Building Materials

Introduction to Materials in Australia

There is a wide range of possible building materials available for our use and the performance of
these materials has an impact on the cost, aesthetics and function of the building.
A well designed, economical building takes the following factors into account:
• The properties and behaviour of building materials
• The initial and long-term costs
• The effects on the environment
• How the materials interact with each other
The following is a list of some of the more common building materials, and their applications:

Material Products and uses

Adhesives and For gluing, sealing and filling cracks and joints
joint fillers

Cement For concrete slabs and other elements; concrete blocks; cement render
on walls; mortar for brickwork, blockwork and tiling; compressed cement
sheets; Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)

Clay For bricks and tiles; mud bricks

Cloth Canvas (for awnings etc)

Glass For windows; skylights; doors; fibreglass insulation

Grasses Straw (in mud bricks and rammed earth walls and in bales in straw bale
constructions)

Gypsum For wet plaster on walls; grout between tiles; plasterboard

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 Metals Timber fasteners (such as nails, screws, bolts, brackets, gang-nail plates

Steel (such as zincalume profile sheet steel, tanks, gutters, downpipes,

wire and wire mesh)

Steel (beams, columns, brackets and reinforcing)

Copper (pipes and electrical wiring)

Brass (taps, screws, door and window fittings)

Aluminium (door and window frames, gutters, downpipes)

Paper Wallpaper, cellulose insulation

Wool Insulation

Polyester Insulation

Plastics For electrical fittings; paints; wastes, water and sewerage pipes; plastic
sheets (such as moisture barriers)

Soil Rammed earth walls and floors

Stone Building blocks and slabs’ slated; aggregate in concrete; pebble finish on
concrete

Timber Floors; doors; window frames; weatherboards; roof, wall and floor
framing, structural components eg LVL

Modern manufacturing processes have expanded the list of building materials. Building designers
must be aware of many factors affecting the use of these materials.

Selection of Building Materials

Environmental Factors
Many resources and raw materials such as rainforest timbers, fossil fuels, metals and stones are
limited and non-renewable. It is important for building designers as specifiers and consumers to be
aware of the implications of materials selection for resource depletion and effects on the
environment and our health. Where possible we should use renewable resources, such as timber
from re-planting programs.
The ‘energy content’ or ‘embodied energy’ of building materials refers to the amount of energy
used in extraction and production. Materials such as stone, timber or straw have a low energy
content as they do not require a primary manufacturing process. Other materials require a lot of
energy in their production, and therefore have a high energy content. These include for example,
glass, bricks, plastics and metals. Selection of materials with a low energy content reduces the
environmental impact of construction.
See the Environmentally Sustainable Design section for more information on environmental
factors.

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Economical Factors
The initial cost of building will depend almost entirely on the costs of materials and on the labour
costs. The choice of materials should be based also on a consideration of the cost of repair,
maintenance and replacement of short life-span products. Less durable materials may be cheap to
buy, but maintenance, repair or replacement costs are usually high. The cost of maintenance such
as painting should be considered.
Cheap materials usually lower the value of a building, whereas more durable materials, such as
stone and brick, mellow with age and give the structure a more aesthetically pleasing appearance.

Physical factors
Materials have different characteristics, or properties. These properties are affected by physical,
chemical and biological factors.
• Density—Different substances have different densities. For example, ice floats in water
because the ice is less dense than the water. More dense materials generally have a
higher thermal conductivity.
• Strength – A structure (eg a beam or a bridge) must be able to safely support its own
weight plus the load it carries without distortion which will reduce the efficiency of the
structure or make it break or look unattractive. A structure can be made much stronger
without increasing its weight, by being made in a different shape. In Figure 1 below, the
steel beam A is much stronger than the steel beams B or C, even though they all contain
the same amount of steel. Steel is strong under tension and will resist being stretched.

Different types of steel beams

Materials such as concrete, stone and brick strongly resist being squashed, ie they have
compressive strength. The behaviour of concrete under pressure is illustrated in Figure 2 and 3.
Concrete cracks easily when stretched. It has low tensile strength. By using steel reinforcing in
concrete, we combine the tensile strength of steel with the compressive strength of concrete,
resulting in a product that is strong in tension as well as being strong in compression.

The concrete slab is strong under compression

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 The tensile (under tension) strength of steel is combined with the compressive strength of concrete when
reinforcing mesh or bars are used in concrete.

A piece of 25mm wide galvanised steel strap, which is often used in bracing timber frames, is very
difficult to stretch, but crumples easily when compressed lengthways. It has high tensile strength
and low compressive strength.
• Thermal capacity (thermal mass) – is the ability of a substance to store heat. A brick or a
stone wall, for example, will heat up slowly, hold the heat and lose it slowly as the outside
temperature drops. A thin, light wall, on the other hand, heats and cools quickly and does
not provide a buffer to the climate. The choice of materials of various thermal capacities
will depend on the type of climate and the building’s use.
• Moisture Absorption –porous materials will absorb moisture more readily than others.
However, most materials may take up moisture from the air, from the ground (eg through
damaged dampcourses) from damaged roofs or gutters, or by condensation.
• Acoustic properties – Insulation from noise can be achieved by the use of dense
materials. Some porous materials are used for modifying the acoustics in a room but
sound can only be prevented from travelling from one space to another by the use of
dense materials or a vacuum.

Performance of Building Materials

Building materials undergo changes over time and the following factors affect their performance.

Movement
• Movement caused by applied loads may occur due to error in structural design or from
overloading eg when a beam sags under a too heavy load.
• Temperature changes cause thermal movement - expansion when heated and
contraction when cooled. Movement joints are placed at recommended intervals to allow
for thermal movement. If movement is restricted, such as in a long wall butted up to
buildings at each end, the wall may distort, causing cracks, bulges or failure at weak
points, such as over archways or doorways.
• Change in the moisture content of most materials will result in deformation: swelling
when wet and shrinking when dry. These moisture movements can result in warping,
twisting, shrinking or cracking. Materials such as most timbers require surface treatment
to prevent moisture absorption.

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Durability
Durability will be dependent on exposure, but direct and indirect causes of deterioration include the
following.
• Sunlight causes drying and cracking of timbers, fading of colours and pigments. Heating
of dark coloured materials can greatly speed up their breakdown and ultraviolet radiation
causes breakdown of clear finishes, stains, paints, rubber, some plastics, tars and
bitumen, fabrics and canvas. Metals, bricks and stones are largely unaffected by sunlight.
• Biological agents—bacteria in the soil breaks down sulphur chemicals which cause
corrosion of metals such as iron, steel and lead. Tree roots and vines growing in cracks
exert a very strong and destructive force, expanding cracks in masonry, pipes, concrete or
timber. They also hold moisture, encouraging the growth of moulds and fungi, and the
uneven drying of brickwork (which causes uneven movements within the wall). Insects
such as termites can be very destructive to timber, eating out the inside along the grain.
• Water and Frost—selection of materials for use in damp areas requires careful
consideration. Timber, particleboards, hardboards and other similar wood products lose
some of their strength, and many flooring materials are less hardwearing when wet. Water
can encourage fungal attack and certain destructive chemical reactions. Repeated wetting
and drying causes surface crazing and cracking of timbers. Water also often carries
destructive acids, salts and other soluble chemicals. Water expands when frozen causing
further problems.
• Salt crystallisation—Salts dissolved in water can come from the sea, the ground and
from some building materials. As moisture evaporates from a surface, the salts are left
behind in the form of powder or crystals, called efflorescence. Sometimes this is just an
unattractive coating, usually white, but sometimes yellow, green or brown. However, it can
be destructive if allowed to persist for a long time.
• Chemical action—Chemical reactions in materials can cause swelling, shrinking,
weakness or damaged appearance due to chemical changes within the material itself, or
changes brought on by attack from outside chemicals. Heat and moisture aid most
reactions.
• Abrasion and impact—In situations of abnormal impact or abrasion, suitable materials
and finishes need to be chosen. For example a concrete path or floor that will take heavy
traffic requires correct concreting techniques to be followed so as to produce a hard,
durable surface.
• Vibration—caused by proximity to machinery or heavy vehicular traffic can cause
problems in light constructions and with brittle materials.

Fire Resistance
Fire is usually the fastest, most destructive and dangerous way in which a building can be
damaged or destroyed. It is a very important consideration for building design.
The Building Code of Australia and Australian Standards provide legislative requirements and
guidance for minimising fire hazards in public or private buildings. Fire resistance ratings of
materials are determined by laboratory tests. The ratings indicate the time before a material fails in
a fire.
In a fire, materials may melt, burn, weaken, expand, shrink, crack or give off toxic fumes. Flame
and building collapse cause injury and death, however, smoke and gases are equally dangerous
(even when flames are not present), causing confusion, unconsciousness, panic, loss of vision and
asphyxiation. Solids can smoulder in a confined space for a long time on only one-third of their
normal oxygen supply and then, on the sudden entry of air (a door being opened for example),
burst explosively into flame.

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Combustibility
Materials that ignite, give off flammable gasses or show considerable self-heating when exposed to
a heat source in a furnace, are combustible.
Non combustible materials, do not feed the fire, and flame does not spread over them. Non
combustibility does not mean fire resistance. Non combustible materials (such as steel) may
expand and disturb attached structures, or lose strength and collapse, or others may spall (flake)
and shrink or crack. On the other hand, some combustible materials (such as timber) can often
provide a useful degree of fire resistance by charring on the outside only.
Fire resistance is expressed as the time in hours and minutes a component survives a fire test of
set temperature before it can no longer perform its function. It is considered to fail the test when
any of the following occur:
• It collapses
• It forms holes or cracks through which flame can pass
• It gets hot enough to ignite other combustible materials it is in contact with and which the
fire hasn’t yet reached.

Fire Performance of Materials

Timber
Timber easily ignites at about 221-298 C. However, some timber (particularly large cross sections,
at least 100x75mm) is resistant to the fire once the surface has been charred. Many Australian
hardwoods have this characteristic and have proved to be more fire resistant in buildings than
steel. However, all timbers do burn readily if temperatures stay high enough, therefore timber
buildings are not classified as fire resistant. Timber has good thermal insulation, preventing
materials not in contact with the fire from heating up to extreme temperatures. When hot, timber
does not expand in length (unlike steel) and neither does it markedly lose strength. Laminated
timber structures glued with synthetic resins have similar fire resistance to solid timber, although
resistance will vary according to the type of timbers and glues.

Stone
Stone blocks and slabs are usually satisfactory in fires, but overhanging features and lintels are
liable to fail. Free quartz (eg in granites) explodes suddenly at 575 C and should not be present in
any stone that is required to be fire resistant. Sandstones behave better than granite, but in drying
they may shrink and crack, with 30-50% loss of strength.

Plastics
Although many plastics are made in fire-retardant grades, all are combustible and some give off
large quantities of toxic smoke. PVC melts at fairly low temperatures, and most thermoplastics
(plastics that can be heated and shaped) char above 400 C and burn at 700-900 C.

Clay Products
Most clay products perform well in fires, having been made at kiln temperatures higher than most
fires reach. Brickwork failure is often caused by expansion of enclosed or adjoining steel work.

