Understanding Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

Techniques and Interpretations

Jeff Golarz
LumaSense Technologies
Santa Clara, CA

Abstract— The use of Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) as a II. FORMATION OF GASES IN TRANSFORMER OIL
method for determining the types of pending or occurring faults
Thermal and electrical stresses that occur within normal
within power transformers has been in practice for many years.
It has been proven that the generation of certain gases within a
operating transformers generate hydrocarbon gases which can
transformer is an excellent indicator that a failure is pending. indicate potential problems within the transformer. Some gas
DGA techniques have become so sensitive and accurate at generation is expected as transformers age, so it is important to
measuring these gases that the entire scheme has become separate normal gassing rates from excessive gassing rates.
standard practice as part of the normal maintenance for many Since normal gas generation varies with transformer design,
electric power utility companies. loading, and the type of insulating material used, general
gassing rates are used for all transformers to define abnormal
Despite how effective DGA techniques have become, the behavior.
proper use and interpretation of gas level results (i.e., ppm levels)
is still not fully understood by many utility people. Therefore, it Typical gases that appear in transformers are hydrogen
is the intent of this paper to provide common knowledge and (H2), methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), ethylene (C2H4), and
understanding of all the tools, methods, and techniques available acetylene (C2H2). These gases begin to form at specific
for non-chemical engineers within typical utility companies. We temperatures and dissolve within the insulation oil of a power
will fully describe each of the available interpretation techniques transformer, as shown in Fig. 1. The types and quantities of the
as well as provide a comparison of the accuracy and reliability of gases that form will depend on the nature and intensity of the
each diagnostic method based on one independent case study. fault.
Fig. 1
Keywords—DGA; T&D; transformers; electrical utilities; oil;
Gas Generation Chart
gas monitoring; LumaSense

I. INTRODUCTION
Reliable energy flow is essential for all major electric
utility companies, making power transformers one of their
most important assets and largest investments. In addition, the
transformer fleets in several parts of the world are operating
beyond their design lives, with higher-than-average loads. For
these reasons, transformer condition assessment and failure
analysis is a high priority.
Over time, electrical and thermal stresses on a
transformer’s insulating materials (arcing, corona discharge,
sparking, and overheating) can result in incipient transformer
Hydrogen and methane begin to form in small amounts
faults. As these stresses accumulate, the insulating materials
will breakdown and release several different gases. These gases around 150 °C. The production of hydrogen continues to
can be detected in transformer insulating oil using sensitive and increase as the temperature increases. At about 250 °C, the
reliable Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) techniques for production of ethane starts. At about 350 °C, the production of
determining the type of pending or occurring fault. ethylene starts. After reaching their maximum points, methane,
ethane, and ethylene production goes down as the temperature
DGA is considered the best method for determining a increases.
transformer’s overall condition and is now a universal practice.
Advantages of DGA include: Acetylene production begins between 500 and 700 °C. In
the past, the presence of only trace amounts of acetylene was
· Advanced warning of developing faults considered to indicate a temperature of at least 700 °C had
· Status checks on new and repaired units occurred, however, recent discoveries have led to the
· Convenient scheduling of repairs conclusion that a thermal fault (hot spot) of 500 °C can
· Monitoring of units under potential overload conditions produce trace amounts (a few ppm). Larger amounts of

978-1-5090-2157-4/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE

acetylene can only be produced above 700 °C by internal B. Fault Identification by Gas Type
arcing. Potential faults such as over-heating, partial discharge, and
Between 200 and 300 °C, the production of methane sustained arcing produce a range of gases. The concentrations
exceeds that of hydrogen. Starting at about 275 °C and up, the and composition of these gases can be used to identify the type
production of ethane exceeds that of methane. At about 450 °C, and estimate the severity of the fault, as shown in Fig. 3. Since
hydrogen production exceeds all other gases until about 750 to all types of faults create a variety of gases and not just one, the
800 °C, at which point a larger amount of acetylene is diagnostic approaches that detect multiple gases and account
produced. for the entire gassing picture often get more accurate results.
Thermal decomposition of cellulose materials will also Fig. 3
begin at about 100 °C or less and produce carbon monoxide Indication / Faults H2 CO CO2 CH4 C2H2 C2H4 C2H6 O2 H2O
(CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4),
Cellulose aging ● ● ●
and oxygen (O2). Therefore it is imperative to operate
Mineral oil
transformers below 90 °C. decomposition
● ● ● ● ●
Leaks in oil
A. Types of Faults expansion systems, ● ● ●
gaskets, welds, etc.
A proper fault diagnosis will include warnings of any gases Thermal faults –
● ● ● ● ●
with concentrations, increments, rates of change, or ratios that Cellulose
exceed the standard limits, along with short interpretive Thermal faults in oil
@ ● ● TRACE ●
remarks and recommendations based on the findings. To help 150 °C - 300 °C
identify the different faults when a diagnosis is being made, the Thermal faults in oil
following classes have been identified after the physical @ ● ● TRACE ● ●
inspection of hundreds of faulty transformers detectable by 300 °C - 700 °C
Thermal faults in oil
visual inspections and DGA results, as summarized in Fig. 2. @ 700 °C
● ● ● ●

