PHY 251 ELECTRONICS I/CSM 251 INTRODUCTORY ELECTRONICS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Semiconductor devices, such as transistors and diodes, form the basis of nearly all
modern electronic systems. To understand how diodes, transistors and integrated circuits
work, you first have to study semiconductors: materials that are neither conductors nor
insulators. semiconductors contain some free electrons, but what makes them unusual is
the presence of holes. Semiconductor devices serve as the heart of microelectronics. A
basic knowledge of semiconductor devices is essential to understanding of advanced
courses in electronics.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
To develop a background knowledge of semiconductor theory sufficient to understand
modern semiconductor devices.

COURSE OVERVIEW
In this section we describe the physics of semiconductors and hence how their electronic
properties can be altered in a controlled way with tiny amounts of impurities. In the
second lecture, we give a semi quantitative view of a simple but fundamentally important
device, the pn junction diode. In lecture three, we describe the transistor, which has been
called the most important invention of the 20th century. We look at two different
transistor types: the bipolar junction transistor, which is used primarily as a discrete
component amplifier, and the MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor), which is used in integrated circuits as an elementary on/off switch.

CONTENT

2 Credits

Basic Physics of Semiconductors: from discrete energy levels to energy bands,

semiconductor concepts, (p-type and n-type semiconductors), p-n junction, (I-V
characteristics of the p-n junction under forward- and reverse bias, energy band concept
of the p-n junction). The diode as a circuit element: analysis of diode circuits,
applications of the diode – the diode as a rectifier, diode types, ratings and specifications.
Bipolar junction transistors (structure and principle of operation); analysis of BJT circuits
under dc bias, the BJT as an amplifier, field-effect transistors: (structure and principle of
operation of the enhancement type, depletion type and JFET) analysis of FET circuits at
dc, the FET as an amplifier.

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LECTURE 1

1.0 BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

The elements and other things around us (like copper, silver, gold, rubber, glass, water,
oil etc) are classified into Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators based on their
electrical conductivity. Conductors have high electrical conductivity, whereas insulators
have the least electrical conductivity.

1.1. The Energy Band Theory

The concept of energy bands is particularly important in classifying materials as
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. This concept is very useful in understanding
several properties of solids. To introduce the idea; atoms have discrete energy levels
which are widely spaced.

Figure 1: Silicon has four electrons in the outer shell.

When silicon atoms combine to form a solid, they arrange themselves into an orderly
pattern called a crystal. Silicon crystal material is formed by the covalent bonding of each
silicon atom with its four nearest neighbors. Importantly it's only electrons in the
outermost energy level of an atom that are involved in chemical bonding. Suppose we
have a large number of identical atoms, which are far apart, their interactions would be
negligible. However, in the solid state, large numbers of atoms are packed closely
together to form a crystal;

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As atoms are brought closer and closer to each other to form a crystal, the discrete atomic
levels start to broaden to form bands of allowed energies separated by gaps.

Figure 2A: The allowable energy levels broaden into bands of energy, i.e. they form
a continuous distribution of energies.

Figure 2B: The Energy Band Model

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The upper band in Figure 2B is called the CONDUCTION BAND because electrons in
this band can easily be moved by the application of external electric fields. Materials that
have a large number of electrons in the conduction band act as good conductors of
electricity.

The next lower band or VALENCE BAND is composed of a series of energy levels
containing valence electrons. Electrons in this band are more tightly bound to the
individual atoms than the electrons in the conduction band. However, the electrons in the
valence band can still be moved to the conduction band with the application of energy,
usually thermal energy. There are more bands below the valence band, but they are not
important to the understanding of semiconductor theory and will not be discussed.

Between adjacent energy bands are gaps or forbidden regions where there are no
allowable energy levels. Electrons are never found in this band, but may travel back and
forth through it, provided they do not come to rest in the band. The width of the
forbidden band or the separation between the conduction and valence bands determines
whether a substance is an insulator, semiconductor, or conductor.

1.2. Classification of solids as insulators, semiconductors, and conductors using

the energy band diagram.

Figure 3: Energy band diagram.

