a rectangular coil of N turns rotating in counter-clockwise direction with angular
velocity of ω radians per second in a uniform magnetic field, as illustrated below.

Let the time be measured from the instant of coincidence of the plane of the coil with the X-axis.
At this instant maximum flux, Φ max  links with the coil. Let the coil assume the position, as shown
below, after moving in counter-clockwise direction for t seconds.
The angle θ through which the coil has rotated in t seconds = ωt

In this position, the component of flux along perpendicular to the plane of coil = Φ max  cos  ωt.

Hence flux linkages of the coil at this instant = Number of turns on coil × linking flux

i.e; instantaneous flux linkages = N Φ max  cos  ωt.

Since emf induced in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages with minus sign,

EMF induced at any instant,

When ωt = 0, sinωt = 0, therefore, induced emf is maximum, which is denoted by E max  and is equal
to Φ max  N  ω

i.e E max = Φ max  N  ω ………………………………(1)

Instantaneous emf, E = E max sin ωt  …………………..2

Example 1: A coil having 200 turns and area of x-section 250 cm 2   is rotated about its axis at
right angle to a uniform magnetic field of strength 0.5T at a speed of 1,200 rpm. Determine

a). maximum value of emf induced

b). Equation of instantaneous induced emf

c). Instantaneous values of induced emf when

(i). The plane of the coil is at right angle to the field.

(ii). The plane of the coil is parallel to the field and

(iii). The plane of the coil is at an angle of 60 0   to the field.

Solution: Angular velocity,

Example 2: A square coil of 100 turns is rotated at a uniform speed of 1,000 revolutions per
minutes, about an axis at right angle to a uniform magnetic field of 0.5 Wb/m 2 . Calculate the
instantaneous value of the induced electromotive force, when the plane of the coil is

1. At right angle to the field

2. In the plane of the field.

Solution: Angular velocity,
Definition of terms
1. Root Mean Square (RMS) The Root Mean Square (RMS) value is “the square root of the
sum of squares of means of an alternating quantity”. It is defined as the steady or DC
current which when flowing through a circuit for a given time period produces the same
heat as produced by the AC current flowing through the same circuit for the same time
period.
2. Instantaneous value: the instantaneous value is “the value of an alternating quantity (ac
voltage, ac current or ac power) at a particular instant of time in the cycle”.
3. The average value is defined as “the average of all instantaneous values during one
alternation”.
4. Peak Value: Is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle. It
is also known as the maximum value or amplitude or crest value.
5. Period: The time taken by a alternating quantity (such as current or voltage) to complete
one cycle is called its time period “T”, T = 1/f.
6. Frequency: Frequency is the number if cycles passed through per second. It is denoted by
“f” and has the unit cycle per second i.e. Hz (Herts), f = 1/T.

The instantaneous value at t=1 is i 1 At t = n is, i n

The average value for one alternation (0 to π) is

The Root Mean Square (RMS) value was initially explained as the square root of the sum of
squares of means of an alternating quantity, so it is expressed as:

Here, i1,i2,…in are mean values, therefore

WE WILL NEED TO PHOTOCOPY THE REMAINING PART IN THIS

MIDDLE (Thanks)

Key Differences between Single Phase & Three Phase Power Supply
Following are the main differences between single phase and poly phase (3-phase) power supply.
SINGLE PHASE POWER SUPPLY THREE PHASE POWER SUPPLY

The AC power where all the voltages has same The AC power where there are 3 sinusoidal voltages
sinusoidal pattern. having 120° phase difference.

It requires only two wires to complete the circuit. It require either 3 or 4 conductors depending on the
configuration.

It is also known as Split Phase System. It is also known as Poly Phase System

Single phase is very simple. It is complex than single phase.

It can power small loads less than 1000 Watts. It can power heavy loads above 1000 Watts.

Power failure occurs due to a fault in power line. Impervious to power failure due fault in signal
power line.

It is less reliable and efficient as three phase. It more reliable and efficient than single phase
power.
The voltage and current goes to zero in a cycle. The voltage and current never goes to zero.

It cannot generate rotational magnetic field in It can generate RMF without any extra circuitry.
induction motor. it uses extra circuitry.

The supplied voltage is equal to the voltage The phase to phase voltage is equal to √3 times the
difference between phase and neutral. phase voltage. While phase to neutral voltage is
equal to single phase voltage.

It carries less power than equivalent three phase It can carry high power as compared to 3 single
supply. phase AC power supplies.

It is used for power distribution over short It is used for power transmission over long

distances. distances because of lower copper losses.

The power losses in single phase is relatively higher. The power losses in three phase is relatively lower.

It needs expensive converters to convert into three Wye arranged three phase supply can offer 3

phase power supply. single-phase using either phase wire and neutral
wire.
It is less economical as compared to poly phase It is more economical as it uses only 4 wires instead
system. of 6 to supply the same power.

It is used for powering home appliance and office It is used for powering heavy loads in industries.
equipment.

Key Advantages of three Phases system over a Single Phase system

1. To transmit a specific power over a specific distance at a given rated voltage, a three phase

system needs less conductor material as compared to the single phase system.
2. The size of a three phase system operated machine is less than the machine operated at
single phase voltage having the same output rating.
3. In a three phase power supply system, the less voltage drop occurs from source to the load
points,
4. A three phase supply produces uniform rotating magnetic field therefore,  three phase
motors are simpler in construction, small in size and can be started automatically with
smooth operation.
5. A polyphase system produces power at a constant rate in the load.
6. A three phase system can transmit more power as compared to a single phase system.
7. The efficiency of three phase operated devices and appliances is higher than the single-
phase operated machines.
8. Three phase machines are less costly and more efficient.
9. A three phase system provides constant power while a single phase system provides
pulsating power which leads to a smooth and vibration free operation of a 3-Φ machine as
compared to the 1-Φ machines with noise and vibration.
10. The output rating of machines can be increased by increasing the number of phases in a
system.
11. A three phase machine having the same rating occupies less space as compared to the single
phase machine.
12. A single-phase supply can be obtained from three phase supply to run the 1-phase
machines. A three-phase machine can’t be operated on single phase supply voltage.
13. A three-phase supply can be easily converted to a single-phase supply while a complex
system is needed to convert the single-phase supply into a three-phase supply system
14. If a fault occurs on a single-phase line, the whole system will have to shut down. In case of
three phase single line fault, the other two lines provide the power supply to other single
phase load points connected to them.
15. A polyphase or three phase motor provides uniform torque while single phase
motors (expect commutator motors) provides pulsating torque.
16. Three phase motors are self-started while single phase motors can’t be started
automatically.
17. If the frame size of a three phase alternator, motor or transformer is the same like a single
phase motor, alternator or transformer,  the output of three phase machines would be higher
than that of a single phase machine.
18. A polyphase alternator can be easily paired and run-in parallel operation as compared to
single phase alternators having the pulsating armature reaction.
19. The ripple factor in DC rectified voltage from 3-Φ supply is 4% while the ripple factor in
DC rectified voltage from 1-Φ supply is 48%. Hence,  the cost of converter for  DC rectified
from 3-Φ supply is less than the converter used for rectified  DC voltage from 1-Φ supply
due to the less number of filters used in 3-Φ supply system rectification.
20. Three phase motors have better power factor as compared to single phase motors.