IoT

The internet of things, or IoT, is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical

and digital machines, objects, animals or people that are provided with unique identifiers (UIDs)
and the ability to transfer data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-
computer interaction.

Types of IoT

Consumer IoT :
It is used primarily for everyday use.
Eg: Home appliances, Voice Assistance, and Light Fixtures.
Commercial IoT :
It is used primarily in the healthcare and transport industries.
Eg: Smart Pacemakers and Monitoring Systems
Basic Components of IoT Application Development

Depending on the approaches, IoT software development companies define from 4 to 7 the most
common components of an IoT ecosystem.

 Connected devices “things”.

 Central Control Hardware

 Data Cloud.

 User interface.

 Network Interconnection.

 System Security.

 Data Analytics.

Characteristics of IoT

The Internet of Things (IoT) is characterized by the following key features that are
mentioned below.
1. Connectivity
Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT infrastructure. Things of IoT should
be connected to the IoT infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere, anytime can connect, this
should be guaranteed at all times. For example, the connection between people through
Internet devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets, also a connection between
Internet devices such as routers, gateways, sensors, etc.
2. Intelligence and Identity
The extraction of knowledge from the generated data is very important. For example, a
sensor generates data, but that data will only be useful if it is interpreted properly. Each
IoT device has a unique identity. This identification is helpful in tracking the equipment
and at times for querying its status.
3. Scalability
The number of elements connected to the IoT zone is increasing day by day. Hence, an
IoT setup should be capable of handling the massive expansion. The data generated as an
outcome is enormous, and it should be handled appropriately.
4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting (Complexity)
IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to changing contexts and
scenarios. Assume a camera meant for surveillance. It should be adaptable to work in
different conditions and different light situations (morning, afternoon, and night).
5. Architecture
IoT Architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It should be hybrid, supporting
different manufacturers products to function in the IoT network. IoT is not owned by
anyone engineering branch. IoT is a reality when multiple domains come together.
6. Safety
There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users getting compromised when
all his/her devices are connected to the internet. This can cause a loss to the user. Hence,
data security is the major challenge. Besides, the equipment involved is huge. IoT
networks may also be at risk. Therefore, equipment safety is also critical.
7. Self Configuring
This is one of the most important characteristics of IoT. IoT devices are able to upgrade
their software in accordance with requirements with a minimum of user participation.
Additionally, they can set up the network, allowing for the addition of new devices to an
already-existing network.
8. Interoperability
IoT devices use standardized protocols and technologies to ensure they can communicate
with each other and other systems. Interoperability is one of the key characteristics of the
Internet of Things (IoT). It refers to the ability of different IoT devices and systems to
communicate and exchange data with each other, regardless of the underlying technology
or manufacturer.
Interoperability is critical for the success of IoT, as it enables different devices and
systems to work together seamlessly and provides a seamless user experience. Without
interoperability, IoT systems would be limited to individual silos of data and devices,
making it difficult to share information and create new services and applications.
9. Embedded Sensors and Actuators
Embedded sensors and actuators are critical components of the Internet of Things (IoT).
They allow IoT devices to interact with their environment and collect and transmit data.
Sensors are devices that can detect changes in the environment, such as temperature,
light, sound, or movement. In IoT systems, sensors are embedded into devices, allowing
them to collect data about the environment.
Actuators are devices that can interact with the environment, such as turning on lights,
opening or closing doors, or controlling the speed of a motor. In IoT systems, actuators
are embedded into devices, allowing them to perform actions based on data collected by
sensors.
Together, sensors and actuators allow IoT devices to collect data about the environment,
process that data, and take action based on the results. This makes it possible to automate
a wide range of processes and tasks, such as home automation, energy management, and
predictive maintenance.
10. Autonomous operation
Autonomous operation refers to the ability of IoT devices and systems to operate
independently and make decisions without human intervention. This is a crucial
characteristic of the Internet of Things (IoT) and enables a wide range of new applications
and services.
In IoT systems, devices and systems are equipped with sensors, actuators, and processing
power, allowing them to collect and process data about the environment, make decisions
based on that data, and take action accordingly.
11. Data-driven
Data-driven is a key characteristic of the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT devices and
systems collect vast amounts of data from sensors and other sources, which can be
analyzed and used to make data-driven decisions.
In IoT systems, data is collected from embedded sensors, actuators, and other sources,
such as cloud services, databases, and mobile devices. This data is used to gain insights
into the environment, improve operational efficiency, and make informed decisions.
12. Security
Security is a critical concern for the Internet of Things (IoT), as IoT devices and systems
handle sensitive data and are connected to critical infrastructure. The increasing number
of connected devices and the amount of data being transmitted over the Internet make
IoT systems a prime target for cyberattacks.
To secure IoT systems, multiple layers of security are necessary, including physical
security, network security, and data security.
13. Ubiquity
Ubiquity refers to the widespread and pervasive presence of the Internet of Things (IoT)
devices and systems in our daily lives. The goal of IoT is to create a seamless and
interconnected world where devices and systems can communicate and share data
seamlessly and transparently.
Ubiquity is achieved through the widespread deployment of IoT devices, such as sensors,
actuators, and other connected devices, as well as the development of IoT networks and
infrastructure to support communication and data exchange.
14. Context Awareness
Context awareness refers to the ability of Internet of Things (IoT) devices and systems to
understand and respond to the environment and context in which they are operating. This is
achieved through the use of sensors and other technologies that can detect and collect data about
the environment.

Types of IoT wireless technologies

The best IoT wireless technologies:

 LPWANs.

 Cellular (3G/4G/5G).

 Zigbee and Other Mesh Protocols.

 Bluetooth and BLE.

 Wi-Fi.

 RFID.

Ten types of IoT enterprise deployments:

 Datacenter monitoring, management, and automation.

 Supply chain and inventory management.

 Fleet management, telematics.

 Mobile device management.

 Contextual product features.

 Asset management.

 Building or facility management.

 Surveillance and security monitoring.

IoT protocols
There are multiple IoT protocols available, with each one offering certain capabilities or
combinations of features that make it preferable over other options for specific IoT deployments.
Each IoT protocol enables either device-to-device, device-to-gateway or device-to-cloud/data
center communication -- or combinations of those communications.
IoT is also expressed in a multilayer model. Although some use the OSI seven-layer model,
others in use include the following:
 three-layer model: perception, network and application
 four-layer model: perception, support, network and application
 five-layer model: perception, transport, processing, application and
business, or physical, data link, network, transport and application
Most common protocols
Technologists can select from multiple communication protocols when building a network to
serve their IoT ecosystem. The most common include the following.
1. AMQP
 Short for Advanced Message Queuing Protocol, AMQP is an open standard protocol used
for more message-oriented middleware.
 As such, it enables messaging interoperability between systems, regardless of the
message brokers or platforms being used.
 It offers security and interoperability, as well as reliability, even at a distance or over
poor networks.
 It supports communications, even when systems aren't simultaneously available.
2. Bluetooth and BLE
 Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology that uses short-wavelength, ultrahigh-
frequency radio waves.
 It had most commonly been used for audio streaming, but it has also become a significant
enabler of wireless and connected devices. As a result, this low-power, low-range
connectivity option is a go-to for both personal area networks and IoT deployments.
 Another option is Bluetooth Low Energy, known as either Bluetooth LE or BLE, which is
a new version optimized for IoT connections.
  True to its name, BLE consumes less power than standard Bluetooth, which makes it
particularly appealing in many use cases, such as health and fitness trackers and smart
home devices on the consumer side and for in-store navigation on the commercial side.
3. Cellular
 Cellular is one of the most widely available and well-known options available for IoT
applications, and it is one of the best options for deployments where communications
range over longer distances.
 Although 2G and 3G legacy cellular standards are now being phased out,
telecommunications companies are rapidly expanding the reach of newer high-speed
standards -- namely, 4G/LTE and 5G. Cellular provides high bandwidth and reliable
communication.
 It's capable of sending high quantities of data, which is an important capability for many
IoT deployments. However, those features come at a price: higher cost and power
consumption than other options.
4. CoAP
 The Internet Engineering Task Force Constrained RESTful Environments Working
Group in 2013 launched CoAP, for Constrained Application Protocol, having designed it
to work with HTTP-based IoT systems.
 CoAP relies on User Datagram Protocol to establish secure communications and enable
data transmission between multiple points.
 Often used for machine-to-machine (M2M) applications, CoAP enables constrained
devices to join an IoT environment, even with the presence of low bandwidth, low
availability and/or low-energy devices.
5. DDS
 Object Management Group (OMG) developed Data Distribution Service for real-time
systems.
 OMG describes DDS as "a middleware protocol and API standard for data-centric
connectivity," explaining that "it integrates the components of a system together,
providing low-latency data connectivity, extreme reliability and a scalable architecture
that business and mission-critical IoT applications need."
  This M2M standard enables high-performance and highly scalable real-time data
exchange using a publish-subscribe pattern.
6. LoRa and Lora WAN
 LoRa, for long range, is a noncellular wireless technology that, as its name describes,
offers long-range communication capabilities.
 It's low power with secure data transmission for M2M applications and IoT deployments.
A proprietary technology, it's now part of Semtech's radio frequency platform.
 The LoRa Alliance, of which Semtech was a founding member, is now the governing
body of LoRa technology.
 The LoRa Alliance also designed and now maintains Lora WAN, an open cloud-based
protocol that enables IoT devices to communicate LoRa.
7. LWM2M
 OMA Spec Works describes its Lightweight M2M (LWM2M) as "a device management
protocol designed for sensor networks and the demands of an M2M environment."
 This communication protocol was designed specifically for remote device management
and telemetry in IoT environments and other M2M applications; as such, it's a good
option for low-power devices with limited processing and storage capabilities.
8. MQTT
 Developed in 1999 and first known as Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, it's now
just MQTT.
 There is no longer any message queueing in this protocol.
 MQTT uses a publish-subscribe architecture to enable M2M communication. Its simple
messaging protocol works with constrained devices and enables communication between
multiple devices.
 It was designed to work in low-bandwidth situations, such as for sensors and mobile
devices on unreliable networks. That capability makes it a commonly preferred option for
connecting devices with a small code footprint, as well as for wireless networks with
varying levels of latency stemming from bandwidth constraints or unreliable connections.
 MQTT, which started as a proprietary protocol, is now the leading open source protocol
for connecting IoT and industrial IoT devices.
9. Wi-Fi
 Given its pervasiveness in home, commercial and industrial buildings, Wi-Fi is a
frequently used IoT protocol.
 It offers fast data transfer and is capable of processing large amounts of data. Wi-Fi is
particularly well suited within LAN environments, with short- to medium-range
distances. Moreover, Wi-Fi's multiple standards -- the most common in homes and some
businesses being 802.11n -- give technologists options for deployment. However, many
Wi-Fi standards, including the one commonly used in homes, is too power-consuming for
some IoT use cases, particularly low-power/battery-powered devices. That limits Wi-Fi
as an option for some deployments. Additionally, Wi-Fi's low range and low scalability
also limit its feasibility for use in many IoT deployments.
10. XMPP
 Dating back to the early 2000s when the Jabber open source community first designed its
Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol for real-time human-to-human
communication, XMPP is now used for M2M communication in lightweight middleware
and for routing XML data. XMPP supports the real-time exchange of structured but
extensible data between multiple entities on a network, and it's most often used for
consumer-oriented IoT deployments, such as smart appliances.
 It's an open-source protocol supported by the XMPP Standards Foundation.
11. Zigbee
 Zigbee is a mesh network protocol that was designed for building and home automation
applications, and it's one of the most popular mesh protocols in IoT environments.
 A short-range and low-power protocol, Zigbee can be used to extend communication
over multiple devices. It has a longer range than BLE, but it has a lower data rate than
BLE.
 Overseen by the Zigbee Alliance, it offers a flexible, self-organizing mesh, ultralow
power and a library of applications.
12. Z-Wave
 Z-Wave is a wireless mesh network communication protocol built on low-power radio
frequency technology.
  Like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, Z-Wave lets smart devices communicate with encryption,
thereby providing a level of security to the IoT deployment.
 It's commonly used for home automation products and security systems, as well as in
commercial applications, such as energy management technologies.
 It operates on 908.42 MHz radio frequency in the U.S.; although, its frequencies vary
country by country.
 Z-Wave is supported by the Z-Wave Alliance, a member consortium focused on
expanding the technology and interoperability of devices that use Z-Wave.
IoT Communication Models
Types of Communication Model:
1. Request & Response Model –
This model follows a client-server architecture.
 The client, when required, requests the information from the server. This request is
usually in the encoded format.
 This model is stateless since the data between the requests is not retained and each
request is independently handled.
 The server Categories the request, and fetches the data from the database and its
resource representation. This data is converted to response and is transferred in an
encoded format to the client. The client, in turn, receives the response.
 On the other hand — In Request-Response communication model client sends a
request to the server and the server responds to the request. When the server receives
the request it decides how to respond, fetches the data retrieves resources, and
prepares the response, and sends it to the client.
2. Publisher-Subscriber Model –
This model comprises three entities: Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers.
 Publishers are the source of data. It sends the data to the topic which are managed by
the broker. They are not aware of consumers.
 Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.
 Hence, Brokers responsibility is to accept data from publishers and send it to the
appropriate consumers. The broker only has the information regarding the consumer
to which a particular topic belongs to which the publisher is unaware of.

3. Push-Pull Model –
The push-pull model constitutes data publishers, data consumers, and data queues.
 Publishers and Consumers are not aware of each other.
 Publishers publish the message/data and push it into the queue. The consumers,
present on the other side, pull the data out of the queue. Thus, the queue acts as the
buffer for the message when the difference occurs in the rate of push or pull of data
on the side of a publisher and consumer.
 Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the producer and consumer.
Queues also act as a buffer which helps in situations where there is a mismatch
between the rate at which the producers push the data and consumers pull the data.
4. Exclusive Pair –
 Exclusive Pair is the bi-directional model, including full-duplex communication
among client and server. The connection is constant and remains open till the client
sends a request to close the connection.
 The Server has the record of all the connections which has been opened.
 This is a state-full connection model and the server is aware of all open connections.
 WebSocket based communication API is fully based on this model.

An IoT ecosystem can be designed on different levels. Each level is fundamentally a roadmap of
how to deploy the components of the IoT ecosystem. Thus, the same IoT ecosystem can be
designed using level 1 and level 2 standards both. The only thing that will differ is the way the
components are arranged altogether.
Following are the six different levels of IoT:
1. Level 1: In this level all the components are deployed locally. There is no any cloud or
external network involved in the process.
Sensors, routers, cloud components, application etc. all are at the user’s end. This standard
is good for those ecosystems where data is neither big nor varying. A uniform stream of
data is coming from a pre-set group of sensors and that is all happening in a simple way.
An example of Level 1 IoT is a smart home.
 Level 2: In this level all the components are deployed locally except the servers. There is
a cloud or an external network involved in the process.
At the user’s end there are only sensors, routers and application. The cloud part is having
the servers configured for the purpose of storage and analysis. This standard is good for
those ecosystems where data is big. A huge amount of data is coming from many
components in the ecosystem and that too on a rapid speed.
An example of Level 2 IoT is a smart factory.

2. Level 3: In this level all the components are deployed locally except the servers and the
network connectivity part. There is a cloud or an external network involved in the process.
At the user’s end there are only sensors and application. The cloud part is having the
essential networks for connectivity and servers configured for the purpose of storage and
analysis. This standard is good for those ecosystems where data is big and varying. A huge
amount of data is coming from many components deployed in many ecosystems and that
too on a rapid speed.
An example of Level 3 IoT is a smart industry.

Level 4: In this level also, all the components are deployed locally except the servers and
the network connectivity part. In some cases, sensors are also in the cloud.
At the user’s end there is only the application. The cloud part is having the essential
networks for connectivity and servers configured for the purpose of storage and analysis.
This standard is good for those ecosystems where data is big, varying and is coming from
mobile sources.
An example of Level 4 IoT is a courier tracking system.

Level 5: Level 5 IoT is very similar to Level 4 but with one major advancement. In level
5 IoT, coordinator devices are also there in the local part of the ecosystem. A coordinator
device coordinates a certain set of sensing devices. There is an Observer Node also in the
cloud part that observes the entire process.
 Level 6: Level 6 IoT is very similar to Level 5 but with one major advancement. In level
6 IoT, coordinator devices are replaced by a single component Centralized Controller and
that is there in the cloud part of the ecosystem.

IoT Design:

IoT design methodology includes the following steps:

 The purpose and requirements of the system
 The process specification
 The domain models
 The information models
 The service specifications
 The levels of IoT
 The functional view
  The operational view
 Integration of devices and components
 Development of IoT application
The purpose and requirements of the system: The first step in IoT design methodology is
determining the purpose and requirements. We determine the purpose and requirements of the IoT
ecosystem for example if it is for home automation, the purpose is to be able to operate home
appliances anytime from anywhere in the world. Accordingly, the requirements are like necessary
sensors, actuators, security systems, routers, UI etc.
The process specification: This step is about determining the use cases of different IoT systems
based on the purpose and the requirements.
The domain models: domain model is the model that clarifies about the category of the IoT
system that is proposed. For example, if we want to be able to track temperature of a patient, the
IoT system is of healthcare domain.
The information models: Information model is something that is based on the domain model.
Based on that, information model clarifies about the data that will be produced or flowing in the
IoT ecosystem.
The service specifications: Service specifications clarify all the services that the IoT ecosystem
will provide. It will clarify about all the inputs, possible outputs and other data-store related
information.
The levels of IoT: Depending upon the domain model and the objective, a certain level of IoT is
determined in this step. It can be any level between level 1 and level 6
The functional view: Functional view determines all the functionalities the io T ecosystem will
offer many functional groups are designed to specify which functionality of the system falls under
which functional group.
The operational view: Operational view determines the operational part of io T ecosystem. It
can include all the operations like setting up network, deployment of servers, development of UI
etc.
Integration of devices and components: this step is about organizing all the components
together in order to form a complete IoT system it can include the sensors, actuators,
communication systems, network systems etc.
Development of IoT application: The last step is to develop an IoT application. It is a software
that caters to all the requirements of the user having IoT enabled components in premises.
Physical Design
In physical design of IoT, we deal with the actual components, protocols and things. Physical
design refers to the things and protocols. Following is a list of all the things and protocols involved
in the IoT ecosystem:
 Things in IoT
 Protocols
Things in IoT: Things refer to all the components that relate with each other to perform a certain
task. We can categorize all the components in various categories like:
 Connectivity: USB, HDMI, RJ-45
 Processor: CPU
 Graphics: GPU
 Memory: Registers, RAM
 Storage: SD, MMC
 I/O interfaces: UART, I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit), SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface)
Protocols: Many protocols are there in the IoT ecosystem. We can classify them based on either
TCP/IP layers or IoT layers. Here we categorize them on TCP/IP layers:
 Link Layer Protocols of this layer work for the better connectivity and determination of the
data transfer from devices to the network.
o IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet): The protocol for establishment and working of a standard
wired LAN (10Mbps to 10Gbps).
o IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi): The protocol for establishment and working of a standard
wireless LAN (1Mbps to 6.75Gbps).
o IEEE 802.16 (Wi-Max): The protocol for establishment and working of a standard
wireless MAN (1Mbps to 1Gbps).
o IEEE 802.15.4 (Zigbee): The protocol for establishment and working of standard
wireless LANs of LR-WPAN (Low-rate Wireless Personal Area Network) type
(40Kbps to 250Kbps).
o 2G/3G/4G: Different cellular telephony generations. (9.6Kbps to 100Mbps)
 Network Layer Protocols of this layer work for the better routing and forwarding of data
packets along the network.
o IPv4: IPv4 is the addressing scheme used for efficient routing and forwarding of
data packets across the network. It is 32-bit in length making it feasible for at least
232 different addresses at a time.
o IPv6: IPv6 is the extended addressing scheme used for routing and forwarding of
data packets across the biggest networks. It is 128-bit in length making it feasible
for at least 2128 different addresses at a time.
o 6LowPAN: It stands for IPv6 Low Power Personal Area Network. It was the first
ever wireless standard written specially for IoT. It provides data rate of about
250Kbps.
 Transport Layer Protocols of this layer work for the better transfer reachability of data
packets along the network.
o TCP: It stands for Transmission Control Protocol. TCP ensures that a reliable path
should be created, maintained and destroyed for the transfer of data packets.
o UDP: It stands for User Datagram Protocol. UDP does not ensures any path
establishment. Instead, it focuses on resource utilization making all routed available
for all the packets.

 Application Layer Protocols of this layer work for the better utilization of services provided
by networks.
o HTTP: It stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It provides a standard way to
transfer documents and their contents in the form of HTML pages.
o CoAP: It stands for Constrained Application Protocol. Very similar to HTTP,
CoAP is specific to networks having many end-devices.
o MQTT: It stands for Message Queue Telemetry Transport Protocol. It is a machine
to machine (M2M) connectivity protocol that works on client server configuration.
o XMPP: It stands for Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol. XMPP is an
XML based messaging protocol that works for real time message transfer across
the devices in IoT.
 o AMQP: It stands for Advanced Message Queue Protocol. It enables encrypted real
time messaging across the devices and applications.

Logical Design
Logical design refers to the design through which the physical components are incorporated. It is
an abstract representation of the things, protocols and processes. Following are the major aspects
of logical design:
 Functional blocks
 Communication models
 Communication APIs
Functional blocks: Functional blocks are parts of the system that interact with each other in order
to let the services run properly. Following are the functional blocks of the IoT ecosystem:
 Device
 Communication
 Services
 Management
 Security
 Application
Communication models: Communication models are used for making the services of IoT reach
up to the end users. We generally discuss about the following four communication model in IoT:
 Request-Response Communication model: This model is very similar to Client-Server
model. Clients request servers and as a response, servers provide them services.
 Publish Subscribe Communication Model: This model is a little elaborate and hence, is
distributed among publishers, brokers and consumers. Consumers, based on their type of
requirement, are assigned to a broker. Brokers get the data from publishers and provide to
consumers.
 Push Pull Communication model: In this model, Publishers push the data in a queue and
consumers are required to pull the data as and when required.
 Exclusive pair Communication model: This model is pure Client-Server model. Two
devices come in an exclusive pair and work on full duplex CS model.
Communication APIs: API stands for Application Programming Interface. We need APIs for
implementing the software part of communication between devices and machines. IoT uses
following two APIs:
 REST based APIs: REST stands for Representational State Transfer. This API works on
the basis of different states of an object that is communicating. It is called stateless because
between every pair of two devices the state is different. There is no any end-to-end state.
 WebSocket based APIs: WebSocket based APIs are different from REST. Here pure Client
Server approach is used with an end-to-end connection. WebSocket based APIs are
considered stateful.
Embedded System
Embedded systems refer to those systems that have many hardware components attached either on
the same board or in the same package. A software program is also needed to accomplish either a
specific task or a set of tasks. A Fire Alarm or Rain Alarm is a classic example of an embedded
system.
Components of an embedded system:
Processor: Processor or Microcontroller is the most important component in an embedded system
since this is the thing that has to process the data.
Memory: Memory is the second most important thing in an embedded system since it has to hold
or store all the data and programs.
Software: Software or simply called programs are another important components in embedded
systems especially because these are the actual tasks that have to be executed.
Applications of embedded Systems:
 Medical Equipment.
 Automobile
 Industries
 Gadgets

Integration in Embedded systems:

  SSI: 10 to 200 logic gates
 MSI: 200 to 1000 logic gates
 LSI: 1000 to 10000 logic gates
 VLSI: More than 10000 logic gates
Structure of Embedded Systems:

Sensor: Sensor, as an important component of an embedded hardware, senses some arbitrary

data and then either transfers to an Analog to Digital converter or directly to the Memory.
ADC: Sensors interact with ADC because almost every data that is sensed, is already in Analog
form. That has to be converted into Digital form so that it can be processed by the Processor.
Processor & ASIC: Processor is the main chip that holds all the arithmetic and logical circuits.
ASIC stands for Application Specific Integrated Circuit. It is very similar to a Processor but
designed for a very specific application.
DAC: DAC converts Digital data into Analog form and that is needed because processor produces
Digital data and Actuators require that in Analog form.
Actuator: Actuators are the components that produce some kind of motion. This motion is
generated from the processed data that is produced by the processor.
Memory: Memory is required in an embedded system to store the data and programs.
 UNIT-II
Sensors
 A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
 The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or
material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity.
 The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like
changes in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.

IoT HARDWARE
Transducer:
 A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.
 It converts one type of energy into another type.
 It might be used as actuator in various systems.
Sensor’s characteristics:
1. Static
 2. Dynamic
1. Static characteristics:
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after steady state
condition.
 Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close
to the true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by
absolute and relative errors. Express the correctness of the output compared to a
higher prior system. Absolute error = Measured value – True value
Relative error = Measured value/True value
 Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which
the sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of
response.
e.g., RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
 Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of sensors. The
higher the resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is called
the threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
 Precision: It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
 Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of
the system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found
from the slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount
of difference in quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.
 Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly straight line.
Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the
output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions.
A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes linearity.
  Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when
kept at that value for a long period of time.
 Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same
conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so
as not to allow significant long-term drift.

Dynamic Characteristics:
Properties of the systems
 Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It
does not include energy-storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.
 First-order system: When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.
 Second-order system: Complex output response. The output response of the sensor
oscillates before steady state.
Sensor Classification:
 Passive & Active
 Analog & digital
 Scalar & vector
Passive Sensor
It can not independently sense the input.
E.g. Accelerometer, soil moisture, water level and temperature sensors.
Active Sensor
It can independently sense the input.
E.g. Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.
Analog Sensor
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input parameter.
E.g. Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.
Digital sensor
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors. Along with
the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion.
E.g. Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature sensor (DS1620).
Scalar sensor –
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor is a function
of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input parameters.
E.g.temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
Vector sensor
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation of input
parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector sensors.
Types of sensors
 Electrical sensor:
Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non-contact.
Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component complete an
electrical circuit.
Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of either
induction for detecting metals or capacitance for detecting nonmetals as well.
 Light sensor:
Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.
Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.
The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the
ambient light i.e when the intensity of light increases, its resistance decreases and vice
versa.
 Touch sensor:
Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch sensor.
It’s name suggests that detection of something.
They are classified into two types:
1. Resistive type
2. Capacitive type
Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.
Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
 Range sensing:
Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the sensing
position, although they can also be used as proximity sensors.
Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range sensing,
between a few millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out using electrical
capacitance, inductance and magnetic technique.
Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various types eg
radio waves, sound waves and lasers.
 Mechanical sensor:
Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a certain amount
of force is required to operate a mechanical switch it is common to use micro-switches.
 Pneumatic sensor:
These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.
The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These cannot be
used where light components may be blown away.
 Optical sensor:
In their simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light beam which
falls onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are examples of non contact
sensors. Care must be exercised with the lighting environment of these sensors for
example optical sensors can be blinded by flashes from arc welding processes, airborne
dust and smoke clouds may impede light transmission etc.
 Speed Sensor:
Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion is known
as speed sensor.
E.g.Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer , UDAR ,Ground Speed Radar .
 Temperature Sensor:
Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature’s measurement
as an electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These electrical signals will be
in the form of voltage and is directly proportional to the temperature measurement .
 PIR Sensor:
PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used for the
tracking and measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view
 and is also known as Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used for detecting human motion
and movement detection .

 Ultrasonic Sensor:
The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR or
RADAR in which the interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to evaluate the
attributes of a target by generating the high frequency sound waves .

Actuator
An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the mechanism of the
system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the
actuators according to the actions needed to perform.
Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are
actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or
oscillatory motion, according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses
hydraulic actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.
Advantages :
 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
 Used in welding, clamping, etc.
 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance
systems.
2. Pneumatic Actuators
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to
convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work
like human fingers by using compressed air.
Advantages :
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is
a safer option than chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
Disadvantages :
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.
3. Electrical Actuators
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts
electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based
electric bell.
Advantages :
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
Disadvantages :
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are
 Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys
(SMAs) or Magnetic Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators.
An example of a thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.
 Mechanical Actuators
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear
 motion. It involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate.
Example – A crankshaft.
 Soft Actuators
 Shape Memory Polymers
 Light Activated Polymers
 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in
commercial and domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.

Microcontroller suitable for the Internet of Things (IoT)

Several microcontrollers are suitable for use in IoT applications, including −
ESP32 − This is a good choice for Internet of Things projects because it has WiFi and Bluetooth,
a fast processor, and uses little energy.
Arduino − Arduino boards are popular for Internet of Things projects because they are easy to
use and not too expensive. They have many features, like digital and analog inputs and outputs,
and they support different programming languages.
Raspberry Pi − The Raspberry Pi is a small, low-cost computer popular in IoT projects because
of its versatility and ability to run a full operating system. It can build many IoT devices, from
simple sensors to complex systems.
STM32 − The STM32 family of microcontrollers is widely used in IoT applications due to their
high-speed processing capabilities, low power consumption, and support for various
communication protocols.
ATtiny − The ATtiny microcontroller is affordable for basic Internet of Things projects. It has
digital and analog inputs and outputs and can be programmed with Arduino.
Setting up the Board
Specifically, an IoT development board includes: A programming interface to program the
microcontroller from a computer. A power circuit used to provide stable DC power to the
microcontroller. Input components: buttons, switches, etc. Output components such as LEDs.
Classification of IoT boards
IoT boards are basically categorised into their kinds:
 Microcontroller Boards.
 Single Board Computer.
  System on chip boards.
How to Program NodeMCU on Arduino IDE
1. Step 1: Connect Your NodeMCU to the Computer. ...
2. Step 2: Install the COM/Serial Port Driver.
3. Step 3: Install the Arduino IDE 1.6.4 or Greater
4. Step 4: Install the ESP8266 Board Package.
5. Step 5: Setup ESP8266 Support.

Arduino Board
Arduino is the best choice for IoT projects because its boards are durable and simpler than others,
making them easier to maintain and program. With the backing of the Arduino IoT Cloud and its
programming environments, programmers may create linked devices and objects quickly and
easily.
NodeMCU

NodeMCU is an open-source Lua based firmware developed for the ESP8266 wifi chip. By
exploring functionality with the ESP8266 chip, NodeMCU firmware comes with the ESP8266
Development board/kit i.e. NodeMCU Development board. Since NodeMCU is an open-source
platform, its hardware design is open for edit/modify/build. NodeMCU Dev Kit/board consist of
ESP8266 wifi enabled chip.
The ESP8266 is a low-cost Wi-Fi chip developed by Espressif Systems with TCP/IP protocol.
There is Version2 (V2) available for NodeMCU Dev Kit i.e. NodeMCU Development Board v1.0
(Version2), which usually comes in black colored PCB. NodeMCU Dev Kit has Arduino like
Analog (i.e. A0) and Digital (D0-D8) pins on its board. It supports serial communication protocols
i.e. UART, SPI, I2C, etc.
NodeMCU ESP8266 specification & features are as follows:
 Microcontroller: Tensilica 32-bit RISC CPU Xtensa LX106
 Operating Voltage: 3.3V
 Input Voltage: 7-12V
 Digital I/O Pins (DIO): 16
 Analog Input Pins (ADC): 1
 UARTs: 1
  SPIs: 1
 I2Cs: 1
 Flash Memory: 4 MB
 SRAM: 64 KB

ESP8266

ESP8266 is Wi-Fi enabled system on chip (SoC) module developed by Espressif system.
It is mostly used for development of IoT (Internet of Things) embedded applications.
It employs a 32-bit RISC CPU based on the Tensilica Xtensa L106 running at 80 MHz (or
overclocked to 160 MHz).
It has a 64 KB boot ROM, 64 KB instruction RAM and 96 KB data RAM. ESP8266 module is
low cost standalone wireless transceiver that can be used for end-point IoT developments.
Arduino

Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects.

Arduino consists of both a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a
microcontroller) and a piece of software, or IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that
runs on your computer, used to write and upload computer code to the physical board.
Intel Galileo
Galileo is a microcontroller board based on the Intel® Quark SoC X1000 Application Processor,
a 32-bit Intel Pentium-class system on a chip. It’s the first board based on Intel® architecture
designed to be hardware and software pin-compatible with Arduino shields designed for the Uno
R3.
Raspberry Pi
Raspberry Pi is a small single board computer.
By connecting peripherals like Keyboard, mouse, display to the Raspberry Pi, it will act as a
mini personal computer.
Raspberry Pi is popularly used for real time Image/Video Processing, IoT based applications and
Robotics applications.
Raspberry Pi is slower than laptop or desktop but is still a computer which can provide all the
expected features or abilities, at a low power consumption.
Communication through Blue tooth and Wi-Fi
Bluetooth is more suitable for transmitting small chunks of data, such as numerical values from
IoT sensors, while WiFi excels in transmitting larger data files like videos and photos.
Both WiFi and Bluetooth are wireless technologies that are widely used to send and receive data
wirelessly using radio signals. WiFi is for high-speed Internet access that connects nearby
devices with each other and share the Internet via hotspots, whereas Bluetooth is used for
connecting devices in short range.
 UNIT-III
IoT reference model
Just like the OSI reference model for the internet, IoT architecture is defined through six layers:
four horizontal layers and two vertical layers.
The two vertical layers are Management and Security and they're spread over all four horizontal
layers, as seen in the following diagram:

IoT layers
The Device Layer: At the bottom of the stack, we have the device layer, also called
the perception layer. This layer contains the physical things needed to sense or control the
physical world and acquire data (that is, by perceiving the physical world). Existing hardware,
such as sensors, RFID, and actuators, constitutes the perception ...
ITU-T IoT Reference Model P
The architecture of IoT depends upon its functionality and implementation in different
sectors.

The four layers in the reference model are

 Sensing Layer
 Network Layer
 Data processing Layer and
 Application Layer.
1. Sensing Layer
The sensing layer is the first layer of the IoT architecture and is responsible for
collecting data from different sources. This layer includes sensors and actuators that
are placed in the environment to gather information about temperature, humidity,
light, sound, and other physical parameters. These devices are connected to the
network layer through wired or wireless communication protocols.
2. Network Layer
The network layer of an IoT architecture is responsible for providing
communication and connectivity between devices in the IoT system. It includes
protocols and technologies that enable devices to connect and communicate with
each other and with the wider internet. Examples of network technologies that are
commonly used in IoT include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks
such as 4G and 5G. Additionally, the network layer may include gateways and
routers that act as intermediaries between devices and the wider internet, and may
also include security features such as encryption and authentication to protect
against unauthorized access.
3. Data processing Layer
The data processing layer of IoT architecture refers to the software and hardware
components that are responsible for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data
from IoT devices. This layer is responsible for receiving raw data from the devices,
processing it, and making it available for further analysis or action. The data
processing layer includes a variety of technologies and tools, such as data
management systems, analytics platforms, and machine learning algorithms. These
tools are used to extract meaningful insights from the data and make decisions
based on that data. Example of a technology used in the data processing layer is a
data lake, which is a centralized repository for storing raw data from IoT devices.
4. Application Layer
The application layer of IoT architecture is the topmost layer that interacts directly
with the end-user. It is responsible for providing user-friendly interfaces and
functionalities that enable users to access and control IoT devices. This layer
includes various software and applications such as mobile apps, web portals, and
 other user interfaces that are designed to interact with the underlying IoT
infrastructure. It also includes middleware services that allow different IoT devices
and systems to communicate and share data seamlessly. The application layer also
includes analytics and processing capabilities that allow data to be analyzed and
transformed into meaningful insights. This can include machine learning
algorithms, data visualization tools, and other advanced analytics capabilities.

IoT Protocols
6LOWPAN
 6LoWPAN stands for IPv6 over Low-power Wireless Personal Area Networks.
 It is a standard protocol for realizing IPv6 communication on wireless networks
composed of low-power wireless modules.
 6LoWPAN specification contains packet compression and other optimization
mechanisms to enable the efficient transmission of IPv6 packets on a network with
limited power resources and reliability, which makes efficient IPv6 communication over
low-power wireless networks possible.
RPL Protocol

 RPL stands for Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Network.
 It is a distance-vector protocol that supports a variety of Data Link Protocols.
 RPL builds a Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG) which has only
one route from each leaf node to the root.
 All the traffic in this DODAG is routed through the root. Initially, each node sends a
DODAG Information Object (DIO) announcing them self as a root. This information
travels in the network, and complete DODAG is gradually built. When a new node wants
to join the network, it sends a DODAG Information Solicitation (DIS) request and root
responds back with a DAO Acknowledgment (DAO-ACK) confirming the join.
CoAP
 CoAP Protocol (Constrained Application Protocol) is a web-based protocol that has been
specifically designed to connect small, semi-intelligent devices to the Internet of Things
(IoT).
 CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol) is a session layer protocol that provides the
RESTful (HTTP) interface between HTTP client and server.
 It is designed by IETF Constrained RESTful Environment (CoRE) working group.
 It is designed to use devices on the same constrained network between devices and general
nodes on the Internet.
 CoAP enables low-power sensors to use RESTful services while meeting their low power
constraints. This protocol is specially built for IoT systems primarily based on HTTP
protocols.
 This network is used within the limited network or in a constrained environment. The
whole architecture of CoAP consists of CoAP client, CoAP server, REST CoAP proxy,
and REST internet.

The data is sent from CoAP clients (such as smartphones, RFID sensors, etc.) to the CoAP server
and the same message is routed to REST CoAP proxy. The REST CoAP proxy interacts outside
the CoAP environment and uploads the data over REST internet.
MQTT (Message Queue Telemetry Transport)

 MQTT (Message Queue Telemetry Transport) is a messaging protocol which was

introduced by IBM in 1999. It was initially built for monitoring sensor node and faraway
tracking in IoT. Its suits are small, cheap, low-memory and low-power devices. MQTT
provides embedded connectivity between applications and middleware in one side and
another side it connects networks and communicators.
 MQTT protocol is based on publish/subscribe architecture. The publish/subscribe
architecture consists of three major components: publishers, subscribers, and a broker.
According to IoT point of view, publishers are lightweight sensor devices that send their
data to connected broker and goes back to sleep whenever possible. Subscribers are
applications, which are interested in a certain topic or sensory data, so they are connected
to brokers to be informed whenever new data are received. The broker receives the sensory
data and filters them in different topics and sends them to subscribers according to interest
in the topics.

ThingSpeak Key Features

ThingSpeak allows you to aggregate, visualize and analyze live data streams in the cloud. Some
of the key capabilities of ThingSpeak include the ability to:
 Easily configure devices to send data to ThingSpeak using popular IoT protocols.
 Visualize your sensor data in real-time.
 Aggregate data on-demand from third-party sources.
 Use the power of MATLAB to make sense of your IoT data.
  Run your IoT analytics automatically based on schedules or events.
 Prototype and build IoT systems without setting up servers or developing web software.
 Automatically act on your data and communicate using third-party services like Twilio®
or Twitter®.

UNIT-IV
Device Discovery
Device discovery tools simplify the process using a variety of discovery protocols to
discover and collect information about: Physical assets such as routers, switches, servers, hosts
and firewalls. Software assets such as applications, operating systems, and services. Virtual
devices and networks.
Device Discovery Protocols
There are three primary discovery protocols:
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP),
 Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP), and ping.
SNMP is an Internet Standard protocol that allows IT teams to aggregate and organize data about
the devices on a network.
LLDP is a vendor-neutral protocol.
IoT Device Discovery
 DHCP Data Collection by Traffic Type.
 Firewall Deployment Options for IoT Security.
  Configure a Pre-PAN-OS 10.0 Firewall with a DHCP Server.
 Configure a Pre-PAN-OS 10.0 Firewall for a Local DHCP Server.
 Use a Tap Interface for DHCP Visibility.
 Use a Virtual Wire Interface for DHCP Visibility.
IoT cloud-based services
An IoT cloud is a massive network that supports IoT devices and applications. This
includes the underlying infrastructure, servers and storage, needed for real-time operations and
processing.
Registration in IoT
The IoT register (register of sensors´ networks of the Internet of Things) is a tool that
enables standard registration of data sources from the sensory networks of different customers
and diff erent suppliers „in one map“.
Registering personal and departmental Wi-Fi devices allows users affiliated with the UMN
to connect devices such as Xbox, Roku, Apple TV, Google Chromecast, door locks, freezer
monitors, and more to the University Wi-Fi network. Unregistered devices can disrupt or slow
down the University Wi-Fi network, making it difficult for neighboring devices to connect.
The types of devices that should be registered using the Register a Personal Device for IoT guide
or Register a Departmental Device for IoT guide are listed below.
Xbox, Roku, Apple TV, and other streaming devices
Xbox, Roku, Apple TV, and similar devices can be registered for Internet of Things (IoT)
service. Follow the directions on this guide to connect these devices.
Google Chromecast and Google Home
Do not register Google Chromecast, Google Home, and similar device configurations using
this process. These devices are limited to residence halls and require a Student Internet ID and
password. They have additional steps for setup on the UofM-Guest Network. Please
follow Register your Chromecast Device for these devices.
Laptops, Smart Phones, Printers
Do not register laptops, smart phones, or printers using this process unless otherwise
specified. If not connecting to eduroam, these devices should connect to UofM-Guest without
registration.
 Phones and laptops should connect to eduroam using your full University email address
([email protected]) and password authentication. For more information on eduroam,
follow Connect to eduroam.
Smart Light Bulb and Similar Home Devices
Please note that some Internet of Things (IoT) devices designed to work on home
networks may not be supported by the UMN network. The scale, design, and security controls of
the UMN network makes it challenging for some devices to function properly on the network.
Some examples include:
 Devices that require a direct connection or special addressing from a Wi-Fi router (e.g. a
Phillips Hue light bulb).
 Some devices that connect to a local hub that is then connected to the University network.
Departmental Devices (i.e., Door Locks, Cameras, Sensors)
Departmental-owned on-campus door locks, cameras, sensors, and similar devices can be
registered for Internet of Things (IoT) service. Follow the directions on this guide to connect
these devices.

Register and Connect an Individual Device to the Encrypted Service

Step 1: Request IoT Admin Permissions

Step 2: Find the wireless MAC address

Step 3: Registering an IoT Admin Device for the Encrypted Service

Step 4: Connect to the Encrypted IoT Wi-Fi Service

Step 5: Check any Known Device Issues

Bulk Register and Connect Multiple Devices to the Encrypted Service

Step 1: Request IoT Admin Permissions

Step 2: Find the wireless MAC address

Step 3: Bulk Import and register your IoT Devices for the Encrypted Service

Step 4 (Optional): Setting the Same Password for a Group of IoT Devices
Step 5: Connect to the Encrypted IoT Wi-Fi Service

Step 6: Check any Known Device Issues

Convert a Legacy Device

Converting Existing IoT Devices to the Encrypted Service

Cloud Storage Models

Cloud storage models are classified into three types.

 Instance storage: Virtual disks in the cloud

 Volume storage: SAN sans the physical
 Object storage: Web-scale NAS

Instance storage: Virtual disks in the cloud

In a traditional virtualized environment, the virtual disk storage model is the eminent one. The
nomenclature of this model is based upon this very reason, instance storage, meaning storage that
is used like conventional virtual disks.

It is crucial to note that instance storage is a storage model, not a storage protocol.

This storage can be implemented in numerous ways. For example, DAS is generally used to
implement instance storage. It is often stated as ephemeral storage as the storage isn’t highly
reliable.

Advantages & Disadvantages

Hard drives that instance storages run on are physically attached to the EC2 hosts which are
running the store. Their endurance depends upon the lifetime of the instances attached to them.
Both Instance and Elastic Block Storage (EBS) volumes are stored in a series somewhere in the
same AZ. All the HDP’s and can be re-arranged with a new EC2 instance unless they are bound
to delete when the attached EC2 instance is terminated.

Due to the paucity of speed and persistence in instance storage, it’s usually used on data that
requires quick but temporary assessment, like swap or paging files.

However, it is also used to store data that requires regular replication to multiple locations.

Also, EC2’s using instance storage for their root device should keep a copy of their AMI on the
instance store disk because instance storage does not endure any data, which is the reason behind
longer boot time when compared to instances backed by EBS.

Volume storage: SAN sans the physical

Volume storage is also known as block storage. It supports operations like read/write and
keeping the system files of running virtual machines.

As suggested by its name, data is stored in structured blocks and volumes where files are split
into equal-sized blocks. Each block has its own address.

However, unlike objects, they don’t possess any metadata. Files are bifurcated into simpler
blocks of fixed size, storing large amounts of data, which are dispensed amongst the storage
nodes.

Advantages & Disadvantages

Public cloud providers allow the creation of various file systems on their block storage systems,
thus enabling users to store incessant data like a database.
Additionally, an Amazon EBS volume is accessed from an Amazon EC2 instance through an
AWS shared or dedicated network.

Another advantage of using volume/block storage is its backup mechanism. For example, AWS
EBS extends a snapshot feature that is necessarily an incremental point in a timely backup of
your volume.

Object storage: Web-scale NAS

Cloud-native applications need space, for storing data that is shared between different VMs.
However, often there’s a need for spaces that can extend to various data centers across multiple
geographies which is catered by Object storage.

For example, Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3) caters to a single space across an entire
region, probably, across the entire world.

Object storage stores data as objects, unlike others which go for a file hierarchy system. But it
provides for eventual consistency.

Each object/block consists of data, metadata, and a unique identifier.

What object storage does differently is that it tries to explore address capabilities that are
overlooked by other storages viz a namespace, directly programmable interface, data
distribution, etc.

Object storage also saves a substantial amount of unstructured data. This kind of storage is used
for storing songs on audio applications, photos on social media, or online services like Dropbox.

Advantages & Disadvantages

Storing virtually unlimited files is one of many advantages for installing object storage. Having
an HTTP(S) based interface, object storage also maintains file revisions.

In this kind of storage, files are distributed in different nodes which means that to modify a file
you will need to upload a new revision of the entire file which can significantly impact
performance.

Web Server in IoT

A web server is software and hardware that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and
other protocols to respond to client requests made over the World Wide Web. The main job of a
web server is to display website content through storing, processing and delivering webpages to
users.

Embedded Web Server

An embedded web server is a small, lightweight web server designed to be integrated into
other software or hardware systems with limited resources. When it comes to IoT devices,
choosing an embedded web server is a decision that can greatly impact performance and costs.
These small web servers are essential for providing a web-based interface for monitoring and
controlling devices, but there are several challenges to their development that must be addressed.
E.g. HOKA Embedded Web Server
MicroEJ’s HOKA embedded web server simplifies the integration of web services onto resource-
constrained devices. HOKA is a lightweight and efficient framework, making it ideal for devices
with limited processing power, memory, and storage. At its core, HOKA provides a simple HTTP
server that can handle requests, and it comes with APIs and libraries to create custom web
services.
Benefits of Using MicroEJ’s HOKA Embedded Web Server:
 Low power consumption
Embedded and IoT devices often run on batteries or other limited power sources, so minimizing
the energy requirements of the webserver is important. HOKA is a lightweight embedded web
server framework that can reduce power consumption, making it easier to run the device for
extended periods.
  Increased reliability
HOKA is designed to be robust and resilient, with features like error handling and automatic
recovery from failures. This can help ensure that the web server continues to operate reliably
even in challenging environments or under heavy loads.
 Simplified development
By providing a pre-built web server framework like HOKA, developers can focus on building
their application logic rather than worrying about the underlying web server infrastructure. This
can simplify development and reduce the time required to get a web-based application up and
running.
 Improved security
HOKA, when combined with our Security Foundation Library, includes built-in security
features, such as SSL/TLS encryption, secure authentication protocols, and access controls. This
can help protect both the device and the data it transmits from unauthorized access or tampering.
 Flexibility
HOKA is designed to be highly customizable, allowing developers to tailor the embedded web
server to their specific requirements. This can be especially valuable for IoT applications, where
the needs of each device or sensor may be unique.
 UNIT-V

UAV
A UAV, commonly known as a drone, unpiloted aerial vehicle, or remotely piloted aircraft
(RPA), has its flight controlled either autonomously by on-board computers or by the remote
control of a pilot on the ground or in another vehicle.
Types of Drones
1. Multi-Rotor Drones
2. Fixed-Wing Drones
3. Single-Rotor Drones
4. Fixed-Wing Hybrid VTOL

Drone
Type Pros Cons Uses/Price

 Accessibility  Short flight times  Aerial Photography

Multi- and Video
Rotor  Ease of use  Small payload  Aerial Inspection
capacity
  VTOL and hover  Price: $5k-$65k
flight for pro drones

 Good camera
control

 Can operate in a
confined area

 Launch and
recovery needs a
lot of space

 Long endurance  No VTOL/hover  Aerial Mapping

 Pipeline and power
 Large area  Harder to fly, more line inspection
Fixed- coverage training needed
Wing  Price: $25-$120k
 Fast flight speed  Expensive for pro drones

 VTOL and hover

flight
 More dangerous
 Long endurance  Aerial
(with gas power)  Harder to fly, more LIDAR laser
Single- training needed scanning
Rotor  Heavier payload  Price: $25-$300k
capability  Expensive for pro drones

 Not perfect at
either hovering or
Fixed-  VTOL forward flight  Drone Delivery
Wing
Hybrid  Long-endurance  Still in  Price: TBD, in
flight development development
Multi-Rotor Drones
Multi-rotor drones are the easiest and cheapest option for getting an ‘eye in the sky.’ They
also offer greater control over position and framing, and hence they are perfect for aerial
photography and surveillance. They are called multi-rotor because they have more than one motor,
more commonly tricopters (3 rotors), quadcopters (4 rotors), hexacopters (6 rotors) and
octocopters (8 rotors), among others. By far, quadcopters are the most popular multi-rotor drones.
Fixed-Wing Drones
A fixed-wing drone has one rigid wing that is designed to look and work like an aeroplane,
providing the lift rather than vertical lift rotors. Hence, this drone type only needs the energy to
move forward and not to hold itself in the air. This makes them energy-efficient.
Single-Rotor Drones
Single-rotor drone types are strong and durable. They look similar to actual helicopters in
structure and design. A single-rotor has just one rotor, which is like one big spinning wing, plus a
tail rotor to control direction and stability.
Fixed-Wing Hybrid VTOL
Hybrid VTOL drone types merge the benefits of fixed-wing and rotor-based designs. This
drone type has rotors attached to the fixed wings, allowing it to hover and take off and land
vertically. This new category of hybrids are only a few on the market, but as technology advances,
this option can be much more popular in the coming years. One example of fixed-wing hybrid
VTOL is Amazon’s Prime Air delivery drone.

Significant Drone Types

Some of the popular drone types other than the ones mentioned above include:
1. Small Drones
These drone types are used for recreational purposes; they cannot perform commercial
functions that other drone models carry out. Small drones are too light and lack the
stability required for accurately capturing images.
2. Micro Drones
These are small drones, but they can still provide valuable intelligence because of their
micro cameras. The British military commonly uses this drone, and it’s called the Black
Hornet. Black Hornets can fly up to 25 minutes (single charge) and have a range of up to
one mile.
3. Tactical Drones
These drones are large without being bulky. Equipped with GPS technology and infrared
cameras, they measure 4.5 feet and weigh 4.2 lbs. They are often used for surveillance
work.
 4. Reconnaissance Drones
These drones measure approximately 16 feet in length, over 2200 pounds, and hover for
52 hours at 35,000 feet. They can be launched from the ground and are known as High
Altitude Long Endurance drones (HALE) and Medium Altitude Long Endurance drones
(MALE).
5. Large Combat Drones
These drone types are approximately 36 feet long and are usually used to fire laser-
guided bombs or air-to-surface missiles on targets. They have a range of over 1000 miles
and can be used for up to 14 hours at a stretch.
6. Non-Combat Large Drones
Although large, these drones are not for combat. They are more complex than Black
Hornet and are used for larger-scaler recon missions.
7. Target and Decoy Drones
These types of drones are used for monitoring and striking targets. The look of the decoy
drone usually depends on the mission.
8. GPS Drones
This drone type links to satellites via a GPS hookup to map out the rest of their flight,
collecting data that can be extracted to make informed decisions.
9. Photography Drones
Photography drones are outfitted with professional-grade cameras. 4K camera drones can
take high-resolution pictures. These drone types make use of automated flight mode and
precision stability to take pictures covering vast spaces.

Components of UAV
 Fuselage.
 Wing.
 Tail assembly/empennage.
 Payload.
 Propulsion system.
 Landing gear/undercarriage.
 Transmitter & Receiver.
  Flight controller (FC)
Sensors used in Drones

3 axis accelerometers:
This sensor is very useful to stablilize the drone. 3-axis accelerometer provides linear
acceleration in 3 axes.
3-axis gyroscope:
This sensor is used to provide angular motion to the drone. 3-axis gyroscope provides angular
acceleration in 3 axes.
Magnetometer:
This drone sensor type is present in the drone which has GPS functionality. It is available in 1 to
3 axes. Magnetometer is basically a magnetic compass which can measure magnetic field of the
earth. This feature is used to determine direction of compass used in the Drone. Compass
direction is determined with respect to mangetic north.
Barometer:
As we know atmospheric pressure changes with respect to height from the sea level. This
phenomenon is used in the barometer to determine height of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle.
Barometer is also referred as pressure sensor. In most of the flight controllers additional
measurement device based on GPS sensor is used to calculate height above sea level very
accurately.
GPS Sensor:
This drone sensor type uses satellite launched around the Earth to determine specific geographic
locations. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) use GPS sensors to determine the specific router
without the presence of pilot. It can also return back to its original position with the use of GPS
sensor.
Distance Sensor:
These types of sensors are used to sense the obstacles. The distance sensors are based on
ultrasonic, laser based or LIDAR based.
UAV Deployed Sensors
Optical Cameras
To enable high-resolution Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry, we currently focus on
the Nikon D800 series of cameras, including the 36 mp Nikon D800/D810 and the 45.7 mp Nikon
D850, most frequently using a 50mm prime lens. From distances in the 25-30m range (80-100
feet), this enables sub-cm 3Dsensing useful for high resolution assessment of transportation
infrastructure such as roads and bridges. Other UAVs come with built-in cameras, such as the 20
mp onboard the latest Mavic 2 Pro small quadcopter that includes 4K video capability.

Thermal Sensors
We have deployed several FLIR thermal sensors, including the Tau2, Vue Pro, Vue Pro R,
and Duo Pro systems, primarily for finding subsurface delamination in concrete bridge decks.
Thermal anomalies can be indicative of where concrete has begun to delaminate, creating
subsurface air gaps that warm up differentially and create an identifiable pattern on the bridge deck
surface.
FLIR Duo Pro and FLIR Vue Pro R sensors are being flown to identify thermal anomalies at a bridge in Michigan.
Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) Sensor
We have a customized lidar setup and mount able to deploy lidar sensors such as the VLP-
16 system, creating 3D points clouds of bridges and ground surfaces. These can be used to find
bridge spalling and ground features that would ordinarily be hard to identify.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Sensor and Antenna Configuration
We deploy a four-port, wideband, low frequency stepped frequency continuous wave
(SFCW) radar using an AKELA vector network analyzer, with ability to transmit 256 frequencies
between 500mhz and 2000 mhz. This GPS sensor system was deployed on our Bergen Quad-8
UAV to demonstrate buried object detection.
data collection flight
Lightweight Portable Radiometer (LPR)
MTRI has developed a lightweight portable radiometer (LPR) system to enable
spectroscopy at lower cost than traditional systems, with the ability to be deployed from UAS
platforms such as our Bergen hexa copter UAS. It uses two Ocean Optics STS sensors with
measurements of upwelling radiance and downwelling irradiance from 350 to 1000 nm with 1.5
nm spectral resolution. The LPR has recently been deployed to create spectral profiles of
submerged aquatic vegetation and harmful algal blooms.
Tetra Cam Multispectral Camera
We have deployed the Tetra cam Micro-MCA6 tunable six-band multispectral camera to
identify submerged aquatic vegetation species in the Great Lakes, with a focus on identifying the
invasive plant Eurasian watermilfoil. We have also modified the bands to collect harmful algal
bloom data and identify areas with high concentrations of dissolved organic carbon at river mouths.
We can apply different polarization filters to help identify anthropogenic features in images or
improve monitoring of aquatic areas.

UAV Elements and Sensors

Motors
Electric motors for drones convert electrical energy into mechanical energy in the form of
linear or, most commonly, rotary motion. In most drone motors, this motion is a result of the
attraction or repulsion of two magnetic fields.

ESC(Electronic Speed Controller)

An Electronic Speed Controller (ESC) is a purpose-built device designed for controlling
the speed of an electric motor. Using a specialised combination of hardware and firmware, ESCs
drive motors to a commanded speed. They maintain motor speed under various circumstances,
such as the dynamic load of a propeller

GPS(Global Positioning system)

 GPS modules any flight controllers with GPS systems built-in. GPS systems allow you to
plot your flight plan ahead of time and perform actions based on precise location data. Automate
and set safeguards with GPS systems.

Inertial Measurement Unit(IMU)

IMU stands for the “Inertial Measurement Unit. IMU Drone consists of accelerometers and
gyroscopes to measure acceleration and rotation, which can be used to provide position data. It is
an essential component in the drone flight control system. It allows drones to operate and fly with
maximum control and stability.
UAV software
Ardupilot
ArduPilot is a trusted, versatile, and open source autopilot system supporting many vehicle
types: multi-copters, traditional helicopters, fixed wing aircraft, boats, submarines, rovers and
more. The source code is developed by a large community of professionals and enthusiasts. New
developers are always welcome! The best way to start is by joining the Developer Team Forum,
which is open to all and chock-full of daily development goodness.

Mission Planner
Mission Planner is a ground control station for Plane, Copter and Rover. It is compatible
with Windows only. Mission Planner can be used as a configuration utility or as a dynamic control
supplement for your autonomous vehicle. Here are just a few things you can do with Mission
Planner:
 Load the firmware (the software) into the autopilot board (i.e. Pixhawk series) that
controls your vehicle.
 Setup, configure, and tune your vehicle for optimum performance.
 Plan, save and load autonomous missions into you autopilot with simple point-and-
click way-point entry on Google or other maps.
 Download and analyze mission logs created by your autopilot.
 Interface with a PC flight simulator to create a full hardware-in-the-loop UAV
simulator.
  With appropriate telemetry hardware you can:
o Monitor your vehicle’s status while in operation.
o Record telemetry logs which contain much more information the the on-
board autopilot logs.
o View and analyze the telemetry logs.
o Operate your vehicle in FPV (first person view)
Internet of Drones
The Internet of drones (IoD) can be described as an infrastructure designed to provide
control and access over the Internet between drones and users.