· Partial Discharge (PD) – the corona type occurs, Partial Discharge ● ● TRACE
which can result in deposits of “X-Wax” on paper Arcing ● ● ● ●
insulation, or the sparking type occurs, which can
induce pinholes (carbonized punctures) in paper that III. DGA DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS
may be difficult to find.
Most of the DGA diagnostic tools in use today can be
· Discharges of Low Energy (D1) – occurs in oil and/or found in the IEEE C57.104 or IEC 60599 guides. Based on
paper, as indicated by large carbonized punctures in these two guides, other national and international guides that
paper (pinholes), carbonization of the paper surface include additional tools are also available, but for our purposes
(tracking), or carbon particles in oil (as in an LTC). we will only discuss those tools found in the IEEE and IEC
guides. Fig. 4 summarizes the diagnostic tools that we will be
· Discharges of High Energy (D2) – occurs in oil
and/or paper, as indicated by extensive destruction and discussing, as found in the latest IEEE guide, a recent draft
standard (IEEE C57.104- D11d; not approved) of the IEEE
carbonization of paper or metal fusion at the discharge
extremes, extensive carbonization in oil, and in some guide, and the IEC guide.
Fig. 4
cases, tripping of the equipment confirming a large
current follow-through. Reference Standard
Analysis Tool
· Thermal Fault (T1) – occurs in oil and/or paper IEEE C57.104- IEEE PC57.104 IEC 60599-
1991 D11d 1999
below 300 °C, turning the paper “brownish”.
TCG Procedure X
· Thermal Fault (T2) – occurs in oil and/or paper above TDCG Procedure X X
300 °C and below 700 °C, carbonizing the paper. Key Gas Method X X
Doernenburg Ratios X
Thermal Fault (T3) – occurs in oil and/or paper above Rogers Ratios X X
700 °C with strong evidence of carbonization of the Basic Gas Ratios (IEC Ratio) X
oil, metal coloration (at 800 °C), or metal fusion Duval Triangle X
(below 1,000 °C). CO2/CO Ratio X X
Fig. 2 O2/N2 Ratio X
C2H2/H2 Ratio X
Abbreviations Descriptions
PD Partial Discharges
D1 Discharges of Low Energy IV. DGA DIAGNOSTIC TOOL SELECTION
D2 Discharges of High Energy
T1 Thermal Fault, t < 300 °C
There is a wide range of diagnostic tools available for
T2 Thermal Fault, 300 °C < t < 700 °C
DGA. Some are simpler, using only sums or single ratios of
T3 Thermal Fault, t > 700 °C
gases, alongside a guideline, to determine different warning
levels. Others are more complex, taking multiple gas ratios and
fitting them to a precise range of values.