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The energy diagram for the insulator shows the insulator with a very wide energy gap.
The wider this gap, the greater the amount of energy required to move the electron from
the valence band to the conduction band. Therefore, an insulator requires a large amount
of energy to obtain a small amount of current. The insulator "insulates" because of the
wide forbidden band or energy gap.

The semiconductor, on the other hand, has a smaller forbidden band and requires less
energy to move an electron from the valence band to the conduction band. Therefore, for
a certain amount of applied voltage, more current will flow in the semiconductor than in
the insulator.

The last energy level diagram in figure 3 is that of a conductor. Notice, there is no
forbidden band or energy gap and the valence and conduction bands overlap. With no
energy gap, it takes a small amount of energy to move electrons into the conduction band;
consequently, conductors pass electrons very easily.

1.3. Electrical conduction in solids

Crucial to the conduction process is whether or not there are electrons in the conduction
band. For an electron to be in the conduction band; that is, to get an electron in a state in
which it can take up kinetic energy from an electric field and can contribute to an electric
current, we first have to give it a package of energy. This can come from thermal
excitation, or by photon excitation quite independently of temperature. The energy gap
represents the minimum amount of energy required to free an electron from the
valence band and enable it move into the conduction band where it can contribute to
an electric current

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1.4. Basic Semiconductor Concepts

What is a semiconductor?

Semiconductors are a group of solids whose electrical properties are intermediate

between conductors and insulators. For example, the resistivity of a conductor is of the
order of 10-8 m, that of an insulator is 104 m and above whiles that of a semiconductor
is 10-1m. Most semiconductor devices require materials with an energy gap of about
1eV at normal room temperature. Hence, the most extensively used semiconducting
elements in the electronic industry are silicon (1.2eV) and germanium (0.76 eV). Silicon
and germanium are group IV elements i.e. each has four electrons in the outermost shell
called valence electrons. One valence electron is shared with four neighboring atoms in a
tetrahedral arrangement forming covalent bonds, which maintain the crystalline solid
structure.

Figure 4

At sufficiently low temperatures (0 K) all covalent bonds are intact and no free electrons
are available to conduct electric current. All the valence electrons are bound to the
nucleus of their respective atoms. This makes these materials insulators at very low
temperatures. In silicon the bonding process uses up all the available electrons, so at
absolute zero temperature, there are no electrons available for conduction. At finite
temperatures however, the atoms vibrate randomly, having occasionally much more than
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the average thermal energy. With increasing temperature the amplitude of vibration of the
atoms increases. At certain instants, at certain atoms, there is enough energy to break the
covalent bond and liberate an electron. Once liberated, they wander aimlessly through the
crystal, and are said to be in the conduction band, where they can contribute to electric
current. Those electrons which still remain bound are said to be in the valence band. The
number of conduction electrons increases rapidly with temperature. When an electron is
removed from a covalent bond it leaves a vacancy behind and an electron from another
atom is attracted into it. This vacancy is called a hole and it can travel through the
material serving as an additional charge carrier.

1.4.1. Intrinsic Semiconductors

In a pure or intrinsic semiconductor, there are equal numbers of electrons and holes and
these are thermally generated. Thus, the concentrations of these charge carriers are
strongly dependent on temperature.
When an electric field is applied they move in opposite directions with the holes drifting
in the direction of the field. Thus they behave as if they are carriers with a positive charge.
The charge of a hole is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that of an electron.

Figure 5

[The mobility of an electron, its average velocity per unit electric field intensity is usually
much greater than that of a hole].

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[In contrast to semiconductors, the charge carriers in conductors are only free electrons.
As the temperature of the conductor rises, the amplitude of vibration of the atoms
increases and this impedes the movement of electrons, thus the electrical resistance of a
pure conductor increases with increasing temp.]

INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN SEMICONDUCTORS

There exists an exponential relationship between the free-electron density and bandgap
energy.

The density of carriers in a semiconductor as a function of temperature and material

properties is:

 Eg 
ni  N S exp  
 2k B T 
where,
- ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, i.e., the number of electrons in the conduction
band
(and also the number of holes in the valence band) per unit volume in a semiconductor
that is completely free of impurities and defects
- Ns is the number per unit volume of effectively available states; its precise value
depends
on the material, but it is of the order 1019 cm-3 at room temperature and increases with
temperature
- Eg is the energy gap (between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the
valence
band)
- kB is Boltzmann's constant, kB = 1.381 x 10-23 Joules/Kelvin
- T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin

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1.4.2. Extrinsic Semiconductor

An intrinsic semiconductor (a semiconductor in its natural form) is not suitable for

making any electronic device. One primary reason for this is very low electrical
conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature. Researchers have found
a way to manipulate the pure semiconductor properties and thereby improve its electrical
conductivity several times. This is achieved by adding a small amount of impurity to
Silicon and Germanium. The addition of a small percentage of foreign atoms or
impurities in the regular crystal lattice of silicon or germanium is called “doping” and this
produces dramatic changes in their electrical properties. The newly formed
semiconductor (known as doped semiconductor) is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
An extrinsic semiconductor can be formed in 2 ways and hence there are 2 types of
extrinsic semiconductor named 1) p-type semiconductor and 2) n-type semiconductor.
A p-type semiconductor is formed by doping Germanium (Ge) or Silicon (Si) with a
trivalent (number of valence electrons = 3) element like Indium, Boron or Aluminium.
An n-type semiconductor is formed by doping Ge or Si with a pentavalent (number of
valence electrons = 5) element like Arsenic or Antimony. You may now recall that Ge
and Si are tetravalent (number of valence electrons = 4) elements.

1.4.3. N-type semiconductor

When a pentavalent impurity, like arsenic or antimony, is added to silicon, it will form
covalent bonds with four neighboring silicon atoms. Notice the antimony atom has 5
valence electrons in its outer shell but uses only 4 of them to form covalent bonds with
the silicon atoms, leaving 1 electron relatively free in the crystal structure. Thus each
antimony atom donates a free electron to the silicon crystal hence it is called a donor.
Since this type of semiconductor has a surplus of electrons, the electrons are considered
MAJORITY carriers. This process does not generate holes thus the majority of charge
carriers in antimony or phosphorous doped silicon will be electrons. This impure
semiconductor is called an n- type semiconductor where n- refers to the negative charge
on an electron. Thus in an n- type semiconductor the majority of charge carriers are

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electrons. Holes are also present but these are thermally generated and since they are
relatively few, they are referred to as MINORITY carriers.

q

q e

Figure 6a: A silicon crystal doped by a pentavalent element (eg phosphorus).

Each dopant atom donates a free electron and is thus called a donor. The
doped semiconductor becomes n-type semiconductor

Figure 6b: The energy band model for a doped semiconductor (n-type)

The energy level of this fifth electron (from the pentavalent impurity) corresponds in the
band picture to an isolated energy level lying in the gap, about 0.01 eV below the bottom

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of the conduction band. This level is called a donor level, and the impurity atom that is
responsible for it is simply called a donor. At room temperature the energy is about 0.025
eV. This is substantially greater than 0.01 eV, so at ordinary temperatures, most electrons
can gain enough energy to jump from donor levels into the conduction band where they
are free to wander through the material. The remaining ionized donor stays at its site in
the structure and does not participate in conduction.

The second type of impurity, when added to a semiconductor material, tends to

compensate for its deficiency of 1 valence electron by acquiring an electron from its
neighbor. Impurities of this type have only 3 valence electrons and are called
TRIVALENT impurities. Aluminum, indium, gallium, and boron are trivalent impurities.
Because these materials accept 1 electron from the doped material, they are also called
ACCEPTOR impurities.

1.4.4. P-type semiconductor

Figure 7a: A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity (eg Boron). Each
dopant atom gives rise to a hole, and the semiconductor becomes p type.

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Figure 7b: The energy band model for a doped semiconductor (p-type)
In this case, the impurity is 1 electron short of the required amount of electrons needed to
establish covalent bonds with 4 neighboring atoms. Thus, in a single covalent bond, there
will be only 1 electron instead of 2. This arrangement leaves a hole in that covalent bond.
The holes in this type of semiconductor are considered the MAJORITY carriers since
they are present in the material in the greatest quantity. The electrons, on the other hand,
are the MINORITY carriers. This type of semiconductor is called a p-type semiconductor.
Both p- and n- type semiconductors are referred to as extrinsic semiconductors.
NOTE:
Saying that a material is a p-type semiconductor does not mean that the material has a net
positive charge; ordinarily, it would be neutral. Rather, it means that its majority carriers
of current are positive holes (and therefore its minority carriers are negative electrons).
The same idea holds for an n-type semiconductor; ordinarily, it will not have a negative
charge, but its majority carriers are negative electrons.

Hole and Electron Concentrations

• To produce reasonable levels of conduction doesn’t require much doping

– silicon has about 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3
– typical dopant levels are about 1015 atoms/cm3
• In undoped (intrinsic) silicon, the number of holes and number of free electrons is
equal, and their product equals a constant

np  ni
2

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 – actually, ni increases with increasing temperature
• This equation holds true for doped silicon as well, so increasing the number of
free electrons decreases the number of holes
If the concentration of donor atoms is ND, where ND, is usually much greater than ni ,
the concentration of free electrons in the n-type silicon will be
• nn ≈≈ ND
where the subscript n denotes n-type silicon. Thus nn is determined by the doping
concentration and not by temperature. This is not the case, however, for the hole
concentration. All the holes in the n-type silicon are those generated by thermal
ionization. Their concentration pn can be found by noting that the relationship

np  ni
2

applies equally well for doped silicon, provided thermal equilibrium is achieved.
Thus for n-type silicon

Thus,

Majority Carriers p  N A
2
ni
Minority Carriers n 
NA
Majority carriers n  N D
2
ni
Minority carriers p 
ND

The product of electron and hole densities is ALWAYS equal to the square of intrinsic
electron density regardless of doping levels.

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.2.0. THE P-N JUNCTION

The point of contact between a p-type and an n-type semiconductor is called a p-n
junction. This junction is extremely thin and of the order of 10-3 mm. The p-n junction
possesses some interesting properties which have useful applications in modern
electronics. Thus an understanding of the physical operations of p-n junctions is
important to the understanding of the operation and terminal characteristics of these
electronic devices

2.1 The p-n junction under open circuit conditions

The figure below shows a p-n junction under open circuit conditions – that is, the
external terminals are left open.

Fig. 2.1: The PN junction under open circuit conditions

Three important phenomena occur during the formation of a P-N Junction namely;

A. Diffusion

B. Formation of a space charge region

C. Drift

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2.1.1. DIFFUSION

In an n-type semiconductor, the majority carriers are negative charge carriers or

electrons. In a p-type semiconductor, majority carriers are holes or positive charges.
When a junction is formed in a silicon wafer by doping, a concentration gradient occurs
between p-type and n-type materials. Because of the high concentration of holes in the p-
region and a high concentration of electrons in the n-region, electrons diffuse across the
junction from the n-side to the p-side, whiles holes diffuse from the p-side to the n-side.
These two current components add up to form the diffusion current ID, whose direction is
from the p-side to the n-side.

Fig. 2.1: Current flow in PN junction under open circuit conditions

2.1.2. How space charge formation occurs

As the free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type, they will no longer
neutralize some of the bound positive charge associated with the donor atom and this
charge is said to have been uncovered. There will be a region close to the junction that is

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depleted of free electrons and contains uncovered bound positive charge (Hence a
positive charge is built on the n-side of the junction). At the same time, the free electrons
cross the junction and uncover the negative acceptor ions by filling in the holes.
Therefore in the p material, there will be a region close to the junction that is depleted of
holes and contains a net negative charge. The region occupied by these charges is called
the depletion region (carrier-depletion region) or space-charge region

Figure 2.2: Formation of the space-charge region

{This region known as “depletion” region has been named so because the region is
formed by the “initial movement” of electrons and holes, where they “depleted” their
original positions leaving behind positive and negative charges at the junction}

The charge on both sides of the depletion region establishes a potential difference, which
effectively opposes the diffusion of holes into the n-region and electrons into the p-region.
A junction or potential barrier is said to have been formed and this acts as a barrier,
which has to be overcome for holes and electrons to diffuse to opposite regions of the pn
junction. The larger the barrier voltage, the smaller the number of carriers that will be
able to overcome the barrier and hence the lower the magnitude of the diffusion current.
Thus, the diffusion current ID depends strongly on the voltage drop Vo across the
depletion region.

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2.1.3. How drift occurs

In addition to the current component, ID, due to majority carrier diffusion, a component
due to minority carrier drift exists across the junction. Some of the thermally generated
holes in the n-material diffuse through the n-material to the edge of the depletion region.
From previous discussions, a layer of negative charges accumulates at the p-side of the
junction and a layer of positive charges accumulate at the n-side of the junction. This
results in the formation of an electric field directed from positive charge to negative
charge. This electric field causes the minority carriers, electrons to move from p side to n
side (p–>n) and the holes to move from n side to p side (n–>p). This motion of charge
carriers due to an electric field is known as “drift” The current resulting from the flow of
electrons and holes due to this electric field is known as “drift current”. The drift
current is opposite in direction to the diffusion current.

Since the drift current Is is carried by thermally generated minority carriers, its value is
strongly dependent on temperature, however, it is independent of the value of the
depletion layer voltage Vo. Under open circuit conditions, no external current exists; thus
the two opposite currents across the junction should be equal in magnitude i.e., ID = Is.

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This equilibrium condition is maintained by the barrier pd. Vo.

2.1.4. Maintaining Equilibrium

If for some reason, ID exceeds Is, then more bound charge will be uncovered on both
sides of the junction, the depletion layer will widen and the voltage across it V o will
increase. This in turn causes ID to decrease until equilibrium is achieved with ID = Is. On
the other hand, if Is exceeds ID, then the amount of uncovered charge will decrease, the
depletion layer will narrow and the voltage across it will decrease. This causes ID to
increase until equilibrium is achieved with ID = Is.
N.B. when pn junctions are left open-circuited the voltage measured between them will
be zero i.e. the voltage Vo across the depletion region does not appear between the diode
terminals.
The barrier voltage Vo is given by the expression:

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2.2. The pn junction under forward bias condition

A p-n junction is said to be forward bias, if the p-region is connected to the positive
terminal and the n-region to the negative terminal of an applied voltage.

Figure 2.3: The P-N Junction under forward bias conditions

With this connection the potential barrier is decreased and the charge carriers are urged
easily across the junction. Since this charge movement involves the majority carriers, a
large amount of current then flows through the circuit. This current increases as the
applied voltage is increased.

2.2. The pn junction under reverse bias condition

If the p- region is connected to the negative terminal of a cell and the n-region connected
to the positive terminal of the cell, the pn junction is said to be reverse bias. Under this
condition only the minority carriers i.e. holes in the n-region and electrons in the p-region
are urged across the junction. Since this movement involves minority carriers, a small or
negligible amount of current flows through the device. In the reverse state, there is an
effective increase in the width of the depletion region and the junction potential.

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 Figure 2.4: The P-N Junction under reverse bias conditions

2.3. The Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics of a P-N Junction

The diagram below shows the relation between the applied voltage and current through a
pn junction.

(Non linear circuit element)

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Forward: A small voltage of about 0.25 V overcomes the potential barrier and
produces a large amount of current. This current increases exponentially
with increasing voltage.

Reverse: Initially a large potential has to be applied to produce a very small amount
of current. However as the reverse voltage exceeds a certain critical value
called the zener or breakdown voltage a sudden increase in current is
observed.

2.4. P-N Junction in the breakdown region

 Breakdown occurs when p–n junctions are operated in the reverse-bias mode.

 This breakdown occurs at a critical reverse-bias voltage (Vz). At this critical

voltage the reverse current through the diode increases sharply, and relatively
large currents flow with little increase in voltage.

 The two breakdown mechanisms are the Zener effect and the Avalanche effect. If
a pn junction breaks down with Vz < 5 V, the breakdown mechanism is usually
the zener effect. Avalanche breakdown occurs when Vz > 7 V. between 5 and 7 V
the breakdown mechanism can either be zener, avalanche or a combination of
both effects

2.4.1. Zener Breakdown

 Zener breakdown occurs when a sufficiently large reverse-bias is applied

across a p–n junction (diode). The resulting electric field at the junction
imparts a very large force on a bound electron, enough to dislodge it from
its covalent bond.

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  The breaking of the covalent bonds produces a large number of EHP
(electron–hole pairs). Consequently the reverse current becomes very
large. This type of breakdown phenomena is known as Zener breakdown.

2.4.2. Avalanche Breakdown

 In a reverse-biased junction, the minority-carriers drift across the

depletion region. On their way across this region, they occasionally have
collisions with atoms in the lattice.

 With a large enough field, a carrier drifting across the depletion region is
accelerated to the point where it has enough energy to knock a valance
electron free from its host atom during a collision.

 The field then separates the electron and hole of this newly created EHP
and we now have three mobile carriers instead of one. This process is
called avalanche multiplication.

 The multiplication can become quite large if the carriers generated by this
collision also acquire to create more carriers, thereby initiating a chain
reaction.

 Once the process starts, the number of multiplication that can occur from
a single collision increases rapidly with further increase in the reverse-bias,
so the terminal current grows rapidly, and we say that the junction breaks
down. This is called avalanche breakdown.

 A single such event results in multiplication of carriers; the original

electron as well as the secondary electron are swept to the n-type
semiconductor, while, the generated hole is swept to the p-type
semiconductors

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Figure 2.6: Carrier multiplications in the depletion region due to impact ionization

P-N junction breakdown is not a destructive process provided that the maximum
specified power dissipation is not exceeded. This maximum power dissipation rating, in
turn, implies a maximum value for the reverse current.

3.0. PN JUNCTION FORMATION – (USING ENERGY BANDS)

The p-n junction formation and behavior can be described with the aid of energy band
diagrams. When the p and n-type semiconductors are brought into contact, the mobile
holes on the p-side tend to diffuse into the n-side and the mobile electrons on the n-side
tend to diffuse into the p-side. This mixing continues until the Fermi energies (donor and
acceptor levels) in the two materials reach the same level by the following mechanism:
charges flow until the net positive charge remaining on the n-side and the net negative
charge remaining on the p-side set up an electric field that stops the diffusion. After the
junction is formed and equilibrium is established, the energy levels adjust in such a way
that the Fermi levels of the two materials equalizes. [The Fermi energy has the same
value throughout a system in equilibrium – in the absence of external potentials and in
thermodynamic equilibrium, there is no net flow of charge or energy across the boundary
between two materials.] This lowers the electron energy levels on the n-side and raises
the electron energy levels on the p-side. Figure shows the energy levels of the
semiconductors before and after the pn junction is formed.
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The junction potential Vo is what brings the Fermi energies to the same level.

BIASING

When an external potential, Vext, is applied across a pn junction, the junction is said to be
biased. In that case there can be a net flow of charge and energy and the Fermi energies
no longer need be the same, unlike the unbiased case in figure. If the bias arrangement is
such that the p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the external source, whiles the
n-side is connected to the negative terminal, the pn junction is said to be forward biased.
Under this condition, the magnitude of the junction potential difference or contact
potential is reduced from |Vo| to |Vo| - |Vext|. Thus, there is a net flow of charge across the
junction. Since this charge movement involves the majority carriers a large amount of
current then flows through the circuit. This current increases rapidly as the applied
voltage is increased or as |Vo| - |Vext| decreases in magnitude.

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If the bias arrangement is such that the p-side is connected to the negative terminal whiles
the n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the external source, the junction is said
to be reverse biased and the magnitude of the junction potential is increased from |Vo| to
|Vo| + |Vext|. Thus, both electrons from the n-side and holes from the p-side have an even
harder time overcoming the additional barrier. Under this condition only the minority
carriers i.e. holes in the n-region and electrons in the p-region are urged across the
junction. Since this movement involves minority carriers, a small or negligible amount of
current flows through the device. In the reverse state, there is an effective increase in the
width of the depletion region and the junction potential.

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