Unit-5

Transactin Management
Transactins
Transaction
o The transaction is a set of logically related operation. It contains a group of tasks.

o A transaction is an action or series of actions. It is performed by a single user to perform

operations for accessing the contents of the database.

Example: Suppose an employee of bank transfers Rs 800 from X's account to Y's account. This
small transaction contains several low-level tasks:

X's Account
1. Open_Account(X)
2. Old_Balance = X.balance
3. New_Balance = Old_Balance - 800
4. X.balance = New_Balance
5. Close_Account(X)

Y's Account
1. Open_Account(Y)
2. Old_Balance = Y.balance
3. New_Balance = Old_Balance + 800
4. Y.balance = New_Balance
5. Close_Account(Y)

Operations of Transaction:
Following are the main operations of transaction:

Read(X): Read operation is used to read the value of X from the database and stores it in a
buffer in main memory.

Write(X): Write operation is used to write the value back to the database from the buffer.

Let's take an example to debit transaction from an account which consists of following
operations:

1. 1. R(X);
2. 2. X = X - 500;
3. 3. W(X);

Let's assume the value of X before starting of the transaction is 4000.

o The frst operation reads X's value from database and stores it in a buffer.

o The second operation will decrease the value of X by 500. So buffer will contain 3500.

o The third operation will write the buffer's value to the database. So X's fnal value will be
3500.

But it may be possible that because of the failure of hardware, software or power, etc. that
transaction may fail before fnished all the operations in the set.
For example: If in the above transaction, the debit transaction fails after executing operation 2
then X's value will remain 4000 in the database which is not acceptable by the bank.

To solve this problem, we have two important operations:

Commit: It is used to save the work done permanently.

Rollback: It is used to undo the work done.

Transaction property
The transaction has the four properties. These are used to maintain consistency in a database,
before and after the transaction.

Property of Transaction
1. Atomicity

2. Consistency

3. Isolation

4. Durability

Atomicity
o It states that all operations of the transaction take place at once if not, the transaction is
aborted.

o There is no midway, i.e., the transaction cannot occur partially. Each transaction is
treated as one unit and either run to completion or is not executed at all.
 Atomicity involves the following two operations:

Abort: If a transaction aborts then all the changes made are not visible.

Commit: If a transaction commits then all the changes made are visible.

Example: Let's assume that following transaction T consisting of T1 and T2. A consists of Rs 600
and B consists of Rs 300. Transfer Rs 100 from account A to account B.

T1 T2

Read(A) Read(B)
A:= A-100 Y:= Y+100
Write(A) Write(B)

After completion of the transaction, A consists of Rs 500 and B consists of Rs 400.

If the transaction T fails after the completion of transaction T1 but before completion of
transaction T2, then the amount will be deducted from A but not added to B. This shows the
inconsistent database state. In order to ensure correctness of database state, the transaction
must be executed in entirety.

Consistency
o The integrity constraints are maintained so that the database is consistent before and
after the transaction.

o The execution of a transaction will leave a database in either its prior stable state or a
new stable state.

o The consistent property of database states that every transaction sees a consistent
database instance.

o The transaction is used to transform the database from one consistent state to another
consistent state.

For example: The total amount must be maintained before or after the transaction.

1. Total before T occurs = 600+300=900

2. Total after T occurs= 500+400=900

Therefore, the database is consistent. In the case when T1 is completed but T2 fails, then
inconsistency will occur.

Isolation
o It shows that the data which is used at the time of execution of a transaction cannot be
used by the second transaction until the frst one is completed.

o In isolation, if the transaction T1 is being executed and using the data item X, then that
data item can't be accessed by any other transaction T2 until the transaction T1 ends.

o The concurrency control subsystem of the DBMS enforced the isolation property.
Durability
o The durability property is used to indicate the performance of the database's consistent
state. It states that the transaction made the permanent changes.

o They cannot be lost by the erroneous operation of a faulty transaction or by the system
failure. When a transaction is completed, then the database reaches a state known as the
consistent state. That consistent state cannot be lost, even in the event of a system's
failure.

o The recovery subsystem of the DBMS has the responsibility of Durability proper

States of Transaction
In a database, the transaction can be in one of the following states -

Active state
o The active state is the frst state of every transaction. In this state, the transaction is
being executed.

o For example: Insertion or deletion or updating a record is done here. But all the records
are still not saved to the database.

Partially committed
o In the partially committed state, a transaction executes its fnal operation, but the data is
still not saved to the database.

o In the total mark calculation example, a fnal display of the total marks step is executed in
this state.

Committed
A transaction is said to be in a committed state if it executes all its operations successfully. In
this state, all the effects are now permanently saved on the database system.

Failed state
o If any of the checks made by the database recovery system fails, then the transaction is
said to be in the failed state.
 o In the example of total mark calculation, if the database is not able to fre a query to fetch
the marks, then the transaction will fail to execute.

Aborted
o If any of the checks fail and the transaction has reached a failed state then the database
recovery system will make sure that the database is in its previous consistent state. If not
then it will abort or roll back the transaction to bring the database into a consistent state.

o If the transaction fails in the middle of the transaction then before executing the
transaction, all the executed transactions are rolled back to its consistent state.

o After aborting the transaction, the database recovery module will select one of the two
operations:

1. Re-start the transaction

2. Kill the transaction

Schedule
A series of operation from one transaction to another transaction is known as schedule. It is used
to preserve the order of the operation in each of the individual transaction.

1. Serial Schedule
The serial schedule is a type of schedule where one transaction is executed completely before
starting another transaction. In the serial schedule, when the frst transaction completes its cycle,
then the next transaction is executed.

For example: Suppose there are two transactions T1 and T2 which have some operations. If it
has no interleaving of operations, then there are the following two possible outcomes:

1. Execute all the operations of T1 which was followed by all the operations of T2.

2. Execute all the operations of T1 which was followed by all the operations of T2.

o In the given (a) fgure, Schedule A shows the serial schedule where T1 followed by T2.

o In the given (b) fgure, Schedule B shows the serial schedule where T2 followed by T1.

2. Non-serial Schedule
o If interleaving of operations is allowed, then there will be non-serial schedule.
 o It contains many possible orders in which the system can execute the individual
operations of the transactions.

o In the given fgure (c) and (d), Schedule C and Schedule D are the non-serial schedules. It
has interleaving of operations.

3. Serializable schedule
o The serializability of schedules is used to fnd non-serial schedules that allow the
transaction to execute concurrently without interfering with one another.

o It identifes which schedules are correct when executions of the transaction have
interleaving of their operations.

o A non-serial schedule will be serializable if its result is equal to the result of its
transactions executed serially.
Here,
Schedule A and Schedule B are serial schedule.
Schedule C and Schedule D are Non-serial schedule.

Testing of Serializability
Serialization Graph is used to test the Serializability of a schedule.
Assume a schedule S. For S, we construct a graph known as precedence graph. This graph has a
pair G = (V, E), where V consists a set of vertices, and E consists a set of edges. The set of
vertices is used to contain all the transactions participating in the schedule. The set of edges is
used to contain all edges Ti ->Tj for which one of the three conditions holds:

1. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes write (Q) before Tj executes read (Q).

2. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes read (Q) before Tj executes write (Q).

3. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes write (Q) before Tj executes write (Q).

o If a precedence graph contains a single edge Ti → Tj, then all the instructions of Ti are
executed before the frst instruction of Tj is executed.

o If a precedence graph for schedule S contains a cycle, then S is non-serializable. If the

precedence graph has no cycle, then S is known as serializable.

For example:

Explanation:
Read(A): In T1, no subsequent writes to A, so no new edges
Read(B): In T2, no subsequent writes to B, so no new edges
Read(C): In T3, no subsequent writes to C, so no new edges
Write(B): B is subsequently read by T3, so add edge T2 → T3
Write(C): C is subsequently read by T1, so add edge T3 → T1
Write(A): A is subsequently read by T2, so add edge T1 → T2
Write(A): In T2, no subsequent reads to A, so no new edges
Write(C): In T1, no subsequent reads to C, so no new edges
Write(B): In T3, no subsequent reads to B, so no new edges

Precedence graph for schedule S1:

The precedence graph for schedule S1 contains a cycle that's why Schedule S1 is non-
serializable.

Explanation:

Read(A): In T4,no subsequent writes to A, so no new edges

Read(C): In T4, no subsequent writes to C, so no new edges
Write(A): A is subsequently read by T5, so add edge T4 → T5
Read(B): In T5,no subsequent writes to B, so no new edges
Write(C): C is subsequently read by T6, so add edge T4 → T6
Write(B): A is subsequently read by T6, so add edge T5 → T6
Write(C): In T6, no subsequent reads to C, so no new edges
Write(A): In T5, no subsequent reads to A, so no new edges
Write(B): In T6, no subsequent reads to B, so no new edges
Precedence graph for schedule S2:

The precedence graph for schedule S2 contains no cycle that's why ScheduleS2 is serializable.

Confict Serializable Schedule

o A schedule is called confict serializability if after swapping of non-conficting operations, it
can transform into a serial schedule.

o The schedule will be a confict serializable if it is confict equivalent to a serial schedule.

Conficting Operations
The two operations become conficting if all conditions satisfy:

1. Both belong to separate transactions.

2. They have the same data item.

3. They contain at least one write operation.

Example:
Swapping is possible only if S1 and S2 are logically equal.

Here, S1 = S2. That means it is non-confict.

Here, S1 ≠ S2. That means it is confict.

Confict Equivalent
In the confict equivalent, one can be transformed to another by swapping non-conficting
operations. In the given example, S2 is confict equivalent to S1 (S1 can be converted to S2 by
swapping non-conficting operations).

Two schedules are said to be confict equivalent if and only if:

1. They contain the same set of the transaction.

2. If each pair of confict operations are ordered in the same way.

Example:

Schedule S2 is a serial schedule because, in this, all operations of T1 are performed

before starting any operation of T2. Schedule S1 can be transformed into a serial
schedule by swapping non-conficting operations of S1.

After swapping of non-confict operations, the schedule S1 becomes:

T1 T2

Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(B)
Write(B)
Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(B)
Write(B)

Since, S1 is confict serializable.

View Serializability
o A schedule will view serializable if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.

o If a schedule is confict serializable, then it will be view serializable.

o The view serializable which does not confict serializable contains blind writes.

View Equivalent
Two schedules S1 and S2 are said to be view equivalent if they satisfy the following conditions:

1. Initial Read
An initial read of both schedules must be the same. Suppose two schedule S1 and S2. In schedule
S1, if a transaction T1 is reading the data item A, then in S2, transaction T1 should also read A.

Above two schedules are view equivalent because Initial read operation in S1 is done by T1 and
in S2 it is also done by T1.

2. Updated Read
In schedule S1, if Ti is reading A which is updated by Tj then in S2 also, Ti should read A which is
updated by Tj.

Above two schedules are not view equal because, in S1, T3 is reading A updated by T2 and in S2,
T3 is reading A updated by T1.

3. Final Write
A fnal write must be the same between both the schedules. In schedule S1, if a transaction T1
updates A at last then in S2, fnal writes operations should also be done by T1.
 Above two schedules is view equal because Final write operation in S1 is done by T3 and in S2,
the fnal write operation is also done by T3.

Example:

Schedule S
With 3 transactions, the total number of possible schedule
1. = 3! = 6
2. S1 = <T1 T2 T3>
3. S2 = <T1 T3 T2>
4. S3 = <T2 T3 T1>
5. S4 = <T2 T1 T3>
6. S5 = <T3 T1 T2>
7. S6 = <T3 T2 T1>
Taking first schedule S1:

Schedule S1
Step 1: fnal updation on data items
In both schedules S and S1, there is no read except the initial read that's why we don't need to
check that condition.
Step 2: Initial Read
The initial read operation in S is done by T1 and in S1, it is also done by T1.
Step 3: Final Write
The fnal write operation in S is done by T3 and in S1, it is also done by T3. So, S and S1 are view
Equivalent.
The frst schedule S1 satisfes all three conditions, so we don't need to check another schedule.
Hence, view equivalent serial schedule is:
T1 → T2 → T3

Recoverability of Schedule
Sometimes a transaction may not execute completely due to a software issue, system crash or
hardware failure. In that case, the failed transaction has to be rollback. But some other
transaction may also have used value produced by the failed transaction. So we also have to
rollback those transactions.

The above table 1 shows a schedule which has two transactions. T1 reads and writes the value of
A and that value is read and written by T2. T2 commits but later on, T1 fails. Due to the failure,
we have to rollback T1. T2 should also be rollback because it reads the value written by T1, but
T2 can't be rollback because it already committed. So this type of schedule is known as
irrecoverable schedule.

Irrecoverable schedule: The schedule will be irrecoverable if Tj reads the updated value of Ti
and Tj committed before Ti commit.

The above table 2 shows a schedule with two transactions. Transaction T1 reads and writes A,
and that value is read and written by transaction T2. But later on, T1 fails. Due to this, we have to
rollback T1. T2 should be rollback because T2 has read the value written by T1. As it has not
committed before T1 commits so we can rollback transaction T2 as well. So it is recoverable with
cascade rollback.

Recoverable with cascading rollback: The schedule will be recoverable with cascading
rollback if Tj reads the updated value of Ti. Commit of Tj is delayed till commit of Ti.

The above Table 3 shows a schedule with two transactions. Transaction T1 reads and write A and
commits, and that value is read and written by T2. So this is a cascade less recoverable schedule.

ImplementatinnifnIsilatinnLevels
 Licking

• Lick in while database vs lick in items

• Hiw ling ti hild lick?

• Shared vs exclusive licks

 Timestamps

• Transactin tmestamp assigned eg.gg. when a transactin begins

• Data items stire twi tmestamps

 Read tmestamp

 Write tmestamp

• Timestamps are used ti detect iut if irder accesses

 Multple versiins if each data item

• Alliw transactins ti read frim a “snapshit” if the database

TransactinsnasnSQLnStatements
 Eg.gg., Transactin 1
select ID, name frim instructor where salary > 90000
 Eg.gg., Transactin 1
insert inti instructor values (' ', 'James', 'Marketng', 00000)
 Suppise
• T starts, fnds tuples salary > 90000 using index and licks them
• And then T executesg.
• Di T and T cinfict? Dies tuple level licking detect the cinfict?
 Alsi cinsider T3 beliw, with Wu’s salary = 90000
update instructor
set salary = salary * g.
where name = 'Wu’