978-1-5090-2157-4/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE

 Total Combustible Gas (TCG) procedure and Total detecting faults. Fig. 5 summarizes the key gases and their fault
Dissolved Combustible Gas (TDCG) procedure are the two indications.
diagnostic tools that are non-ratio based. TCG deals with the Fig. 5
gases in the gas headspace and TDCG the gases dissolved in Key Gas Method (IEEE Std. C57.104-2008)
oil. They can offer an indication that gas levels are increasing Key Typical Proportions of Generated
and provide suggested guidelines for operators to perform Gas
Fault Type
Combustible Gases
manual DGA sampling intervals. However, since they do not Mainly C2H4; Smaller proportions of C 2H6, CH4,
offer any significant diagnostic value regarding fault type, it is C2H4 Thermal oil and H2; Traces of C2H2 at very high fault
recommended by the IEEE guide to combined them with other temperatures
diagnostic tools in order to get a better understanding of what Mainly CO; Much smaller quantities of
Thermal oil and
is happening in the transformer. CO
cellulose
hydrocarbon; Gases in same proportions as
thermal faults in oil alone
There are three more diagnostic tools that may also be used Electrical Low Energy Mainly H2; Small quantities of CH4;
as a complement to other diagnosis methods for a more H2
Partial Discharge Traces of C2H4 and C2H6
accurate assessment of transformer conditions. These are the H2 & Electrical High Mainly H2 and C2H2; Minor traces of CH4, C2H4,
CO2/CO ratio, the O2/N2 ratio and the C2H2/H2 ratio, as C2H2 Energy(arcing) and C2,H6; Also CO if cellulose is involved
described in further detail below.
This method offers diagnostics by calculating the relative
· CO2/CO Ratio – this popular ratio is used to detect proportions (in percent) of the key gases within the
paper involvement in a fault. If the ratio is below 3, it transformer. Fig. 6 indicates these key gases and their relative
is a strong indication of a fault in paper, either a hot proportions to indicate the four general types of faults.
spot or electrical arcing with a temperature above
200 °C. If the ratio is above 10, it indicates a fault with Fig. 6
a temperature below 150 °C. However, this ratio is not
very accurate because it is affected by the CO2 and CO
coming from oil oxidation and normal cellulose aging,
so with a high quantity of CO2, seeing a significant
change in the CO2/CO ratio is nearly impossible.
· O2/N2 Ratio – a decrease of this ratio indicates
excessive heating.
· C2H2/H2 Ratio – a ratio between 2 and 3 in the main
tank indicates contamination by the LTC compartment.
In these situations the level of acetylene in the main
tank can be quite high, so in order to diagnose true
main tank problems, incremental changes in acetylene B. Doernenburg Ratio Method (DRM)
must be monitored. The Doernenburg method can be found in the IEEE
C57.104-1991 guide. It has fallen out of favor in some parts of
The remaining DGA diagnostic tools that we will discuss the world due to its complexity and the evolution of it into the
are considered to be the main interpretation methods used for
Rogers Ratio and Basic Gas Ratios approaches, but compared
fault diagnosis of power transformers. This includes the Key to other diagnostic methods, the DRM still holds its value as
Gas, Dornenburg Ratio, Rogers Ratio, IEC Basic Gas Ratio, one of the more effective diagnostic tools available.
Duval Triangle, and CIGRE ratio methods. The majority of
these methods are ratio-based, meaning they use a subset of the In order to use the DRM, the concentration of one of the
ratios below to diagnose a fault type based on the fit of each key gases (H2, C2H2, C2H4, C2H6,or CH4) needs to be at least
ratio result to a specific range of values: double the relevant L1 concentrations, as shown in Fig. 7.
When this criterion is met, there are four possible ratios that
· Ratio 1 (R1) = CH4/H2 can be calculated if they contain the key gas of concern. Fig. 8
· Ratio 2 (R2) = C2H2/C2H4 shows the proposed fault diagnostics is based on the ranges of
· Ratio 3 (R3) = C2H2/CH4 the four ratios. The IEEE standard (IEEE C57.104-1991) also
· Ratio 4 (R4) = C2H6/C2H2 has an illustrated step-by-step application of this ratio method
· Ratio 5 (R5) = C2H4/C2H6 for gases extracted from the transformer oil only.
It is important to remember that when using ratio-based Fig. 7
diagnostic tools, minimum gas levels are required as defined in Concentration of Dissolved Gas
the guides, for the ratio analysis to be considered valid. Key Gas L1 Concentrations (ppm)
Hydrogen (H2) 100
A. Key Gas Method Methane (CH4) 120
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 350
The Key Gas method is based on the quantity of fault gases Acetylene (C2H2) 35
that are released from the insulating oil as the chemical Ethylene (C2H4) 50
structure breaks at varying temperatures in the transformer. Ethane (C2H6) 65
This method uses individual gas levels, or “key gases”, for

