103: Introduction to Computers

Unit 2
Nimesh S. Patel
Address Bus and Data Bus
• The CPU sends various data values, instructions and information to all
the devices and components inside the computer.
• If you look at the bottom of a motherboard you will see a whole
network of lines or electronic pathways that join the different
components together.
• This network of wires or electronic pathways is called a “BUS”.
What is bus?
• A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices.
• A key characteristics of a bus is that it is a shared transmission
medium.
• Multiple devices connected to the bus, and a signal transmitted by
any one device is available for reception by all other devices attached
to the bus.
• If two devices transmit during the same time period, their signals will
overlap and become unusable or garbage. Thus, only one device at a
time can successfully transmit.
• A bus consists of multiple communication pathways or lines. Each line
is capable of transmitting signals representing binary 1 and binary 0.
• Several lines of bus can be used to transmit binary digits
simultaneously (in parallel).
• E.g., an 8-bit unit of data can be transmitted over eight bus lines.
• Computer system contains a number of buses that provide pathways
between components at various levels of the computer system
hierarchy.
• A bus that connects major computer components (processor,
memory, I/O) is called a system bus.
• System Bus divided into three parts:
1. Data Bus
2. Address Bus
3. Control Bus
• In addition, there may be power distribution lines that supply power
to the attached modules.
Data Bus
• A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part
of the computer to another.
• Data bus can be thought as a highway on which data travels within a
computer.
• This bus connects all the computer components to the CPU and main
memory.
• The data bus may consists of 32, 64, 128 or even more separate lines.
• The number of lines being referred to as the width of the data bus.
Because each line can carry only 1 bit at a time, the number of lines
determines how many bits can be transferred at a time.
• It is a bidirectional bus.
• The size of bus determines how much data can be transmitted at one
time.
• E.g. a 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits (2 Byte) of data at a time.
• 32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits (4 Byte) at a time.
• 64-bit bus can transmit 64 bits (8 Byte) at a time.
• The size (width) of bus is a critical parameter in determining system
performance.
• The wider a data bus, the better, but they are expensive.
Address Bus
• A collection of wires used to identify particular location in
main memory is called Address Bus.
• In other words, the information used to describe the
memory locations travels along the address bus.
• The width of the address bus determines the maximum
possible memory capacity of the system.
• N address lines directly address 2^N memory locations.
• It is an unidirectional bus.
• The CPU sends address to a particular memory locations and
I/O ports.
• The address bus consists of 16, 20, 24 or more parallel signal
lines.
Control Bus
• Because the data and address lines are shared by all components,
there must be a means of controlling their use.
• The control lines regulates the activity on the bus.
• Control signals transmit both command and timing information
among system modules.
• The control bus carries signals that report the status of various
devices.
Memory Diagram
Cache Memory
• Cache Memory
• is a faster memory used by the central processing unit (CPU). It is a
memory that helps to reduce the access time for files or data that is
recently used by the main memory.
• It is smaller in size, high-speed memory, and located near a processor
core that stores the copies of the information or instruction
frequently used by the main memory locations.
Cache Memory
• it behaves like a buffer between the CPU and the main memory to
hold those data or programs most frequently called by the CPU.
• For example, whenever we execute a program by the processor, it
fetches data from the main memory and fetched data to be copied to
the cache memory. When the program's copy is already available to
the cache memory, it directly calls the processor to execute it;
otherwise, the program/files are fetched from memory. Hence, it
reduces the access time of the data from the main memory.
Cache Memory
• Advantages
1.The access time of files or instruction in the cache memory is less
than the main memory.
2.It stores frequently used data by the main memory.
3.It is the faster computer memory as compared to the main memory.
4.Store the program in a cache memory that is executed within a short
time.
Disadvantages
1.It has limited space to store the data.
2.It is very costly as it is a fast memory to access the data.
Virtual Memory
• It is used in the computer memory to increase the storage capacity of
the main memory.
• It is a logical storage unit of a computer that creates an illusion to
execute a large program that may not be completely placed in the
main memory.
• Furthermore, it allows the user to load or store the data program or
files larger than the size of the main memory.
Virtual Memory
• Advantages
1.Virtual Memory allows the users to run more than one application at once.
2.It enhances the degree of multiprogramming in the virtual memory.
3.Virtual Memory is a logical unit of computer memory that increases the
main memory capacity by storing or executing a large size program than
the main memory.
4.It does not require any fixed limit on the degree of multiprogramming.
5.It increases the CPU utilization in the virtual memory.
6.It is required whenever the system does not have much space to store any
big programs or files.
Virtual Memory
• Disadvantages
1.Virtual Memory can slow the process of application in the system.
2.It may take more time to switch between the applications.
3.It reduces the stability of the system.
4.It allows the user to lesser hard disk space for its use in the system.
Microprocessor
• Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a
small chip capable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations
and communicating with the other devices connected to it.
• Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit. ALU
performs arithmetical and logical operations on the data received from
the memory or an input device.

• Register array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L

and accumulator. The control unit controls the flow of data and
instructions within the computer.
• The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode and then
Execute.
• Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a sequential
order. The microprocessor fetches those instructions from the
memory, then decodes it and executes those instructions till STOP
instruction is reached.
• Later, it sends the result in binary to the output port. Between these
processes, the register stores the temporarily data and ALU performs
the computing functions.
• List of some terms in a microprocessors –
• Instruction Set – It is set of instructions that the microprocessor can understand.
• Bandwidth – It is the number of bits processed in a single instruction.
• Clock Speed – It determines the number of operations per second the processor can perform. It
is expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also known as Clock Rate.

• Word Length – It depends upon the width of internal data bus, registers, ALU, etc. An 8-bit
microprocessor can process 8-bit data at a time. The word length ranges from 4 bits to 64 bits
depending upon the type of the microcomputer.

• Data types – The microprocessor has multiple data type formats like binary, BCD, ASCII, signed
and unsigned numbers.
Instruction Cycle
• The time required to fetch an
instruction and necessary data
from memory and to execute it, is
called an instruction cycle. Or the
total time required to execute an
instruction is given by:
• IC = FC + EC
• (where IC= Instruction Cycle,
FC=Fetch Cycle, EC=Execute Cycle)
• Fetch the instruction (Fetch Cycle) : In the beginning of the fetch cycle, the contents of the
program counter (PC), which is the address of the memory location where opcode is available, is
sent to the memory. The memory puts the opcode on the data bus so as to transfer it to the CPU.

• Decode the instruction (Decode Cycle) : The opcode fetched from the memory goes to the data
register, DR and then to instruction register, IR. From the IR it goes to the decoder circuitry which
decodes the instruction. Decoder circuitry is within the microprocessor.
• Execute the Instruction (Execute Cycle) : After the instruction is decoded, execution begins.
• If the operand is reside the general purpose registers, execution is immediately performed, the
time taken in decoding and execution of an instruction is one clock cycle.
• Sometimes in execute cycle, involves more than one read and/or writes are required.
Computer Buses
• A bus is a common path through which one computer component can
connect to another.
Functions of Buses
• Data Sharing – All types of buses found in a computer transfer data between
computer peripherals connected to it.
• The buses transfer or send data either in the serial or parallel method of data
transfer. This allows for the exchange of 1, 2, 4 or even 8 bytes of data at a time.
(1 Byte= 8 bits). So that we have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit buses.
• Addressing – A bus has address lines, which match those of the processor lines.
This allows data to be sent to or from the specific memory locations.
• Power – a bus supplies power to various peripherals connected to it.
• Timing – The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals
attached to it with the rest of the system.
Types of Bus:
• System Bus – this is the bus that connects the CPU to the main
memory on the motherboard. The system bus is also called the front-
side bus, memory bus, local bus or host bus.
• A number of I/O Buses – Connecting various peripheral devices to
the CPU. These devices connect to the system bus via a ‘bridge’
implemented in the processor’s chipset.
• Also known as expansion bus, external bus or host bus. e.g ISA, PCI,
AGP, SCSI
Concept of Address Bus and Data Bus
• Address bus transfer memory addresses while the data bus helps to
send and receive data.
• i.e., address bus is used to specify a physical address in the memory
while the data bus is used to transmit data among components in
both directions.
• Address bus is unidirectional while data bus in bidirectional.
• There are three major components in a computer system. CPU,
Memory and I/O devices.
• The CPU the major unit that process the data.
• Memory holds data required for processing.
• The input and output devices allows the users to communicate with
the computer.
• The mechanism of the components to communicate with each other
is the bus architecture.
• It is an electronic communication system, which carries information
through electronic pathways called circuit lines. The System bus is
divided into three types called address bus, data bus and control bus.
What is address bus?
• The address bus helps to identify the
particular location in the memory. Assume
that the CPU needs to read data from
memory. Then, the address bus helps to
identify that specific location.
• Also, each I/O device has a unique ID, and
it is the address of that component. The
address bus helps to transfer memory
addresses of data and I/O.
• The width of the address bus determines
the amount of memory the system can
address. E.g. an 8085 microprocessor has
address bus of 16 bits. So it can access
2^16 = 65536 different memory locations.
What is Data bus?
• Data bus helps to transfer data between various components. It
includes the related hardware components such as wires and optical
fiber.
• The Data bus consists of 8,32,64 etc. separate lines. The number of
lines refers to the width of the data bus. The bus width defines the
data transfer rate. So, the data bus width determines the system
performance, but it is so expensive to increase the number of lines.
• The control bus is bidirectional and responsible for transmits control
signals from one component to another.
Motherboard
• A Motherboard is the main circuit board inside the
computer which is also known as mainboard or mobo.
• It holds the processor, memory and expansion slots
and connects directly or indirectly to every part of the
computer like power supply, CPU, hard drive, RAM,
Graphics Card, CD Drive and other peripheral devices
such as sound cards, network cards etc.
• Motherboard is made up of a chipset (Glue Logic), some
code in ROM and various interconnections or buses.
• In computer design, various types of buses are used to link
different components of motherboard.
• Motherboard connected with all other boards of the
computer. So, it is mother of all other board.
• There are many different component on the motherboard.
• 1. CPU Chip
▪ CPU or Processor chip is main component of
motherboard.
• 5. Buses
▪ It is a set of lines used to move information from one part
of computer to another.
▪ Buses are divided to three functional groups:
a. Data Bus : Data transferred between peripherals, memory
and CPU. It is very busy bus.
b. Address Bus: The components pass memory addresses to one
another over the address bus.
c. Control Bus: Used to send out signals to coordinate and
manage the activities of the motherboard components.
• 6. System Clock
▪ It is used to synchronize the activities of various
components.
• 7. BIOS
▪ Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is the set of software
programs that test hardware at startup, start the
operating sytem and support the transfer of data among
hardware devices
▪ BIOS is stored in read only memory (ROM) so that it can
be executed when you turn on the computer.
Types of Processor (CPU and GPU)
• The GPU is a processor that is made up of many smaller and more
specialized cores. By working together, the cores deliver massive
performance when a processing task can be divided up and processed
across many cores.
• GPUs began as specialized ASICs developed to accelerate specific 3D
rendering tasks. Over time, these fixed-function engines became
more programmable and more flexible. While graphics and the
increasingly lifelike visuals of today’s top games remain their principal
function, GPUs have evolved to become more general-purpose
parallel processors as well, handling a growing range of applications.
Understanding Processor Speed

The clock speed measures the number of cycles your CPU executes
per second, measures in GHz(Gigahertz).

A CPU with a clock speed of 3.2 GHz executes 3.2 billion cycles per
second.

Also, multiple instruction are completed in a single clock cycle.

Memory - RAM
• Random access memory (RAM) is a type of data storage used in computers that is
generally located on the motherboard. This type of memory is volatile and all
information that was stored in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off.
• Volatile memory is temporary memory while ROM (read-only memory) is non-
volatile and holds data permanently when the power is turned off. Any of the
location can be randomly selected and used to directly store and retrieve data
and instruction. So it is called ‘Random Access Memory’.
• There are two main types of RAM.
• SRAM: Static Random Access Memory
• DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory
Memory - RAM
RAM

DRAM SRAM
(Dynamic RAM) (Static RAM)

FPM EDO SDRAM

(Fast Page (Extended Data Burst EDO (Synchronous
Mode) Out) DRAM)
• The word static indicates that the memory retains its content as long as
power is being supplied. However data is lost when the power gets down
(due to volatile nature). SRAM chips use a matrix of 6- transistors and no
capacitors. Transistors don’t require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
• SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space,
which makes manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache
memory and has very fast access.
• Long life, No need to refresh, Faster, Used as cache memory, Large size,
Expensive, Higher power consumption.
• DRAM have to be refresh every few milliseconds by rewriting the data, to
maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit
that rewrites the data several hundred times per second.
• DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs
are made up of memory cells, which are made up of one capacitor and one
transistor.
• Short data lifetime, Needed to refreshed continuously, Slower compared to
SRAM, Used as RAM, smaller in size, Less expensive, Less power
consumption.
LPDDR
• LPDDR – Low power double data rate.
• It is a type of DDR SDRAM also know as mDDR (Mobile DDR SDRAM).
• It is suitable for mobile phones and other mobile devices because of
it’s low power consumption. Currently LPDDR 5 is the latest version in
the LPDDR type RAM.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
• As the name suggest normally the information can be read only. ROMs are used for
applications in which it is known that the information never needs to be altered.
• There are two main reasons that ROM is used for certain functions in PC.
• Permanence
• security
• Permanence (stability): The values stored in ROM are always there, whether the power is
on or not. A ROM can be removed from the PC, stored for an indefinite period of time,
and then replaced, and the data it contains will still be there.
• Security: The fact that ROM cannot easily be modified provides security against
accidental modifications.
• E.g. ROM BIOS
 ROM

Factory
User Programmed
Programmed/
ROM
Masked ROM

Non-Erasable Erasable

PROM
(Programmable EPROM EEPROM FLASH Memory
Read Only Memory)
• MROM (Masked ROM)
• The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contains a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as
masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
• PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The
user buys modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and
enters the desire contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip,
there are small fuses which are burnt during programming. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable.
• Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
• EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming,
an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained
for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. During normal
use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
• Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory

• EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed

about then thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10
ms(milliseconds). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.
EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence,
the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.

• Flash Memory
• Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transferring data
between a personal computer (PC) and digital devices. It has the ability to be
electronically reprogrammed and erased. It is found in USB flash drives, MP3 players,
digital cameras and solid-state drives.
Storage
Devices
• A storage device is any
computing hardware that is
used for storing, porting and
extracting data files and
objects. It can hold and store
information both temporarily
and permanently, and can be
internal or external to a
computer, server or any
similar computing device.
 • Harddisk
• A hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile computer
storage device containing magnetic disks or platters
rotating at high speeds. It is a secondary storage
device used to store data permanently, random
access memory (RAM) being the primary memory
Secondary device. Non-volatile means data is retained when
Storage the computer is turned off.
• A hard disk drive is also known as a hard drive. A
hard drive fits inside a computer case and is firmly
attached with the use of braces and screws.
• Typically it spins at 5,400 to 15,000 RPM, allowing
data to be accessed immediately.
Secondary Storage
• When the platters rotate, an arm with a read/write head extends across
the platters. The arm writes new data to the platters and reads new data
from them.
• All data is stored magnetically, allowing information to be saved when
power is shut off. Hard drives need a read only memory (ROM) controller
board to instruct the read/write heads how, when and where to move
across the platters.
• Hard drives have disks stacked together. The read/write heads are
controlled by an actuator, which magnetically reads from and writes to the
platters.
• The read/write heads float on a film of air above the platters. Both sides of the platters
are used to store data. Each side or surface of one disk is called a head, with each one
divided into sectors and tracks. All tracks are the same distance from the center of the
disk.
• Collectively they comprise one cylinder. Data is written to a disk starting at the furthest
track. The read/write heads move inward to the next cylinder once the first cylinder is
filled.
• A hard drive is divided into one of more partitions, which can be further divided into
logical drives or volumes. Usually a master boot record (MBR) is found at the beginning
of the hard drive and contains a table of partition information. Each logical drive contains
a boot record, a file allocation table (FAT) and a root directory for the FAT file system.
CD, DVD & Flash Memory
• CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are
circular disks that use optical rays, usually
lasers, to read and write data.
• They are very cheap as you can get 700MB
of storage space for few rupees. CDs are
inserted in CD drives built into CPU cabinet.
• They are portable as you can eject the
drive, remove the CD and carry it with you.
 There are three types of CDs

CD-ROM (Compact Disk- Read only Memory)

• The data on these CDs are recorded by the manufacturer.

Proprietary software, audio or video are released on CD-
ROMs.
CD, DVD &
Flash Memory CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable)

• Data can be written by the user once on the CD-R. It

cannot be modified or deleted later.

CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable)

• Data can be written and deleted on these optical disks

again and again.
CD, DVD & Flash Memory

DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical

devices that can store 15 times the data held by CDs.

They are usually used to store rich multimedia files

that need high storage capacity.

DVD also comes in three varieties – read only,

recordable and rewritable.
Software
• Computer is programmed to do a complete job.
• Various such programs together form software.
• A Computer comes to life with software.
• We cannot see or touch software. E.g. Operating System
• Purpose and significance of OS
• Concept of System Software and Application Software
 Purpose and significance of OS
The fundamental goal of an Operating
System is to execute user programs and to
make tasks easier.

Various application programs along with

hardware systems are used to perform this
work

. Operating System is software that

manages and controls the entire set of
resources and effectively utilizes every part
of a computer.
Purpose and significance of OS
Concept of System Software and Application
Software
• System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a
computer's hardware and application programs. If we think of the
computer system as a layered model, the system software is the interface
between the hardware and user applications. The operating system is the
best-known example of system software. The OS manages all the other
programs in a computer.
• System software is used to manage the computer itself. It runs in the
background, maintaining the computer's basic functions so users can run
higher-level application software to perform certain tasks. Essentially,
system software provides a platform for application software to be run on
top of.
• Windows OS, Linux, Unix, MacOs
Concept of System Software and Application
Software
• Application software is a type of computer program that performs a
specific personal, educational, and business function. Each
application is designed to assist end-users in accomplishing a variety
of tasks, which may be related to productivity, creativity, or
communication.
• E.G msoffice, browsers, music player, etc.