Concrete
Ordinary Portland cement concrete disintegrates at 400-500 C. However, concrete performance
depends greatly on the presence of reinforcement and the type of aggregate it contains.

Metals
Metals used in building are non-combustible, but they lose strength when heated. Aluminium, lead
and zinc melt in building fire temperatures. The expansion of hot metals can cause problems, and

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also the high thermal conductivity of metals means that the temperature of surfaces remote from a
source of heat will approach the temperatures near the fire, causing fires to spread.

Steel
Mild steel behaves in an interesting way when heated. Up to 250 C, it gains strength then gradually
returns to normal strength by 400 C. After that, it rapidly weakens so that, at 550 C (referred to as
the critical temperature), it begins to fail. Generally structural steelwork must be protected with fire-
resistant encasements such as concrete or brickwork.

Glass
Although glass is non-combustible, it readily transmits heat and often shatters unpredictably at an
early stage in a fire. Toughened glass is not fire-resistant.

Glass fibre and Rockwool

Resin-bonded glass fibres are combustible. Glass fibres themselves melt at about 600 C.

Fibrous Cement
This material tends to shatter when heated, sometimes explosively. It does not contribute to
making a fire-resistant structure.

Paints
Generally paint films are combustible, emit toxic smoke, and may help spread flame over surfaces.
However, as they are thin, they only contribute a small amount to the fire load. When applied to
combustible materials, certain paints can reduce the spread of flames. They delay but never
prevent the spread of flame.

Compatibility of materials
The large range of new materials on the market today, many of which are chemically based, plus
widespread pollution, has led to new chemical and physical problems with materials. A material
may break down many times faster than normal in the presence of another particular substance.
Problems do not always show up until a product has been on the market for a number of years.
Incompatibility of building materials can be grouped roughly under the following headings:
• corrosion of metals
• stains and discolouring effects
• problems with surface finishes
• chemical reaction between materials.

Corrosion of metals
Galvanic reactions: These occur between metals that have different levels of electronegativity. This
is often seen as corrosion of one metal or a deposition of metal scale on the other metal. Offcuts or
filings of metals left around in moisture can cause rapid destruction of nearby metal building
components. Some common galvanic reactions are listed below.
• Lead used with zinc or aluminium promotes corrosion. Therefore, metal roof-flashings
need to be carefully chosen.
• Steel screws or nails should not be used with aluminium or zinc roofing, unless they are
zinc or cadmium coated.
• Copper should not touch or drain onto zinc, aluminium, zincalume or galvanised materials.
• Lead-based or graphite paints should not be used on aluminium.

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Water–metal corrosion: Most iron or steel rusts on contact with air and moisture. Protection is
provided by galvanising or coating with zinc, aluminium or PVC plastic.
Galvanised pipes: For water supplies these are reasonably durable where water is hard or not
acidic. But if water is low to moderately hard, corrosion occurs quite rapidly at joints with brass or
other copper alloys. This can be reduced with effective diameter pipes, and eliminated with plastic
connectors.
As heat speeds up corrosion, different metals should not be mixed in hot water systems.
Copper and brass are permanently resistant to water.
Aluminium: This becomes encrusted in coastal atmospheres. Mortar, cement or concrete pit the
surface of aluminium if splashed on it.
Industrial atmospheres: These are usually acidic and corrode all metals.

Stains and discolouring effects

Copper: Water dripping off copper causes green stains.
Rust: Water running off exposed iron or steel will stain surrounding surfaces.
Eucalypt timbers: When wet, many eucalypt timbers produce brown stains on masonry.
Efflorescent salts: When these move through porous brick, stone, mortar or concrete, they cause
surface crusts called efflorescence.

Problems with surface finishes

When finishes won’t stick to the surface they are applied to, it is usually due to the two being
unsuitable for each other. The surface may either be too smooth or it may be powdery or flaky; or
there might be a chemical incompatibility between the surface and the finish. This will be dealt with
in more detail in the unit on paints but a few special points are:
• Many silicone sealants will not accept paint.
• Acid-resisting grouts (for floor-tiles) cannot be satisfactorily cleaned from the tile surface.
• Primers, undercoats, finish paints, lacquers, varnishes and stains should all be used
according to manufacturers’ instructions as many are incompatible with certain materials.

Chemical reactions between materials

Salt: This is highly corrosive to iron and steel. Porous masonry and ceramics (such as some stone,
brick, terracotta and concrete) can be severely affected by salt penetration.
Milk: Milk contains lactic acid, which is very destructive to concrete in dairies and special surface
treatment is needed.
Ammonia: Ammonia, present in some adhesives, can damage copper and brass.
Lead and galvanised steel: These metals will corrode in wet conditions when in contact with
cement mortar or concrete.

Testing of materials
The testing of materials is carried out by the manufacturer or supplier before delivery (eg stress
testing of timber). Upon delivery, an inspection should be carried out with respect to the quality and
suitability for the construction situation intended.
Concrete is one material which is tested on site (the slump test), and later laboratory tested for
compressive strength at 28 days. Materials such as paints, adhesives, glass and the like have
been developed and trialled under strict laboratory controls and conform to Australian Standards.
You as the building designer need to be informed of all the information relating to products
specified.

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Tolerances
All building work in Australia is covered by the Building Code of Australia and many Australian
Standards. These standards have been developed for most building materials and detail
tolerances, application, testing (if applicable) and method of installation. These tolerances should
be followed and best industry practice adhered to.

Handling and Storage of Materials

Storage and handling of materials on site is important as many materials are easily damaged if due
care is not taken in handling, and some can deteriorate if exposed to moisture and direct sunlight.
Materials should be stored in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions; for example, stacked
flat, off the ground, in a dry area or in a secure area for flammable or toxic materials. When
handling materials on site, safe working practices must be followed and all OH&S regulations
implemented.

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Concrete and Concrete Products

Concrete Materials
Concrete is a composite material which consists of a ‘binder’ (Portland cement and water,
commonly referred to as the paste) and aggregate. General purpose (type GP) is the most
commonly used cement in the building industry.
Aggregates are generally classified into two groups:

• fine aggregate which consist of sand with particle sizes less than 5mm

• coarse aggregates – generally crushed rock of varying sizes but greater than 5mm

The setting or hardening process of concrete takes place through the chemical reaction of the
cement and water. This process is called ‘hydration’ and is characterised by the release of heat.

Properties of concrete
There are several properties of concrete which affect its quality. These are:

• compressive strength

• tensile strength

• durability

• workability

• cohesiveness.

Compressive strength
Compressive strength remains the common criterion of concrete quality. The ultimate strength of
concrete depends almost entirely on the water/cement ratio, for as the ratio increases the strength
of the concrete decreases.

Durability
Concrete may be subject to attack by weathering or chemical action. In either case the damage is
caused largely by the penetration of water or chemical solutions into the concrete and is not
confined to action on the surface. The resistance to attack may therefore be increased by
improving the watertightness of the concrete. This is achieved by lowering the water/cement ratio,
assuming the concrete is fully compacted.

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Reinforced concrete
Basic principles
Concrete, like any other building material, has limitations, mainly because of the fact that while it is
strong in compressive strength, it is comparatively weak in tensile strength. To overcome this
weakness in tension, concrete which is to be subjected to tensile stresses is reinforced with steel
bars or mesh which is so placed that it will resist such stresses.

The designing and detailing of reinforcement is the job of the Structural Engineer and will not be
dealt with in any great detail here, but it is important that building designers have an appreciation of
the basic principles of reinforced concrete. Reinforced concrete is designed to combine the
concrete and steel into one structural entity to make the best use of the characteristics of each of
these materials, ie. there is just enough steel to resist the tensile stresses and excess shear
stresses while the concrete is used to resist the compression stresses.

Steel and concrete combine together successfully because:

• the bond between concrete and steel directly counteracts any tendency for the concrete to
stretch and crack in a region subjected to tension

• with temperature changes, concrete and steel expand and contract the same amount. If this
were not so, the different expansion rates would break the bond between the two materials
and so prevent the transfer of tensile stresses to the steel.

• concrete has a high fire-resistance and protects the steel from the effects of fire

A broad understanding of stresses and the methods of indicating the particular stress on drawings
is covered in the section on Structural Concepts.

Design of reinforced concrete

In order to be effective, the tensile reinforcement must be prevented from sliding in the concrete.
The adhesion or bond between the concrete and the steel is related to the surface area of the steel
embedded in the concrete and adequate anchorage is achieved by extending the rods past the
critical points and by the use of:

• standard hooks

• plain rods extended into the supports (rarely used)

• deformed bars (rolled with lugs or projections)

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 Positioning of main reinforcement to assist tensile stresses in beams

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Formwork
Basic requirements
In its plastic state, concrete can be readily moulded into any desired shape. As any inaccuracy or
blemish in the formwork will be produced in the finished concrete, it is essential that the forms be
designed and constructed so that the desired size, shape, position and finish of the concrete are
obtained.

Although the formwork is a temporary structure, it will be required to carry heavy loads resulting
from the mass of the freshly placed concrete and construction loads of materials, workers and
equipment according to AS3610 Formwork for Concrete.

Good formwork
The guiding principles for the production of good formwork are:

Quality
First quality formwork should be:

• Accurate: True to the shapes, lines and dimensions required by the contract drawings.

• Rigid: Forms must be sufficiently substantial so as to prevent any movement, bulging or

sagging during the placing of the concrete.

• Tight-jointed: If joints are not tight, they will leak mortar. This will leave blemishes in the
shape of fins on the surface of the concrete and may result in honeycombing of the
concrete close to the leaking joint.

• Well-finished: The quality of the finish of the concrete is dependent on the finish of the
forms. Nails, wires, screws and so on should not be allowed to mar the surface of the
finished concrete.

Safety
• Strength: For the safety of the workers and of the structure, it is vital that the formwork be
strong enough to withstand not only the mass of the wet concrete but also the live loads of
workers, materials and equipment.

• Soundness: Materials must be of good quality and durable enough for the job. The time will
come, no doubt, when it will be essential to use for structural load-bearing members, only
timber that has been tested with the mechanical stress grading process.

Economy
For economy, formwork should be:

• Simple: Formwork should be designed for simplicity of erection and removal.

• Easily handled: Shutters and units should be light enough to permit easy handling.

• Standardised: Where standardisation of formwork is possible, the ease of assembly and the
possibility of reuse serve to lower the formwork cost.

• Reuseable: Formwork should be designed for easy removal and in sections that are
reusable. This will minimise the amount of waste material and thus decrease the cost of the
formwork.

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Off-form finishes
It is economical for the structural concrete to form the surface finish. Where special characteristics
such as smoothness, pattern, texture, intricate detail and so on are required, extra special care
must be taken in the selection of form materials and in the form construction.

Smooth surfaces
Most sheathing and lining materials are available in grades smooth enough to produce a blemish
free concrete surface. The correct choice of form oil is important in achieving the desired
smoothness.

Wood grain finishes

A surface simulating wood grain can be produced by casting the concrete against a plywood form
liner which has had the grain revealed by wire-brushing or sand-blasting. Sometimes exposed
grain plywood is available ready-made for this purpose. To produce a rough board marked surface,
sawn boards are used for sheathing. These boards may be sprayed with ammonia to raise the
wood fibres and accentuate the grain markings.

Textured and patterned surfaces

These finishes are obtained by lining the forms with liners such as striated plywood, rubber matting
and moulded plastic. The liners are either nailed or fixed with a waterproof glue to the inside
surfaces of the forms.

Joints in concrete construction

Interruptions to the placing of concrete will inevitably occur when pouring large quantities.
Irrespective of the length of these interruptions, if the concrete is allowed to stiffen to the extent
that it cannot be worked, then a joint must be made. Other cases will occur when it is necessary,
for structural reasons, to break the continuity of placing and to form a joint.

Joints can be of two general types:

• Construction joints: These aim at bonding the new concrete to the hardened concrete in
such a manner that the concrete appears to be monolithic and homogenous across the joint
and allows for no relative movement of the concrete on either side of the joint.

• Control joints: These allow for relative movement on either side of the joint, thus they can
be either construction joints or expansion joints.

Construction joints
In practice, it is very difficult to obtain a perfect bond at a joint and a plane of weakness will always
occur at a construction joint. For this reason, they should be avoided wherever possible. While
unscheduled interruptions are often unavoidable during placing, making an unplanned construction
joint necessary, some breaks in the continuity of placing may be foreseen either in the design
stage or just before commencement of construction, thus allowing the position of many joints to be
planned. Good planning will aim to interrupt placing in a position suitable for a control joint and so
eliminate the need for a construction joint.

Location of construction joints

Where construction joints are necessary in structural members they should be made where the
shear forces are at a minimum. The joint should be at right angles to the axis of the member so
that axial forces act normally to the joint and do not tend to cause sliding along a weakened plane.

Concrete for columns should be poured continuously to just below the soffit of the beam, drop
panel or capital, and the concrete left for at least two hours to settle before fresh concrete is
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placed. The whole floor system around the head of the column should then be cast in one
operation after suitable preparation of the joint.

Construction joints in beams should be made in the middle third of the span and on no account
should they be made at or near the supports or over any other beam, column or wall since
shearing stresses are usually very high at these positions. When a construction joint is required in
a floor slab it should be made near the middle of the span.

Making vertical construction joints

When making a construction joint in a beam or slab, the concrete must not be allowed to assume
its natural angle of repose, but should be taken up to a suitable stop board so as to form a vertical
joint. To assist the transfer of load across the joint either dowels or a keyway to aid mechanical
bonding may be used at about mid-depth of the beam or slab. This is recommended in sections
over 150mm deep. Reinforcement must not be cut at a construction joint but must be left
continuous in the member.

Making a vertical construction joint

Preparation of construction joints

The correct method of preparation and making of construction joints is detailed in AS3600 2009
(2010 amendment) Concrete Structures.

Watertight construction joints

A correctly made horizontal construction joint in a wall should not require sealing, but if the joint is
to be in contact with water and particularly if subjected to hydraulic pressure, effective sealing will
be necessary because of the tendency of the joint to open up as the concrete shrinks. This can
best be carried out by using a water stop. PVC water stop membranes extending into the concrete
equally each side of the joint and welded or glued together at the ends to form a continuous
diaphragm are commonly used.

Contraction joints
A contraction joint is a concrete joint made so that the concrete is free to shrink away from the joint
while all other relative movement across the joint face is prevented.

As concrete sets, hardens and dries out, it shrinks. If no provision is made to relieve the drying-
shrinkage tensile stresses within the concrete, cracking will occur when these stresses exceed the
tensile strength of the concrete. If the concrete is completely unrestrained, cracking will not occur,
but very few structures are completely unrestrained.

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Contraction joints are most needed in unreinforced concrete structures because reinforcement
considerably increases the tensile strength of concrete, restrains overall shrinkage movement and
prevents the formation of large shrinkage cracks.

Location of joints
Contraction joints should be located where it can be expected that the severest concentration of
tensile stresses will occur, such as:

• Where abrupt changes in cross section occur.

• On irregularly shaped floors and slabs (eg T, H, L and U shapes), to divide them into
rectangular shapes.

• Where structures are weakened by openings.

• In long structures such as walls and road pavements, which are not sufficiently reinforced
to prevent the formation of shrinkage cracks.

• In large areas of pavement or slab on the ground.

Construction of joints
A vertical plane of weakness is purposely formed in the slab or wall. Vertical movement is
controlled by forming a keyed joint or by using non-ferrous dowels with one end capped and
coated so that they are free to slide. The bond between new and existing concrete at a contraction
joint must be broken.

Dummy contraction joints

A dummy contraction joint is a plane of weakness built into a structure by means of a groove,
either sawn or formed with a grooving tool. This joint functions as a contraction joint by localising
shrinkage cracks to beneath the groove. The irregularity of the crack serves to transfer loads
across the joint and prevents relative movement in the plane of the joint.

Since this type of joint is an alternative to a full depth contraction joint, the location should be the
same as for contraction joints.

Expansion joints
An expansion joint is formed by creating a gap between the two surfaces of the concrete to allow
for expansion. The gap is usually filled with a compressible filler and all relative movement in the
plane of the joint is prevented.

Expansion joints are generally provided in structures exceeding 30m length, in unreinforced or
lightly reinforced road pavements and as sliding joints between a roof slab and a supporting wall.

Aerated Autoclaved Concrete (AAC)

AAC is a lightweight autoclaved aerated concrete that is formed into blocks and panels for a wide
range of loadbearing and non-loadbearing construction applications. It is manufactured from sand,
cement, recycled material, lime, gypsum and an aerating agent, aluminium paste. It is moulded, cut
and steam pressure cured in an autoclave. AAC is very light in weight and has good thermal and
acoustic insulating properties. A coating is required for surface protection and waterproofing.

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CSR Hebel is Australia’s only manufacturer of aerated autoclaved concrete (AAC) products. These
products include:

• Hebel blocks – Suitable for loadbearing wall construction, Hebel blocks come in a variety of
sizes; 200H x 600L x 50-300W. Blocks are glued together and can be cut using carpentry
tools.

• Hebel PowerPanel – a 100-300mm thick panel of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) with
corrosion protected steel reinforcement embedded in the panel during production. The
panel is lightweight, yet structurally solid, and is ideally suited to external cladding for timber
or steel framed construction.

• Hebel lintels – 200-450H x 3600L max x 100-200W

1. Hebel floor panels—reinforced AAC panels designed as loadbearing floor systems for
commercial, industrial and residential construction applications. They are manufactured in a
range of thicknesses for specific load/span configurations for large spans.

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Timber & Timber Products

Timber material properties and characteristics

Softwoods and hardwoods used for timber in Australia

Softwoods Oregon Radiata pine

Canada pine Redwood

Western red cedar Cypress pine

Queensland pine Hoop pine

Baltic pine

Note: All pines and firs are softwoods

Hardwoods Tallow wood Brush box

Blackbutt Red gum

Spotted gum Blue gum

Mountain ash Stringybark

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 Ironbark Mixed
hardwoods

Silky oak Silver ash

Queensland maple Red cedar

Pacific maple (Meranti) Black bean

Blackwood Rami

Note: All eucalypts are hardwoods

Stress Grading
Timber is stress graded to determine the amount of bending stress or loading it can safely
withstand. This allows timber to be used safely and efficiently.

There are two methods for stress grading timber:

• Visual Grading—the traditional method of determining a stress grade, occurs when

experienced graders inspect timber and grade it by eye.

• Machine Grading—a machine applies continuous stress along the length of the timber and
then marks it with coloured dyes (the colour of the dye indicating the stress grade). The
stress grades and colours are shown below (the higher the number, the greater the stress it
can withstand). Most pine sold in Australia for structural use is now machine stress graded.

Timber Sizes
Timber is sold as either:

• Sawn timber (ie as it comes, straight from the saw)

• Dressed timber – sawn timber that has been machine-dressed straight all round (with rough
surface smoothed away).

Timber sizes are given in the following order and units of measurement:

• length in metres or millimetres

• width in millimetres

• thickness in millimetres

For example: A piece of timber 2100 x 50 x 50, is 2.1m long, 50mm wide and 50mm thick.

Standard lengths generally start at 1800mm (or 1.8m) and increase in units of 300mm up to
6300mm. Large quantities of timber can, however, be produced to special lengths to order.

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Dressed timber can be specified as the finished size, or more commonly as the original sawn size
from which it is dressed. A piece of 100x75 timber for example, will measure several millimetres
less on each face when dressed, due to planing and sanding. The prefix ‘ex’ means ‘out of’; thus
ex 100x75 means that the piece is dressed from a sawn section of 100x75, and may actually
measure 95x70mm.

Milled (or Dressed) Timber

Timber that has been machine-finished to a particular width and thickness or has been machined
to a specific shape is called milled or dressed timber.

Milled timbers include the following:

• Square and rectangular sections—seasoned timber are machined to suit a wide range of
stock sizes of width and thickness. The timber is usually dressed on all four sides, but may
be dressed on particular surfaces as required. If the members are dressed on all four sides,
it is said to be ‘dressed all round’ or DAR.

• Tongue and groove floorboards—(T&G) floorboards and wall panelling are machine
dressed from seasoned timber to a range of stock widths and thicknesses. A tongue is
formed along one edge and a groove along the opposite edge (see Figure 7). When fitted
together, the tongue and groove give great strength to a board (as the joined boards spread
the load over a much wider area), and also will exclude draughts, dust and vermin.

Tongue and groove flooring

• Wall cladding and lining—Weatherboards and other timber profiles used for external wall
cladding are fixed horizontally to the studs so that they overlap for weatherproofing. Other
profiles may be fixed horizontally, vertically or diagonally to studs or noggings.

Slimmer profiles are used for internal wall lining and also may be fixed in various directions.
Some profiles are illustrated in Figure 8.

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 Examples of timber profiles for wall cladding or lining

• Mouldings—machined to a wide range of stock sizes and shapes and used as finishing
pieces in a variety of situations.

Mouldings

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Timber Preservation
Some timbers are naturally durable. Durability can be affected by the chemical make-up of the
timber itself, its hardness and the amount of sapwood present in the sample.

Some timbers are vulnerable to termite attack. Termite destruction can be minimised by isolating
timber from the ground, using physical barriers and chemical treatment of timber and soil.

Timbers can be placed into one of four classes for durability; class 1 being the most durable when
in contact with the ground. Examples of common timbers in each of the four classes are shown in
Table 4.

Timber durability classes

Class 1 - most ironbarks cedar

durable grey box grey gum
tallow wood junipers
turpentine redwood

Class 2 blackbutt spotted gum

forest red gum white stringybark

Class 3 brushbox (class 1 or 2 for

termites)
brown stringybark
silvertop ash

Class 4 - Least radiata pine douglass fir

durable white birch spruces
sassafrass beeches
tulip oak yellow carabeen
birches slash pine

Timber which is not naturally durable may be impregnated with preservatives to improve its
durability. Preservative treatment of timber before sale and use is most effective. Commercial or
large-scale treatments available in Australia fall into one of five main categories:

a) oil-based preservative

b) waterborne preservatives—unfixed salts

c) waterborne preservatives—fixed salts

d) organic solvents or light oil solvent preservatives (LOSPs)

e) synthetic pyrethroids

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Manufactured Boards
A number of different types of manufactured boards are produced for a variety of uses with some
advantages over regular timber, and include plywood, particleboard, hardboard, solid core board,
composite sheet, laminated sections and medium density fibreboard (MDF).

Advantages of manufactured boards

• Strength is greatly increased and is more uniform. Solid wood is, on average, 20 times
stronger along the grain than across. Thick plywood (over 10mm thick) on the other hand,
is almost equally strong in both directions.

• Shrinkage is practically eliminated

• Boards are available in much larger sizes than can be obtained from a tree trunk

• More economical use can be made of expensive timbers for finishes, while cheaper timbers
can be used for the cores

• Matching uniform panels can be obtained

• Plywood can be formed or bent to make curved surfaces

• Fewer splitting problems can occur when nailing or screwing

• In the case of composite boards, much greater strength-to-weight ratios are obtained and
they also have improved insulating qualities

• Boards are made to very accurate measurements

Plywood
Thick continuous sheets are peeled off rotating logs of wood and then glued together in layers,
under pressure. Each layer is laid at right angles to the grain direction of the previous layer (see
Figure 10 below), and there is always an odd number of layers. Plywoods are often named
according to the numbers of layers (eg three-ply, five-ply etc).

Grain directions in a sheet of three-ply

Decorative timber surfaces on sheets of plywood provide attractive finishes for cabinet making,
wall panels or whenever an attractive timber finish is required.

Plywood has very good strength for its weight, and is very resistant to shear stress. Thin sheets
can be readily bent to required curved shapes. Glues and coatings can, when needed, make

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plywoods moisture resistant so that they can survive weather, wet concrete and marine conditions
(eg marine ply).

Plywood has a wide range of uses including sheet flooring, external and internal wall cladding,
sheet roofing underneath other roofing materials, components for structural members, formwork for
concrete, decorative panelling, furniture and wall bracing.

Standard sheet sizes (for residential construction) are:

• Standard length: 2400, 2100, 1800mm

• Standard width: 1200, 900mm

Other sizes are manufactured for special uses

Particleboard
Also called chipboard, this board is made from wood chips glued together under pressure to form
solid sheets.

Particleboard has good dimensional stability, and is easy to work with normal carpentry tools,
making it ideal for cabinet work. It does not have the same bending and shear strengths as most
other timbers and prolonged exposure to moisture will make it swell, causing a reduction in
strength and hardness.

Particleboard is used for tongue and grooved sheets for flooring (both sheets are grooved and a
plastic tongue fits into each groove); plain sheets for internal fittings and cabinet making; plain
sheets surfaced with plastic laminate (such as Formica) for tables, benchtops, cupboard sides and
doors. Sheets are also made in widths suitable for shelving and edge-stripped with timber along
one edge to enhance their appearance.

Standard sizes are:

• Thickness: ranges from 10-43mm

• Width 600-1800mm

• Length 1800-4800mm

Note: Standard sizes for particleboard flooring are:

• Thickness: 19mm

• Width 600 and 900mm

Particleboard

Hardboard (Masonite)
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Wood is pulped and a felt of wood fibres, impregnated with glues, is compressed and cut into
sheets of hardboard, also commonly called masonite. The sheets are rough on one side and hard
and smooth on the other (unless a decorative texture is pressed into them during manufacturing).

Hardboards fall into several groups:

• Natural-colour hardboards

• Prime-coated hardboards (ie natural colour hardboards which have been factory primed
with pigmented paint sealers)

• Perforated hardboards (with a regular pattern of holes punched in them and used for ‘peg’
boards, notice boards and sound insulation)

• Prefinished hardboards (with a variety of finishes and textures)

Hardboards are extensively used in the building industry. Uses include as a wall and ceiling lining;
as an underlay for cork and vinyl tiles or sheets (to provide an even surface); in cabinet making as
face panels on doors; for decorative feature walls; for partitions and wall bracing. With the use of
appropriate glues hardboard can also be used externally for weatherboards.

Solid Coreboard
This is made up of a number of solid strips of timber glued together and sandwiched between
sheets of cross bonding and face veneering (see Figure 12 below)

Coreboard

Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF)

Medium density fibreboard, MDF is made of timber chips or fibres which are compressed with
glues to form smooth, even-textured boards which are easily worked and stable. They are ideal for
cabinet work and their superior finish has made them a viable alternative to timber for domestic
mouldings.

Manufactured Structural Timber Products

Laminated Sections (eg Glulam, LVL)
These are structural members (such as beams, planks and boards) of long length and large cross-
section made by gluing together medium lengths of seasoned, small cross-section timber (glue
laminated beams see Figure 14) or layers of timber veneers (Laminated Veneer Lumber, LVL). In
glue laminated beams timbers approximately 25-37mm thick are usually selected, dressed smooth
and then placed together with adjacent faces glued and pressed. The use of laminations is
necessary due to difficulties in obtaining solid timber in large cross-section which is structurally
sound due to depleting timber resources. There is also a considerable time delay and energy
usage in seasoning large timber sections.

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Advantages of glue laminated components:
• Strength characteristics can be carefully controlled throughout the length of the beam and,
depending on the types of timber used, glue laminated beams can be obtained in stress
grading ranging from F8 to F27

• Large structural members can be made from readily available commercial sizes of
seasoned timber

• Laminated beams will be more dimensionally stable and free of surface checks and faults
than the necessarily unseasoned single piece of solid timber

• Design and fixing can be based on the properties of seasoned timber

• Material of lower grade can be positioned in the made-up member in locations where it will
not affect the overall strength of the member

• Structural members with curved, tapered or cambered shapes can be produced readily. In
this process, the section can be bent to follow desired forms and the resulting shaped
components have great stability and structural strength

• They have a good degree of fire resistance because the surface usually chars then resists
further burning. They are also useful in corrosive industrial atmospheres

• Depending on the type and class of timber used they can produce an attractive appearance
for high-quality work, such as public building interiors

Laminated timber beam

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Architectural timber structures

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 Timber in sustainable building design

Timber as a sustainable building material

Timber flooring

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 Timber windows and stairs

Timber joinery

Timber visual qualities

Timber colour, grain and features are important aesthetic qualities for selection of timber
particularly for interior applications.

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Clay

Clays are natural materials made up of very small crystalline mineral fragments. The shape, size
and type of these fragments give clays their plastic quality which allows them to be moulded and
shaped when wet. These mineral fragments are also responsible for the hard, stony nature of clays
after they are fired at high temperatures.

Clay products
When clay has been changed by heat (firing), the products are called ceramics. During firing, water
is driven off, some recrystallisation of minerals takes place, and glass is formed from quartz sand
present in the clay. The result is a hard, insoluble material. The higher the firing temperature, the
more recrystallisation occurs and the more glass is formed, resulting in greater hardness and
density.

The minerals present in the clay will determine its colour when fired. Ceramics are also coloured by
having a specially prepared coating, or slip, applied before firing, which results in a glaze of the
required colour or texture.

Uses of ceramics in building

There are five types of ceramics, apart from bricks, that are used in building: terracotta, fireclay,
stoneware, vitreous china and porcelain

Bricks
Bricks used in construction are made from:

• clay or shale

• cement/concrete

• sand and lime (calcium silicate)

Methods of brick manufacture

Bricks are no longer made by hand but these are sometimes available second-hand from
demolition sites. They are soft, porous, rather irregular in shape and, if protected from the weather,
retain a pleasing warm appearance.

There are, now, two main methods of brick manufacturer:

• the dry pressed method

• the plastic or extruded process

Dry pressed method

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In this method, almost-dry clay powder is pressed into moulds and then fired. Most dry-pressed
bricks have an indentation (called a frog).

A dry-pressed brick

Plastic or extruded process

With the plastic or extruded process, a soft, moist mix is extruded through a die in the form of a
long clay column which is then cut into brick-sized pieces by wires in a frame. Extruded bricks have
a much higher average compressive strength because the proportions between the raw materials
are more accurate.

An extruded brick

Brick classification, quality and standards

Applications of surface coatings onto a compatible colour base enable bricks to be available in
many colours and textures. There are also purpose-made bricks which are made in special shapes
(eg bullnose or squint).

The quality of good bricks is determined by their texture and hardness and their size and shape.
They should have an even, granular texture, be well-fired and free from flaws (eg face blisters or
shrinkage cracks). Two bricks, when struck together, should give a clear ringing sound.

They should also have regular shaped faces and sharp arises and fall within a standard size range.

Metric standard brick 230 x 110 x 76 mm

Laying bricks
Bonding is the way the bricks forming a structure are held together. Good bonding depends on the
chemical bond between the bricks and mortar and on the mechanical bond resulting from how the
bricks are laid.

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The depth of mortar between bricks is usually 10mm, providing a horizontal joint (called a bed joint)
and a vertical joint (called a perpend).

Jointing is the term usually given to the surface finish of the mortar set between bricks. Such
finishes vary according to trends. Tuck pointing used to be common about the turn of the century
but has since faded from popularity. The most common forms of jointing in use at present are:

• ironed

• flush jointing

• raked jointing

Examples of different forms of brick jointing

Many different methods of laying bricks are used, some more effective than others. Bonding is
provided by the way the bricks overlap each other and interlock, and it should:

• distribute the load evenly throughout the mass of brickwork

• tie the mass of brickwork together as an integrated unit

• provide a pleasing arrangement of bricks and joints

Several types of bonding are illustrated below. The stack bond, for example, provides little
mechanical bond between the bricks (because it creates a vertical downward thrust), whereas with
stretcher bond the load is more evenly distributed throughout the brickwork.

Stack bond

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 Stretcher bond

Soldier course
(stretcher face on end)

English bond
(alternate stretcher and header courses)

Colonial bond
(alternate bands of three stretcher and one header courses)

Accessories for brickwork

There are a number of different accessories used with brickwork:

Wall ties
Wall ties tie the two walls of a double brick wall together so that they do not move apart from each
other. Wall ties are also used to tie brick veneer to the timber framing.

The most common type is 4mm or 3.15 gauge galvanised wire bent to shape, with a kink (or drip)
which should be positioned pointing down in the cavity between the two walls to prevent moisture
passing along the inside wall.

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 A wall tie

Damp-proof courses
Damp-proof courses are provided:

• horizontally in walls and on piers to prevent upward seepage of water from the ground or
through concrete in contact with the ground

• vertically as vapour barriers to prevent penetration of moisture through a wall

• through walls and across cavities as flashing to control moisture from a roof or parapet or
around windows, door heads and sills

Anti-termite caps
Anti-termite caps made of galvanised iron are used on all piers under floor timbers. A damp-proof
course may be installed under the ant cap to prevent it rusting.

Lintels
Lintels are steel bars, steel angles and so on, used over doors, windows, fireplaces or other
openings to support the brickwork above.

Lintels

Piers

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Piers are brick columns which provide above-ground support for other structural members, usually
floors. An attached (or engaged) pier is built attached or bonded to a brick wall. It may be used to
stiffen or supply lateral support to the wall and carry a superimposed loads. Attached piers are
generally required at a maximum spacing of 1800mm along a single skin brick wall.

An isolated pier is free-standing and in order to maintain stability, the base dimension is increased
with greater height. Tables can be obtained to provide guidance in this respect.

an isolated pier

Mud brick
Mud brick walls are probably one of the oldest and most popular forms of earth housing. Wet mud
is placed in boxes (forms) which are removed shortly after, and the blocks are allowed to cure
before being used. The blocks are bonded with a mortar of the same mud that was used for
making the blocks.

Soils suitable for mud brick combine the plasticity of clay with the non-shrinking properties of sand
and stone. A binder such as straw or hay is often added.

Mud Brick Construction

Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple to construct, not a great amount • Blocks can be rather rough looking and
of skill required. can chip easily.

• Strong, relatively crack-free walls can be • Usually unsuitable for use in areas with
made. an annual rainfall exceeding 600-750mm,
unless design precautions are taken.

Rammed earth
Moist soil is rammed into position between heavy wooden forms. The forms are moved along or up
as work progresses. The ramming may be done by hand or with pneumatic tampers.

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 Rammed Earth Construction

Advantages Disadvantages

• A well-made rammed earth wall is one of • It is not easy to do well and the heavy
the most durable earth walls that can be wooden forms take time, money and
made. some skill to build.

• Ramming can be done by unskilled • Careful selection of soil type is essential

labour. or the walls will shrink and crack after
they dry.

• Materials are cheap. • Water content must be carefully

controlled.

Machine-made (pressed earth) blocks

The method involves the use of a hand-operated machine to press the soil into bricks or blocks
which are then allowed to sun-cure before being laid in courses like any other brick or block.
Machine Made Blocks

Advantages Disadvantages

• Machines are fairly cheap • Environmental impact of chemical

additives must be considered

• Blocks have approx. the same strength & • Water content and machining process
durability as rammed earth must be carefully controlled.

• Blocks with chemical stabilisers have

almost same strength & durability as
burnt brick

• Laying of blocks is relatively simple

• If blocks sun-cured, shrinkage unlikely

Materials added to stabilise earth

Cement is often used in mud brick, rammed earth and pressed block construction and in soil floors
to improve inferior soils. The soil needs to be pulverised first. The cement (5-12% by weight) and

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water are then added and amounts made must be in smaller batches than for straight mud, to
allow for concrete setting.

Bitumen added to soil acts both as a binding and waterproofing agent.

Concrete bricks and blocks

These are manufactured from graded sand, aggregate, portland cement and water; fly ash is often
used as a cementing agent. They are made in a variety of solid and hollow shapes but in
standardised metric sizes, so that a block or half block, with the addition of 10mm of mortar,
measures whole units of 100mm or 50mm.

Concrete block and brick sizes

Brick Type Length Height Width

Standard blocks 390 190 290,190,140,90

Half-high blocks 390 90 190,140,90

Metric modular bricks 290 90 90

Standard bricks (some size as 230 76 110

standard clay bricks)

Concrete bricks, blocks and paving are very versatile with the advantage that they are not usually
difficult for unskilled workers to use. They come in a variety of textures and colours.

Blocks are usually used hollow and unreinforced. They can easily be reinforced, if required, by
using steel reinforcement and filling the central core with concrete. Concrete blocks shrink and
swell with temperature and humidity variations and this has to be allowed for, particularly in
external work.

Paving blocks are available in interlocking systems that make very hard-wearing, attractive roads
or footways and which give good access to buried service piping.

Concrete roofing tiles are also available in a range of colours and shapes and are widely used.

Mortars
Materials to mix with sand to produce mortar for masonry for both bedding and render have
traditionally included lime or gypsum and more recently Portland cement is used as the setting
agent.

Mortars are used in residential building in the following areas:

• as a render on masonry

• as a bedding agent in brickwork

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 • as a bedding agent for ceramic tiles

• as a bedding agent for roof tiles

• as a grout for ceramic tiles

• as a ‘topping’ screed for concrete

Mortar may be defined as a mixture of an aggregate or bulk material and a matrix or binding
material. Sand is the aggregate and lime and cement are the binding materials. These materials
are combined to form different types of mortar mixtures in accordance with required strength.

Cement mortar
Cement mortar is a mixture of Portland cement, clean sharp sand, and clean water and a small
proportion of lime. This makes the strongest type of mortar.

Proportions are one part cement, 3 to 4 parts sand by volume 1/10 part lime together with sufficient
water to make a workable plastic mixture.

Mixing is usually done by hand or by machine on the job. Plasticising agents of many kinds, other
than lime, are frequently used to make cement mortar more workable.

Cement mortar is best when used before the initial set takes place, normally about one hour after
mixing. Mortar re-mixed after the initial set loses some strength and should not, therefore, be re-
mixed for use.

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Metals

Metals
Metals have the following properties:

• malleability – able to be hammered or

• ductility—drawn out as wire

• able to be melted and formed into shapes in moulds.

• most metals can be polished.

• conductors of energy such as heat and electricity.

Other characteristics possessed by metals may vary considerably from metal to metal. Some
metals (eg stainless steel) have good strength qualities, whereas others (eg tin) have very little
strength. All metals, however, will lose strength when repeated force is applied to them – a process
known as metal fatigue.

The degree of hardness of a metal will vary according to its natural characteristics (lead and tin, for
example, are soft metals; chromium and nickel are hard) and according to the degree to which the
metal is worked. When a metal is worked at normal temperatures (by being rolled or forged, for
instance) the result will be an increase in its hardness and strength – this is called work hardening.

Most metals are subject to corrosion, which occurs when the surface of the metal combines with
oxygen in the air to form a coat or crust that is no longer metallic (eg rust on iron or steel).
Corrosive liquids and gases can actually eat away metals. (We can see the effect of salt air or
spray on aluminium.) The process of corrosion is usually greatly speeded up by the action of heat
and moisture. Some metals have very low corrosion-resistance, while others have a good degree
of corrosion-resistance. Metals with a high degree of corrosion resistance (eg. chromium) are often
used as coatings or as alloys with other metals to increase their resistance to corrosive agents.

Joining metals
Metals can be joined by a variety of methods, including the following.

• Mechanical joints: Bolts, screws or rivets are used to join metal components together.
• Soldering and brazing: Most metals can be joined using an alloy which is a mixture of two
or more metals that melt at a lower temperature than the melting point of the metals being
joined. Soldering usually refers to tin-lead and lead-silver alloys which melt below 300°C.
• Brazing: Gives stronger joints than soldering; however, as it is done at higher temperatures
(over 600°C), brazing cannot be used on metals such as lead which have low melting
points.

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 • Welding: Most welding involves a metal being heated to a temperature below its melting
point, and the soft metal being hammered together. This traditional blacksmithing method
has been replaced by gas welding (using oxyacetylene or propane) and arc welding (using
an electric arc struck between the work and a welding rod or a carbon electrode).

• Both brazing and welding involve heating the adjacent metal to extremely high
temperatures which allows the metals to flow together and form one continuous unit.

Structural steel
Structural steel products are available in hot rolled sections and cold formed sections.

Hot rolled sections

These are formed while the steel is at elevated temperatures and include the following profiles:

Hot rolled sections

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Cold formed sections
These are formed while the material is cold. Unlike hot rolled sections, cold formed sections have
constant thickness. Cold formed sections may be formed by rolling in a rolling mill (for material up
to 20mm in thickness).

Rolling in a rolling mill

Cold rolled sections are used for:

Alloy steels
Alloy steels contain certain added elements that provide special properties such as ultra high
strength or resistance to corrosion or heat.

Stainless steel (containing chromium and nickel) is one such steel alloy which, although much
more expensive than mild steel, is being increasingly used in building in a wide variety of
applications because of its durability and low maintenance needs (even under extreme conditions
of atmospheric pollution, as it has excellent resistance to corrosion).

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Stainless steel has outstanding structural advantages because its hardness and toughness allows
it to be used in very light sections, thus reducing greatly the weight of finished articles. Even more
importantly, it is less affected by extreme heat, such as in a fire.

Except for very simple cutting or drilling on site, all shaping and fitting of stainless steel must be
done in suitably equipped factories and workshops. Stainless steel is also used for sanitary ware
(eg sinks and benchtops).

Prevention of corrosion in steel

Upon exposure to the atmosphere ferrous metals combine with oxygen to form a red oxide (ie
rust). Rust corrodes the metal and eventually wears it away, leaving behind a red powdery residue.
This not only affects the appearance of the metal but substantially reduces its strength.

One way of making steel rust resistant is by applying one of many protective coatings available for
steel products. These are roughly in two groups: metallic coatings and non-metallic coatings. As
most require scrupulously clean conditions and special surface preparation of the steel for
successful application, factory application of surface coatings is preferable.

Metallic protective coatings

These function by taking advantage of electro-chemical differences between different metals. In
adverse atmospheric conditions it is the surface coating that is sacrificed rather than the base
metal.

A number of methods are used to apply metallic coatings, such as electroplating, spraying and hot
dipping. Metals used to coat the steel include cadmium, zinc, tin, aluminium and copper. Zinc
aluminium alloy applied by the hot dip process has effectively replaced galvanised steel in
applications such as roofing because of its greatly increased durability.

Non-metallic coatings
These are available in a wide variety of colours and include:

• paints

• baked epoxy finishes

• vinyl coatings

• bituminous coatings

• vitreous enamel coatings.

Baked epoxy finishes are applied to zinc-aluminium coated steel which is chemically treated to
assist bonding. An epoxy primer and then the final colour coat are baked on separately. This type
of finish is popular for domestic and commercial roofing and wall cladding for normal conditions.

In marine and polluted industrial conditions steel can be coated with a tough vinyl which is
laminated to the steel substrate. The vinyl coating locks out moisture, making an extremely
corrosion-resistant finish.

Vitreous enamel coatings comprise a layer of glass fused to a properly prepared steel base.

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Painting should be considered as a complete system that includes surface preparation, pre-
treatment to facilitate adhesion, primer, intermediate coat or coats and finish coat. Different types
of steel require different pre-treatments and coatings.

Bituminous coatings are based on bituminous resins such as coal tar or asphalt. The bituminous
resins perform well underground and in contact with water but do not have good weather durability
when exposed to sunlight.

Nonferrous metals
Most nonferrous metals are metals that don’t contain iron and are more costly to produce than
ferrous metals. However, they often have much better working properties and resistance to
corrosion. The more common nonferrous metals are copper, aluminium, zinc, lead, nickel, tin and
cadmium.

Copper
Copper has been used for sheets, pipes, and other building products for thousands of years.

Copper is a pinkish coloured metal and is easily hammered into sheets. It is much more expensive
than some alternatives but its extreme resistance to corrosion outweighs this disadvantage in
certain applications. Upon exposure to the atmosphere, copper forms a protective copper oxide
coating which is light green in colour.

Its resistance to corrosion has made it popular for use as water pipes and tanks. It also conducts
electricity very well, hence its use for electrical wiring. Other uses include roofing, roof plumbing,
flashing and damp courses.

Brass
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, and is an attractive golden colour.

Brass is used for plumber’s hardware (eg pipe connectors and fittings; taps and outlet spouts, often
chrome finished). Screws, nails, grilles, hinges, door locks and latches and chains are often made
from brass.

Aluminium
Aluminium is a lightweight metal (approximately one-third the weight of iron) and is silver-white in
colour.

Aluminium was introduced as a building material after World War II in competition with traditional
building metals, such as steel and copper. Probably the major characteristic that has helped
aluminium gain widespread acceptance in the building industry is its suitability for extrusion
production methods. This means that very complicated shapes can be produced economically.

Uses
Aluminium products are extensively used in the building industry—for domestic windows, doors
and insect screens; for commercial windows and curtain walls for residential and industrial roofing
and rainwater goods; for balustrades and railings and for reflective insulation.

Corrosion resistance
One of the most significant properties of aluminium is its excellent resistance to atmospheric
corrosion. On exposure to the atmosphere, a whitish coating of aluminium oxide forms which then
protects the surface from further corrosion. The structural integrity is not impaired as a result of this
process.
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Thus, untreated aluminium can be used for roofing, cladding and so on, but where long-term
appearance is important the aluminium should be finished.

Compatibility with other building materials

Corrosion of a metal may be accelerated through contact with another metal of very different
electro-chemical properties especially in the presence of an electrically conductive solution, such
as sea spray or industrially polluted moisture.

Copper, brass and nickel alloys, all have a large potential difference to aluminium and in a salt
solution cause it to rapidly corrode.

Some other building materials are also incompatible with aluminium and direct physical contact
with those materials should be avoided or barriers should be used. The table below broadly
indicates the types of barriers suitable for most building construction applications.

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 Compatibility of aluminium with various building materials

Contact material Compatibility Recommended barrier

Stainless steel 18/18 Satisfactory. Recommended for all fastenings. No protective barrier required.
type or 300 series
should be specified

Zinc Under severe environments such as coastal or In severe environments metal contact
industrial, zinc will suffer from preferential surfaces should be coated with a
attack. bitumastic paint.

Galvanised steel As for zinc. As for zinc.

Mild steel Aluminium will corrode in contact with mild Coat contact surfaces with bitumastic
steel in presence of an electrolyte. paint or yellow zinc chromate paint.

Lead Corrosion of the aluminium will only occur in In severe environments separate contact
marine or severe industrial environments. surfaces with non metallic spacers or
bitumastic paint.

Copper and brass Attack of the aluminium surface in contact Copper and brass must be plated with
(including nickel alloys) with these materials will occur in most nickel and/or chromium; otherwise use
atmospheric conditions. non-metallic separators.

Concrete, cement, lime Wet or ‘green’ products can cause severe Surfaces in contact with these products
etc, stone and brick attack on aluminium. must be protected by painting or
separating with non-metallic material.
Wash thoroughly with clean water if
contact occurs.

Damp or unseasoned Because of their acidic nature can cause Timber must be primed with yellow
timber aluminium to corrode. zinc chromate undercoat and sealed
with suitable protective paint.

Treated timber Wood preservatives use salts of heavy metals Timber should be coated with caulking
such as mercury or copper, or certain chlorides. compound or mastic.

Hardboard, plasterboard The absorption of moisture into hardboard or Seal using suitable primer.
plaster board may give rise to poultice
corrosion.

Plastics, rubber No corrosive effect. No special treatment required.

Adhesives, sealants, etc These should not contain chlorides in excess of Carefully select adhesives and sealants
0.1% and those containing water soluble compatible with aluminium.
sulphates should be fully tested before use.

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Zinc
Zinc is a soft, greyish metal which can be hammered or rolled into sheets, often used for roofing
rainwater goods. Today, zinc’s most important function in the building industry is as a protective
coating on steel.

The zinc coating acts first as a barrier to corrosion. However, should the coating be scratched or
damaged, exposing the steel, the zinc surrounding the damaged part will itself corrode instead of
the steel. Thus by sacrificing the zinc the steel is protected and will not rust until all available zinc is
used.

Zinc-aluminium coating

Lead
Lead is soft and easily worked, but its great density makes it heavy to handle, and thin sheets and
pipes will not even support their own weight. Lead has been used for thousands of years: lead
water pipes were used by the Romans, and our word ‘plumber’ comes from the Latin word
plumbum meaning lead.

Due to its toxic properties, however, lead is no longer used for water pipes. In the past, it was used
for roofing and roof plumbing, but today its use is limited—although in certain roof plumbing
situations, its weight and malleability still make it a useful and preferred material.

Lead is used:

• for flashing and damp coursing

• for solder (as an alloy with other metals)

• as sheet lead lining for sound proofing.

Metal frame construction

Domestic and commercial buildings can both be of metal frame construction. This type of
construction is versatile, light, strong, time and labour saving, economical, and stable. Walls, roofs
and floors can all be constructed this way.

The metal frames made from steel are pre-fabricated in the workshop or before being erected.
They can be joined together using rivets, welds, screws or bolts.

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 Metal framing for a brick veneer house

Galvanising
Galvanising is the process of coating steel and iron with zinc to form a protective coating. The steel
is lowered into a molten bath of zinc heated to approximately 500°C and emerges with a shiny
coating of zinc. The zinc coating acts as a ‘sacrificial’ anode and corrodes to protect the steel.
Since its rate of corrosion is slow, the steel can remain protected for hundreds of years, depending
on the environment.

Zincalume
Zincalume is a newer protective coating and is a combination of zinc and aluminium (45% and 55%
respectively), which is applied in a factory process to sheet steel used for roofing and cladding in
the building industry.

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Linings

Wall & Ceiling Linings

Linings are the internal wall and ceiling covering of the building as opposed to claddings which are
the external wall or roof coverings. Linings are generally defined as being distinct from finishes
(such as ceramic tiles, wallpapers and paints) which are usually applied to the wall or ceiling lining.

The most common forms of wall lining used in Australia are plasterboard, fibre cement, timber or
composite lining boards or sheets and solid plaster.

Plaster
The term ‘plaster’ refers to a usually smooth lining applied to the base wall. The process of
applying solid plaster as a wet application to a base structure is used on solid masonry.
Plasterboard is a sheet material applied to solid masonry and framed walls.

General Properties of Plaster and Plasterboards

Thermal insulation: Plaster linings are relatively thin and make a correspondingly small contribution
to the thermal insulation of a building.

Fire resistance: Solid plasters are non-combustible, have no ‘spread of flame’ and do not produce
smoke. Often, the addition of a specified thickness of plaster or render on internal masonry walls is
used to achieve a required fire rating according to the Building Code of Australia. Special fire-rated
plasterboards are available for applications which require a fire rating.

Sound absorption: Solid plasters have fairly low sound absorption values but special acoustic
plasters and plasterboards are available.

Sound insulation: As plaster linings are relatively thin, they contribute significant sound insulation to
lightweight components only. However, plaster can improve sound insulation by sealing the
surface to porous base structures.

Hardness: In housing, a fairly soft finish may be preferred but harder surfaces are often required in
public buildings and the choice of system should take this into account. Metal angles are used to
protect vulnerable corners and provide a line for the plasterer to work to.

Expanded metal reinforcement used at external plasterboard corners

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Durability: Gypsum-based products are not usually waterproof and the durability of the finish
depends largely on the composition of the plaster.

Texture: Smooth-trowelled surfaces comprising either neat gypsum or gypsum with admixtures are
most common but texture can be provided by special trowelling or by including sand in the finish.
‘Bagged’ finishes are where a thin sand-cement mix is wiped over the wall surface with a piece of
hessian to produce a rough texture allowing the bricks or blocks to show through.

Solid or ‘Wet’ Plaster

Plaster comprises a binder, clean sand and fresh water, which sets to a comparatively hard, dense
layer. The properties of the final product depend largely on the type and quantity of the binder
used.

The binders most commonly used in Australia are gypsum plaster, Portland cement and lime.

• Gypsum (calcium sulphate) plaster is derived from pulverised and heated gypsum rock,
producing a white, pale pink or grey powder. When water is added to gypsum plaster it sets
and hardens giving off heat and slightly expanding. Gypsum plaster is sometimes known as
‘hard set’ or ‘set’ plaster.

• Cement mortar, which is a mixture of Portland cement, clean sharp sand, water and
sometimes lime or a plasticising agent, is used to render walls. This is generally known as
cement render. This gives a stronger finish than set plaster but the surface is less smooth
as sand grains give a surface texture.

• Lime plaster is rarely used today as the strength is very low.

Solid plasters are usually applied in two coats. The undercoat is often referred to as the ‘scratch
coat’ and the finishing coat as the ‘set coat’. t is important that each coat be well cured before
another coat is applied, especially if cement is used. A general principle to be followed is that each
successive coat should be weaker than the preceding one.

Cement-sand or cement-lime plasters are moisture-resistant plasters, while gypsum-based

plasters should be used internally in dry situations only.

Gypsum plasterboard
Plasterboard is the most commonly used lining for timber-framed construction and brick veneer. It
comprises a core of gypsum plaster reinforced with two outside layers of kraft paper, one on each
face. Some are available with an aluminium foil on the back which improves thermal insulation
performance.

Plasterboards are easily painted and are reasonably tough and strong in normal grades but are not
satisfactory in damp situations. A water-resistant board is available which is designed to be used in
areas where high humidity persists and in wet situations where they are protected with tiles or a
similar impervious material. Different grades of plasterboard are available for specific applications
such as impact resistance, sound insulation and fire resistance.

Sizes: Sheets are available in a broad range of sizes to suit stud and joist spacings. Thicknesses
commonly used in domestic applications are 10mm for walls and ceilings.

Fixing: The boards are fixed to the studs or ceiling joints by gluing or nailing with special flat-
headed nails. Boards are available with either square or recessed edges, the latter being used

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where a flush surface is required. For a flush joint, a strip of perforated reinforcing paper is
embedded in bedding compound in recess and the area is covered with a topping cement.

Plasterboard flush joints

Fibre Cement
Fibre cement sheeting has replaced asbestos cement as a lining and cladding material due to the
health hazards associated with materials containing asbestos. James Hardie produced their first
asbestos-free fibre cement in 1978 and asbestos cement was removed from the Australian market
completely by 1985. Care must be taken with handling fibre cement or “fibro” sheeting produced
prior to 1978.

Fibre cement is now made from a mixture of Portland cement, sand, cellulose fibre and water,
compressed into sheets, boards or other shapes.

As fibre cement is waterproof it can be used externally as cladding in the form of boards, sheets or
shingles, and internally fibre cement sheets are used primarily as a base lining for other finishes
(such as tiles) in wet areas. Compressed fibre cement sheeting, which is a more densely
compressed material, is also used as a base floor material for ceramic tile floors in wet areas. Fibre
cement is also used for bracing, fencing and decorative elements such as columns.

Sizes: Sheets are available in a range of sizes to suit stud and joist spacings. Thicknesses for
domestic use are generally as follows: as lining material for eaves, verandahs or carports – 4.5mm
or 6mm sheet; for internal wall and ceiling linings – 6mm; compressed fibre cement for wet areas
floors is 15mm or 18mm thick.

Fixing: Sheets can be glued or fixed with special galvanised flat-head fibre cement nails to timber
frames; joints can be covered with fibre cement cover moulds or PVC sheet holders. Internal
linings can be flush jointed using recessed-edge sheets and finished in a similar way to
plasterboard sheets, with a topping cement.
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General properties
Thermal insulation: Fibre cement sheets are relatively thin and make a correspondingly small
contribution to the thermal insulation of the building.

Fire resistance: Fibre cement products will not burn, have a zero ‘spread of flame’ index and do not
produce smoke.

Sound absorption: Unless special acoustic material is used, fibre cement lining contributes little to
the sound absorption characteristics of a room.

Sound insulation: The sheets have a greater density than plasterboard but are thinner and
therefore do not significantly affect sound insulation.

Hardness: Care should be taken during handling and storage to prevent edges from chipping since
the material is particularly brittle. When painted or otherwise finished, however, a hard surface
finish can be obtained.

Durability: Fibre cement sheets are unaffected by sunlight, moisture or termites and should not split
or rot, hence it is suitable for external and wet area applications.

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Glass

Glass Manufacture

Glass used in building

Plate glass
This method has been largely superseded by the float glass method. It produces a greater range of
thicknesses than the drawn sheet method because the process is continuous. The molten glass is
drawn between metal rollers and then between a twin grinder unit which polishes both surfaces
simultaneously.

Toughened glass
This is produced from ordinary glass by thermal treatment of the finished product. The resultant
surface tension across the sheet causes the glass to fracture into small particles when cut so that
once the glass product is so treated it cannot be further modified or cut on site. Toughened glass is
three to five times stronger than ordinary glass with regard to sustained loads and impact but the
surface is no harder than ordinary glass. This type of glass is commonly used for frameless glass
assemblies.

Patterned or figured glass

This is produced by passing a ribbon of molten glass between rollers during the cooling process so
that a pattern is pressed into the glass.

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Laminated glass
Glass layers are bonded together by heat with a polyvinyl butyral interlayer between the glass
layers. This technique produces shatterproof and safety glass such as bullet-proof and cyclone-
resistant glass, one-way glass and heat and light reflecting glass.

Wired glass
Wired glass incorporates a layer of the fine wire mesh and is an earlier form of safety glass used
for industrial glazing, balustrades, shower screens and so on. It is also used as a fire-retardant
glass in some situations.

Low e-Glass
Low-e is standard clear glass which has a special coating on one surface of the glass. Low-e refers
to low emissivity and this describes the capacity of a surface to radiate heat. Emissivity is
measured across a scale from 0 to 1 with 1 representing the highest emissivity.

The low-e coating is spectrally selective, which means it affects some wave lengths of light but not
others. Long wave infrared is the heat produced by our bodies, heaters and the furnishings in a
warm room. The transmission of long wave infrared is significantly reduced by the low-e coating. It
reflects the amount of energy escaping through the glass keeping the room warmer and reducing
the amount of heat required to be generated by the artificial heaters. The energy from the sun is
called short wave infrared; a high proportion of energy from the sun will be transmitted straight
through the glass.

Low-e coatings provide various performance levels and the glass can be used in a variety of ways
including single glazing, laminated glass or double glazed windows.

Self-Cleaning Glass
Over the years, companies have developed completely transparent exterior coatings which are
applied during manufacture to clear glass, producing a dual cleaning action. Once exposed to
daylight, the coatings reacts with the UV rays to breakdown and disintegrate organic dirt deposits.
The coatings also ensure that when water hits the glass, the hydrophilic action assists in wahing
dirt away without leaving spots or streaks.

Fire Resistant Glass

Ordinary annealed float glass in a heat or fire situation creates problems because it readily
transmits heat and upon breaking allows the passage of flames and smoke. Provisions within the
BCA and Australian standards require the use of fire resistant glazing in buildings. For bushfire
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prone areas, AS3959:2009 Construction of buildings in bushfire prone areas, provides for either a
deemed to satisfy or alternative solutions for window glazing based on a BushFire Attack Level
BAL) rating.

Fire resistant glazing systems can be categorised into non-insulated and insulated units.

Non-Insulated - Wired glass is a typical non-insulating product. For clear through vision, clear
polished wired is used. This product has been tested to achieve –/60/–, or only a 60 minute
integrity fire resistance in a steel frame. Wired glass upon exposure, breaks but the wire retains the
glass fragments in place. Wired glass is not a Grade A safety glass.

Insulated - There are two types of insulating glass products:

a) The first type, glass such as Pyrobel® manufactured by Glaverbel, uses a clear
intumescent interlayer in a laminated or multilaminated glass make-up. Upon heating in
excess of 120°C, the interlayer turns into a rigid and opaque fire shield. The higher the FRL
requirement, the thicker the glass and the greater the number of interlayers;

b) The second type consists of a gel interlayered glass in a sealed glazing unit. The cavity is
filled with a clear heat absorbing gel. Both products can provide high levels of integrity and
insulation and satisfy Grade A safety glass requirements.

Properties of glass in buildings

Through the use of the latest technology glass manufacturers are constantly developing new glass
products for energy management, comfort, security and ease of cleaning

Thermal performance
Glass expands and contracts on heating and cooling and, to prevent the kind of disasters which
happened on early glass curtain-walled skyscrapers, with sheets of glass falling from great heights,
this should be taken into account in the design. Stresses can be set up in the glass resulting from
differences in expansion rates between frames and glazing, especially where frames are metal.

Thermal insulation
Single glazing offers little thermal resistance but the effect of an air gap created by double glazing
almost halves the heat loss through a single pane.

The optimum gap is about 20 mm. Heat absorbing and reflecting glasses make an effective
contribution to minimising solar heat gain.

Heat absorbing glass

This is produced by the addition of certain minerals during melting. It significantly reduces solar
heat gain and glare in a building by absorbing between 50 and 90 per cent of the infrared rays and
30 and 75 per cent of the visible light rays. As a result, this glass tends to expand and contract
more than other types of glass and suitable tolerances must be left in the frame sizes. Heat
absorbing glass is available in a small range of tints.

Light and heat reflecting glass

This is produced by coating the glass surface with metallic films. With the use of this glass, solar
radiation can be reduced by up to 70 per cent. Frequently this glass forms part of a double-glazing
system which protects the coated surface.

Acoustic performance

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For any degree of sound insulation, double glazing is essential. Sound reduction values vary
according to the thickness of the glass and the width of the gap.

Fire resistance
Although non-combustible, ordinary glass breaks and then melts in fires and double glazing offers
no significant advantage over single glazing. Certain special glasses offer some degree of fire
resistance.

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Paint and coatings

Surface coatings or coverings provide any or all of the following:

• decoration

• preservation

• waterproofing

• hygiene

• improved lighting

• safety

• fire protection

• thermal insulation
Surface finishes may only represent a small percentage of the initial building cost but contribute
greatly to the maintenance costs of the building. Selection of the correct system and adequate
preparation of the surface is, therefore, important.

Paints
Broadly speaking, paint is a mixture of:

Binder
The binder, as the name suggests, binds the other ingredients together, forming a solid, elastic film
which must adhere to the surface, sometimes penetrating and sealing it as well. Paint is classified
according to the type of binder.

Oil-based paints
These are based on oils which react with the oxygen in the atmosphere to solidify. Straight oil
paints based on naturally drying oils, such as linseed oil, are rarely used today and have been
largely supplanted by paints modified with synthetic binders called alkyds. These paints are often
called enamels.

Water-based paints
These binders comprise small globules of resin which are suspended or dispersed as an emulsion
in water. As the water evaporates, the globules coalesce to form a solid film. Paints based on this
type of binder are use resins such as PVA, acrylic, polyurethane or combinations of these. Acrylic
paint is the most common water-based paint.

Solvent-based paints
These binders are dissolved in a solvent which evaporates leaving a solid film, such as lacquer
and chlorinated rubber.

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Chemically cured paints
These are usually two-pack paints and the binder forms as the two compounds are mixed together
and react chemically. Once mixed, the paint must be applied within a few hours. Epoxy resin paints
are examples.

Pigments
Pigments are used to make the paint opaque, to hide the background, and to provide the required
colour. For instance, titanium dioxide is used for opacity and another compound such as iron oxide
might be used to impart the colour.

Additives and extenders

Additives and extenders are included in varying quantities and have a great influence on the
properties of the paint.

Additives might include fungicides and driers in oil and alkyd paints or dispersing and emulsifying
agents in latex or plastic paints.

Extenders are used to achieve the required viscosity, body and surface appearance.

Medium
The medium can either be a solvent in which the binder is dissolved or a dispersing medium in
which it is suspended. Examples of solvents include mineral turpentine or benzene derivatives.
The dispersing medium most commonly used for plastic and latex paints is water.

Thinning and cleaning up depends on the nature of the dispersing medium. Oil-based paints
require turpentine or white spirit whereas water-based paints can be thinned and cleaned up with
water. Special solvents are required for other types of paints.

Paint systems
Most paint systems include the following:

• primer or sealer – fills the pores in a porous substrate and helps adhesion of the paint
system to new surfaces

• undercoat(s) – help to obliterate the background and “builds” the thickness of the paint film

• finishing coat(s) – gives the desired appearance to the paint film, colour, gloss

The choice of system depends on the nature of the surface to be painted and the finish required.
Each component of the system performs a particular function but in some cases, as with plastic
paints, paint can perform more than one function. The type of coat selected must be compatible
with the substrate (background) and with adjacent coats.

Clear finishes
Clear finishes are used to enhance the natural appearance of the substrate and in many cases
waterproof and protect it as well. They may or may not include some colour pigment and,
depending upon the type of compound, may be available in gloss, semi-gloss or matt finishes.

In general, clear finishes lack sufficient pigment to filter out damaging ultraviolet light and are
therefore much less durable than paints in exposed conditions. Consequently, the choice is limited
for external conditions.

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VOCs
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are an important environmental consideration in paint
specification. These compounds in paints have a toxic effect on the internal air quality in buildings
and can cause problems particularly for Asthma sufferers. Many paint manufacturers now produce
low VOC paints to address this environmental concern. Some information about VOCs in paints
from Taubmans.

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Plastics and Adhesives

Plastics
The term “plastics” is now used to describe many products which are artificially made and
chemically produced. Plastics are made up of giant carbon-based molecules and during their
manufacture, pass through a mouldable stage which allows them to be shaped into a limitless
variety of shapes. It is this ability to be moulded which makes plastic products suitable for many
applications in the building industry.

The growth of the plastics industry has resulted in many new adhesives made from synthetic
resins. Many older type glues are still used but are generally restricted to use on natural materials
whereas the modern adhesives will adhere to a wide variety of materials; for example, glass and
steel.

The term ‘plastics’ commonly refers to a large group of synthetic materials which may be derived
from coal, natural gas or other petroleum products, cotton, wood and waste organic products such
as oat hulls, corn cobs and sugar cane. Rubber products, which are derived from a naturally
occurring organic base, have in some cases been superseded by plastic products which can have
similar or superior properties.

The proliferation of plastic products has had a profound effect on nearly every facet of our society.
In the building industry, as elsewhere, plastic products have taken over from many traditional
materials.

Types of plastics
Plastic materials fall into two groups:

• Thermoplastics These become soft when heated and harden again on cooling, regardless
of the number of times the process is repeated. However, there are practical limits to the
number of times that thermoplastics can be heated and cooled; too many times affects the
appearance and strength of the product.

• Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) These undergo an irreversible chemical change

during production, in which the molecular chains cross-link so that they cannot
subsequently be appreciably softened by heat, while excessive heating will cause charring.

General properties of plastics

Plastics vary considerably in behaviour and specific differences will be discussed under individual
plastics. Some properties common to most plastics are:

• Strength Most plastics have tensile strength-to-weight ratios which are higher than many
metals but their greater elasticity precludes plastics from most structural applications. Also,

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 plastics tend to ‘creep’ and degrade at elevated temperatures, resulting in reduced
strength. Thermal expansion can be as much as ten times that of steel.

• Thermal conductivity Expanded plastic materials have relatively low thermal

conductivity—hence the suitability of foamed plastics, which contain air bubbles, as
insulation material.

• Electrical properties Plastics do not conduct electricity and are therefore excellent
insulators but electrostatic charges can build up on plastic surfaces and attract dust, and
sparking could be hazardous in some situations.

• Combustibility Many plastics are combustible and the spread of flame over some plastic
surfaces is high. When burning, plastics produce a great deal of smoke and it is the noxious
gases emitted and the tendency of some plastics to melt rapidly which present the major
safety hazards.

• Durability Although plastics do not rot or corrode, in many cases they have not been
around long enough for their durability to be adequately assessed. Ultraviolet radiation from
the sun is responsible for breakdown and colour change in some plastics, especially in the
presence of heat. Some pigments behave better than others in exposed conditions and
advice from manufacturers should be sought regarding suitable colours for outdoors. Some
plastics, acrylics and PVC, in particular, have performed well outside for a number of years.

• Environmental hazards Plastics are not biodegradable and the disposal of plastic
products is of environmental concern. In the past, and to some extent at present, plastics
were disposed of by burning which causes serious atmospheric pollution. Plastics have
also been disposed of by burial which causes problems because they do not break down
for many years. Today many plastics are recycled.

Plastics used in building

The applications of plastic products in buildings are as numerous as the range of plastics available.
The most frequently used plastics are described below.

Thermoplastics

Polyethylene (polythene)
This is available in low density and high density forms. It has a high degree of impermeability to
water and water vapour. Its toughness and chemical resistance make it suitable for waterproof
membranes, for cold water cisterns, for bath, basin and sink wastes and cold water pipes. Its high
thermal movement, however, makes it unsuitable for hot water pipes.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

PVC is produced in several forms. In its rigid or unplasticised form (UPVC) it is used for soil and
rainwater pipes and for electrical conduits and accessories. In transparent, translucent and opaque
sheets it is used for roofing or wall cladding. The plasticised or flexible form is used in vinyl floor
coverings, electrical cable insulation and sarking.

PVC burns only with great difficulty and is self-extinguishing, which makes it suitable for air-
conditioning ducts.

Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)

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Because of its low softening point, PVA is limited to use in adhesive for joinery, emulsion paints,
bonding agents for plaster, cement screeds and in situ floor coverings.

Polymethyl methacrylate (acrylic)

Because of its high transparency in the clear form (92 per cent compared with 90 per cent for
glass) and high resistance to impact (greater than glass), acrylic is used extensively for corrugated
sheeting, roof lights and light fittings. However, large areas of acrylic burn rapidly and the melting
plastic drops from roofs. It should therefore be avoided for large areas of roofing.

Polystyrene
In its unmodified form, polystyrene tends to be brittle, easily attacked by certain organic solvents
and readily burnt. It is low in cost and is used for cisterns, light fittings and concrete formwork and
in some paints. Expanded or foamed polystyrene is used for building boards, and both rigid and
loose-fill insulation.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (teflon)
Teflon is highly resistant to heat and has very low friction characteristics; however, it is extremely
expensive and is used only for special applications such as PTFE (plumber’s) tape which is used
to give a tight friction fit mainly between threaded brass connections.

Polyamide resins (nylons)

There are many forms of nylon. They are tough, very strong and hard wearing and have low friction
characteristics. Unlike other plastics, they absorb up to 2 per cent of water, swell slightly and burn
only with difficulty. Apart from use as a fibre in carpets and upholstery materials, nylons are used
for nuts and bolts, castors, curtain rails and sliding door fittings and ball valve assemblies.

Polycarbonates
Extremely high in cost, but with remarkable properties, polycarbonates are dense and hard with a
high ductility and tensile strength like metals. They are transparent (86 per cent light transmission),
with a high softening point, and are virtually self-extinguishing. They are used for roof glazing and
vandal-proof and bulletproof glazing.

Thermosets

Melamine formaldehyde
Melamine formaldehyde can be made in a wide variety of bright, permanent colours; it is resistant
to hot and cold water and cigarette burns. Its major use is as a surface to paper laminates such as
‘Laminex’ or ‘Formica’, which creates a durable sheeting material suitable for high-wear horizontal
or vertical surfaces such as kitchen benchtops and waterproof cupboard and wall linings. It is also
used for mouldings and in adhesives.

Polyester resins
These have a wide range of properties including high thermal resistance. They harden without heat
or pressure and are used in glass-fibre reinforced plastics (GRP or fibreglass), paints and clear
finishes. Polyester films are used to improve shatter resistance and solar control.

Polyurethanes
Polyurethanes have even wider ranging properties than polyesters and are used in paints, clear
finishes, sealants and foamed products, among other things.

Epoxide resins (epoxy)

Usually provided as a two-part pack—consisting of resin and hardener (or curing agent)—epoxide
resins are extremely tough and durable, with very good resistance to chemicals. Because they
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adhere well to most materials, they are frequently used as coatings for metal surfaces. They are
also used in paints, clear finishes, fibreglass and adhesives.

Silicons
Silicons are water repellent and, hence, frequently used in transparent waterproof coatings for
masonry, in paints and in mastics. In addition, silicone-based products can be injected into walls to
prevent rising damp.

Adhesives
Properties of adhesives vary considerably with their constituents. For instance, some are highly
flammable during application due to volatile solvents, but are inflammable when cured; some are
not waterproof or resistant to chemicals or micro-organisms; others are both waterproof and
boilproof.

Adhesives set in a number of ways:

• jelling on cooling, which can be reversed by reheating (eg animal glues)

• evaporation or absorption of solvent (eg starch pastes, PVA and rubber-based adhesives)

• loss of moisture with some chemical change (eg casein and the thermosetting adhesives)

• irreversible chemical reaction, accelerated by a catalyst or hardener (eg epoxies)

• hardening on cooling (eg hot-melt adhesives).

Achieving good adhesion

Adhesion may be due to molecular attraction between two surfaces or to bonding agents which key
into porous surfaces, or both. Modern adhesives work in both ways. For maximum bond strength it
is important not to use too much adhesive so that the surfaces are brought into close contact with a
thin glue line. Contact adhesives give instant tack but, generally, surfaces must be clamped
together (but not too tightly) until a bond is achieved.

Surfaces to be bonded must be clean, dry and free from grease. In some cases they need to be
roughened or etched.

Mastics
A mastic is a sealant which usually provides little structural support but seals the joint against
weather and sound while allowing the different components to move relative to each other.

A traditional mastic used in domestic construction is linseed oil putty for glazing timber sashes but
modern mastics can be either of the plastic or elastic type.

Plastic mastics are often called sealants and are more expensive and more durable than the
elastic mastics. They usually remain plastic for a period of time before hardening to a point where
loads can be sustained without squeezing out.

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Elastic mastics can be based on silicone, polyurethane, butyl rubber or polysulphide rubber. They
are used to seal a variety of assemblies including glazing and metal curtain-walling; around baths,
sinks and basins and joints in wall tiling.

Selection of mastics
As constituents vary considerably, manufacturers’ recommendations should be studied carefully.
Points to consider when selecting a mastic include resistance to moisture penetration, exposure to
weather, exposure to chemicals, compatibility with adjacent materials, loading conditions and ease
of application.

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Compliance Requirements for Materials,
Products & Services

The Hierarchy of the Performance-Based BCA

Level 1

Objectives

Level 2 Functional
Statements
Guidance Levels

Level 3 Performance Requirements Compliance Levels

Building Solutions

Level 4a Deemed-to- Alternative

Level 4b
Satisfy Solutions
Provisions

The Performance-based BCA was adopted after the consideration of other overseas compliance
models (including British, Swedish, Dutch and New Zealand), and adapted to suit the Australian
building regulatory environment.

Although the technical requirements from the previous BCA90 is still substantially included in this
“Performance-based BCA”, there is now a ‘hierarchy’ built around them as shown above.

The following is an explanation of the terms used and how they operate in practice.

“At Level 1 are the Objectives. These represent the reason the community wants a matter
regulated. They are primarily expressed in general terms, and usually refer to the need to
safeguard people and protect adjoining buildings or other property. An example of an Objective
from the BCA is:

“The Objective is to safeguard the occupants from injury or loss of amenity caused by inadequate
height of a room or space.”

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 At Level 2 are the Functional Statements. These set out in general terms how a building could be
expected to satisfy the Objectives (or community expectations). An example of a Functional
Statement from the BCA is:

“A building is to be constructed to provide height in a room or space suitable for the intended use.”

At Level 3 are the Performance Requirements. These outline a suitable level of performance which
must be met by building materials, components, design factors, and construction methods in order
for a building to meet the relevant Functional Statements and, in turn, the relevant Objectives.

The Performance Requirements are the core of the BCA and are the only parts of the code with
which compliance is mandatory. An example of a Performance Requirement in the BCA is:

“A room or space must be of a height that does not unduly interfere with its intended function.”

Level 4 contains Building Solutions that set out the means of achieving compliance with the
Performance Requirements. The BCA provides for two methods that can be followed to develop a
Building Solution, as detailed at Levels 4a and 4b, below.

At Level 4a are the Deemed-to-Satisfy Provisions. These include examples of materials,

components, design factors, and construction methods which, if used, will result in compliance with
the Performance Requirements of the BCA. An example of a Deemed-to-Satisfy Provision in the
BCA is:

“Ceiling heights must be not less than 2.4 metres in a habitable room.”

At Level 4b are the Alternative Solutions. The key to the performance-based BCA is that there is
no obligation to adopt any particular material, component, design factor or construction method. An
approval authority may still issue an approval if it differs in whole or in part from Deemed-to-Satisfy
Provisions described in the BCA if it can be demonstrated that the design complies with the
relevant Performance Requirement.”1

This means that any traditional or new building material can be used on a project providing
that it satisfies either 4a “Deemed-to-Satisfy Provisions” or 4b “Alternative Solutions”.

The Methods for Assessment are:

• Documentary evidence described in A2.2 of the BCA

• Verification Methods

• Expert Judgements

• Comparison to Deemed-to-satisfy Provisions

1 http://www.abcb.gov.au/en/about-the-national-construction-code/the-building-code-of-australia/hierarchy-of-
the-performance-based-bca.aspx
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Recording Your Research
In any Building Design practice, it is important that you keep up-to-date with new products and
materials. A good way to do this is to:

• Subscribe to industry news (e.g. BPN – Building Product News, Infolink and other industry
publications)

• Google research

• Talk to other design professionals

• Investigate case studies of interesting projects in your state

• Talk to manufacturers and suppliers about their products

Any appropriate research should be kept in an online library linked to your project and easily
accessible by other members of your team and for not only current projects, but also for future
reference.

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