978-1-5090-2157-4/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE

 Fig. 8 Duval Triangle Method (DTM)
Ratios for Key Gases – Doernenburg Ratio Method The Duval Triangle method was developed from IEC TC10
Ratio 1 (R1) Ratio 2 (R2) Ratio 3 (R3) Ratio 4 (R4) databases and an existing IEC 60599 Ratio method.
Suggested Approximately 200 plus inspected fault cases in service were
CH4 /H2 C2H2/C2H4 C2H2/CH4 C2H6/C2H2
Fault
Diagnosis Oil
Gas
Oil
Gas
Oil
Gas
Oil
Gas used to develop the Triangle. Within the triangle there are six
space space space space (6) potential fault zones covering partial discharges, electrical
Thermal
Decomposition
>1.0 >0.1 <0.75 <1.0 <0.3 <0.1 >0.4 >0.2 faults (arcing high and low energy), and thermal faults (over
Corona (Low various temperature ranges), plus a DT zone (mixture of
<0.1 <0.01 Not Significant <0.3 <0.1 >0.4 >0.2
Intensity PD) thermal and electrical faults).
Arching (High >0.1 >0.01
>0.75 >1.0 >0.3 >0.1 <0.4 <0.2 The use of the DTM is based upon three key gases (CH4,
Intensity PD) <0.1 <0.1
C2H4, and C2H2) that correspond to the increasing energy levels
C. Rogers Ratio Method (RRM) of gas formation, as shown in Fig. 11. These gas concentrations
are calculated and then plotted along the three sides of a
The Rogers Ratio method evolved from the Doernenburg triangle diagram using the following ratios:
method and is used exactly the same way, but instead of
needing significant concentrations of the key gases, the RRM · %CH4 = (CH4/CH4+C2H2) x 100
can be used when the concentrations exceed the values listed in · %C2H4 = (C2H4/CH4+C2H4+C2H2) x 100
Figure 7 (rather than double). · %C2H2 = (C2H2/CH4+C2H4+C2H2) x 100
Values for the three gas ratios, corresponding to suggested Fig. 11
diagnostic cases, are shown in Fig. 9. The fault types (cases)
that are provided have been chosen by combining some cases DUVAL TRIANGLE
from the number of fault types originally suggested by Rogers. (IEC 60599-2007-05)
Fig. 9 ZONE FAULT INDICATION
T1 Thermal fault, ≤300 °C
Ratios for Key Gases – Rogers Ratios Method
Thermal fault, >300 °C,
Ratio 2 (R2) Ratio 1 (R1) Ratio 3 (R3) T2
Case Suggested Fault Type ≤700 °C
C2H2/C2H4 CH4/H2 C2H4/C2H6 T3 Thermal fault, >700 °C
0 <0.01 <0.1 <1.0 Normal
D1 Discharges of low-energy
1 ≥1.0 ≥0.1, <0.5 ≥1.0 Discharge of low energy
2 ≥0.6, <3.0 ≥0.1, <1.0 ≥2.0 Discharge of high energy D2 Discharges of high-energy
Thermal fault, Combination of thermal
3 <0.01 ≥1.0 <1.0 DT
faults and discharges
low temp <300 °C
4 <0.1 ≥1.0 ≥1.0, <4.0 Thermal fault, <700 °C PD Partial discharge
5 <0.2 ≥1.0 ≥4.0 Thermal fault, >700 °C

Despite having better accuracy, the Doernenburg Ratio, As previously stated, one drawback of the gas ratio
Rogers Ratio, and Basic Gas Ratio approaches have one methods is that some results can fall outside the codes and
drawback where some combinations of gases do not fit into the no diagnostics can be given (unresolved diagnostics). This
specified range of values when calculated and the fault type does not occur with the Duval Triangle method because it
cannot be determined. To further demonstrate this, Fig. 10 is a “closed system”. It always provides a diagnosis, with a
shows a three-dimensional view of the Basic Gas Ratio (IEC low percentage of wrong diagnoses. In fact, according to
60599-2007-05). some published reports, the DTM provides more accurate
Fig. 10 and consistent diagnoses than any other method available at
this time.
Case Characteristic Fault

PD Partial discharges NS < 0.1 < 0.2 D. Diagnostic Methods Summary

D1 Discharges of low energy >1 0.1 – 0.5 >1 The most important aspect of DGA diagnostic methods is
D2 Discharges of high energy 0.6 – 2.5 0.1 – 1 >2 being able to correctly diagnosis recent or potential faults
T1 Thermal fault t < 300 °C NS NS <1 within a monitored transformer. With that in mind, the main
Thermal fault DGA interpretation methods discussed in this paper are
T2 < 0.1 >1 1–4
300 °C < t < 700 °C summarized in Fig. 12 and their accuracy is shown in Fig. 13,
Thermal fault as evaluated using the IEC data bank of inspected transformer
T3 < 0.2 >1 >4
t < 700 °C
failures and various other reports.

978-1-5090-2157-4/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE

 Fig. 12 VI. THE FUTURE
Comparison Among: Key Gas Method (KGM), Doernenburg Ratio Method (DRM), Rogers DGA diagnosis techniques presented thus far use fault gas
Ratio Method (RRM), IEC Ratio Method (IRM), and Duval Triangle Method (DTM)
concentrations or ratios based on the practical experience of
Gases
Type Method Fault Types
Involved
various experts, rather than on quantitative evidence. Now,
Uses individual gas CO, CO2, H2, with the availability of extensive DGA data, researchers are
PD, arcing, overheated oil,
KGM concentrations, easy to CH4, C2H2, motivated to develop an alternative approach to DGA data
overheated cellulose
implement, very conservative C2H4, C2H6 interpretation alone. These different or alternate approaches
Uses four gas concentration include artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, Fuzzy logic, and
ratios (CH4/H2, C2H2/C2H4,
C2H2/CH4, C2H6/C2H2) to indicate Thermal decomposition, PD, H2, CH4, C2H2,
neural networks techniques.
DRM
three fault types, uses specified arcing C2H4, C2H6
concentration limits to
Recent development of the artificial intelligent (AI) model
differentiate between faults based on a combination of KGM, DRM, RRM, and DTM
Uses three gas concentration PD, arcing, low temperature
H2, CH4, C2H2,
techniques shows some future insight, as shown in Fig. 14. AI
RRM ratios (C2H2/C2H4, CH4/H2, of thermal fault, thermal
C2H4, C2H6 approaches provide more accurate and reliable transformer
C2H4/C2H6) <700 °C, thermal >700 °C
diagnoses than KGM, DRM, RRM, and DTM alone. However,
Similar to RRM but excludes the PD, low energy discharge,
C2H6/CH4 ratio, indicates six fault high energy discharge,
even though a majority of the AI approaches can diagnose
H2, CH4, C2H2, faults with high accuracy, some of them fail to distinguish
IRM types, uses specified thermal faults <300 °C,
C2H4, C2H6
concentration limits to between 300 and 700 °C, and between thermal faults in oil and the same faults in cellulose,
differentiate between faults greater than 700 °C
so engineering judgment is still required.
PD, low energy discharge,
Uses triangular map to indicate high energy discharge, Fig. 14
DTM six faults, does not identify a thermal faults <300 °C, CH4, C2H2, C2H4
normal state between 300 and 700 °C, and
greater than 700 °C Artificial Intelligence Interpretation Method

Fig. 13
%
% Correct % Wrong
Unresolved
Diagnoses Diagnoses
Diagnoses
KGM 42% 0% 58%
RRM 62% 33% 5%
DRM 71% 26% 3%
IRM 77% 15% 8%
DTM 96% 0% 4%

V. CONCLUSION
In this paper we presented the DGA diagnostic tools that (DGA = Dissolved Gas Analysis, KGM = Key Gas Method,
have the ability to provide results indicating a specific type of DTM = Duval Triangle Method)
fault that is either present or pending to occur in a transformer.
This information can then be used to determine the appropriate REFERENCES
course of action for that specific transformer. For example, [1] David Woodcock, “Risk-Based Reinvestment – Trends in Upgrading the
some faults can be considered less severe than others and the Aged T&D System”, Energy Pulse, March 12, 2004
transformer can be allowed to continue operating without [2] William H. Bartley, “Analysis of Transformer Failures”, paper IMIA-
immediate action to shut down and remove power. WGP 33 (03), International Association of Engineering Insurers, 2003
[3] M. Duval and J. Dukarm, “Improving the Reliability of Transformer
Understanding the available DGA diagnostic methods can Gas-in-Oil Diagnosis”, IEEE Elec. Insul. Mag., Vol.21, No.4, pp. 21-27,
be overwhelming, especially when the various types of 2005.
techniques are taken into perspective. If, for instance, the only [4] M.Duval and A.dePablo, “Interpretation of Gas-in-Oil Analysis using
technique used, is to take manual oil samples, send them to an new IEC Publication 60599 and IEC TC10 Data Bases”, IEEE Elec.
Insul. Mag., Vol.17, No.2, pp.31-41, 2001.
oil laboratory, and then wait for the results and direction from
[5] M. Duval, Dissolved Gas Analysis: A Powerful Maintenance Tool for
the lab, the various diagnostic tools presented here are not Transformers, TJH2b NA TechCon, 2004.
applicable because everything is being determined by the oil [6] N.A. Muhamad, B.T. Phung, T.R. Blackburn, K.X Lai; “Comparative
laboratory used. However, if the end user wants to analyze the Study and Analysis of DGA Methods for Transformer Mineral Oil”; The
oil samples and get results on their own, then the techniques University of New South Wales, School of Electrical Engineering and
and methods discussed will need to be fully understood so that Telecommunications, Sydney 2052, Australia.
they are properly used. [7] Baker, N., Abu-Sida and S, Islam; “A Review of Dissolved Gas
Analysis Measurement and Interpretation Techniques”, IEEE DEIS
The key objective in DGA of fault gases is to correctly magazine, May/June – Vol. 30, No.3, p39-49, 2014.
diagnose the fault that is potentially generated. Some Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed
diagnostic tools have the ability to perform better than others, Transformers, IEEE Std. C57.104-1991, 1991.
so it’s important to review the most recent information when
incorporating them into DGA procedures.

978-1-5090-2157-4/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE