Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dynamics Lab Manual

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Introduction
Machine dynamics lab is offered in the 7th semester for the B.Tech program in Mechanical
engineering. The prerequisites for this lab course are Engineering Mechanics, Strength of
materials, Dynamics of Machinery and Theory of vibrations. The experiments are based on the
fundamental concepts studied in the above mentioned courses.
One of the major concept used in most of the experiments are principle of oscillation. The
oscillations are limited to small amplitude to ensure that the linear relationships are retained in the
analysis. The concept of natural frequency and period of oscillation of simple oscillating systems
of single and two degrees of freedom are introduced. These concepts are further applied to
determine the moment of inertia and radius of the gyration of complex objects. The concept of
damping and its influence on the oscillation is included in the experiments.
The balancing of rotating masses in single plane and a number of planes are also introduced. Study
experiments on whirling of shafts and governors are included to make the fundamentals clear for
the students. The following are the course objectives
This course is expected to enable the student to:
• Perform experiments on single and two degrees of freedom translational and rotational
vibration systems
• Measure the moment of inertia and center of gravity of complex objects using the concept of
oscillations
• Expose the students to simple models of different types of governors and conduct performance
evaluation
• Perform experiments on a motorized gyroscope to understand its working principle and
measure a gyroscopic couple
• Perform experiments on balancing of rotating and reciprocating masses
Experiments are introduced in two cycles. The following is the list of experiments
Cycle 1
1. (a) Longitudinal vibration of a spring mass system
(b) Undamped free vibration of an equivalent spring-mass system
2. (a) Determination of the radius of gyration of a compound pendulum
(b) Determination of the moment of inertia of a connecting rod
3. (a) Damped free vibration of a translational spring-mass system
(b) Free vibration of a rotational system.
4. (a) Verification of Dunkerley’s rule
(b) Study of gyroscope
Cycle 2
5. Vibration of two degrees of freedom translational system
6. Demonstration of whirling of shaft
7. Study of governors
8. Forced Vibration Spring Mass System
9. Balancing of rotating masses
10. Balancing of Reciprocating Mass

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 COURSE OUTCOMES AND CO-PO MAPPING
Course outcomes
At the end of the course, the student will be able to
Sl.No CO Description
1 CO1 Demonstrate and interpret the concepts of natural frequency, damping, critical speeds
in translational and rotating vibrational systems
2 CO2 Determine moment of inertia and center of gravity of complex objects
3 CO3 Construct the characteristic plots for different types of governors
4 CO4 Evaluate the working of a gyroscope and measure the gyroscopic couple
5 CO5 Analyze and solve for the balancing of rotating and reciprocating masses

CO-PO-PSO Mapping
S.No CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

1 CO1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1
2 CO2 3 1 1 1 1 3 1

3 CO3 2 1 1 1 1 2 1
4 CO4 2 1 1 1 1 2 1

5 CO5 2 1 1 1 1 2 1

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 Fundamentals of vibrations
Introduction
Vibration or oscillation is a to and fro motion exhibited by a system. In mechanical systems, any
rigid body with elastic and inertial properties are capable of executing vibrations. One of the typical
model used to study the fundamentals of vibrations is a spring mass damper system which is shown
in Fig.1

Fig.1. single degree of freedom model of a vibration system

The model consists of a mass m kg representing the inertial property, spring of stiffness k N/m
representing the elastic properties and viscous damper of damping coefficient c Ns/m which
corresponds to the energy dissipation capability of the system. The external force applied to the
system is given by the time varying function F(t) and x(t) represents the response of the system.
The equation of motion for the system can be derived using Newton’s second law of motion. The
free body diagram for the system is shown in Fig.2

Fig.2. Free body diagram for the system shown in Fig.1

The equation of motion can be expressed as

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Where the first term is the inertia force (mass × acceleration) the second term is the damping force
(damping coefficient × velocity) and the third term is the elastic or the restoring force (spring
stiffness × displacement). The right hand side represents the external excitation F(t). The equation
of motion is a second order, linear, nonhomogeneous ordinary differential equation (ode) with
constant coefficients.
Undamped free vibration of the sdf system
In the equation of motion when c = 0 and F(t) = 0, the resulting equation of motion is given by

The equation of motion, thus corresponds to the undamped (c = 0) free vibration (F(t) = 0). The
equation of motion can be expressed as

where

is the natural frequency of the system. It is the frequency by which the system oscillates when
subjected to initial excitation (displacement or velocity) under free vibration. The time period of
oscillation is given by

The free vibration response of the sdf system is shown in Fig.3

Fig.3 Free vibration response of a sdf system

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The undamped free vibration is a simple harmonic motion (SHM) with frequency equal to the
natural frequency of the system which depends only on the elastic and inertial property of the
system.
Damped free vibration of the sdf system
Damping is the energy dissipation mechanism present in the system. Different types of damping
mechanisms exists in physical systems. The commonly used damping model is the viscous
damping which is a linear damping mechanism, where the damping force is proportional to the
velocity. Other types of damping mechanisms are friction damping, structural damping and
material damping which are nonlinear models and difficult to incorporate in the mathematical
models.
The equation of motion for the damped free vibration of a sdf system is given by

Which can be represented as

Where ζ is the damping factor. When the value of 0 < ζ < 1, the system is underdamped, when ζ
>1 the system is over damped and when ζ = 1, the system is critically damped. The response of the
system depends on the type of damping. The damped free vibration response for a underdamped
system is shown in Fig.4

Fig.4 Underdamped free vibration response of a sdf system

The free vibration response decays with respect to time and the decay takes place within an
exponential envelope. The damping factor can be obtained from the time response by using the
Logarithmic decrement expression.

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Forced vibration of a sdf system
The equation of motion for the forced vibration of a sdf system is given by

Where F(t) is the external excitation. Assume that the external excitation is a harmonic function
F(t) = F0 cosωt, where F0 is the amplitude and ω is the frequency of the external excitation. The
solution of the differential equation provides the expression for the response. Being a
nonhomogeneous system, the solution of the differential equation have two parts, a complementary
function (CF) which corresponds to the free vibration and particular integral (PI) which
corresponds to the nature of the external excitation. The CF is called the transient solution and PI
is known as the steady state solution.
The steady state solution of the sdf system for a harmonic excitation is given by

Where

is the magnification factor or the frequency response function (FRF) of a sdf system. The variation
of MF with the frequency ratio for different values of ζ are shown in Fig.5

Fig.5 Frequency response of a sdf system

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It is clear from the figure that when r = 1, that is when ω = ωn, the amplitude of vibration is large.
This condition is known as the resonance. It can also observe that as the value of ζ increases, the
amplitude at resonance decreases. Therefore the main function of damping is to reduce the
amplitude at resonance.

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OBSERVATIONS
Determination of the stiffness of the spring
S.No Weight Initial length Final Deflection Stiffness Mean
attached W 𝑳𝟎 (mm) length 𝑳𝟏 ∆𝑳 = 𝑳𝟏 − K=W/∆𝑳 Stiffness k
(N) (mm) 𝑳𝟎 (mm) (N/mm) (N/mm)

Determination of frequency and time period of oscillation

S.No Weight Time for Time for Ttheo= Fexpt = 1/ Ftheo = 1/
attached 10 one 𝐦 Texpt (Hz) Ttheo (Hz)
W (N) oscillation oscillation 2𝛑√ 𝐤 (s)
𝑻𝟏𝟎 (s) Texpt =
𝑻𝟏𝟎 /10 (s)

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Date:
Experiment 1(a)
LONGITUDINAL OF A SPRING MASS SYSTEM
AIM
To determine the time period and frequency of oscillation of a single degree of freedom spring-
mass system and compare with numerical results.
DESCRIPTION
The set up consists of a spring mass system as shown in the figure. The stiffness of the spring is k
N/m and the mass in m kg. It is a single degree of freedom system with x represents the coordinate.
The system is allowed to oscillate in the vertical direction from its equilibrium position. This is an
archetypal model for number of physical systems. The spring corresponds to the elastic property
and the mass corresponds to the inertial property of the system.

The differential equation of motion defining the dynamics of the system is given by

Where ωn is the natural frequency of the system. The analytical solution for the equation of motion
can be obtained as

Where A and ϕ are constants which can be obtained using the initial condition x(0) = x0 and v(0)
= v0. The undamped free vibration of a single degree of freedom system is a sustained harmonic
oscillation with frequency equal to the natural frequency of the system. Natural frequency is an
inherent property of the system and it depends on the elastic and inertial properties of the system.
The sdf oscillator is also known as a simple harmonic oscillator. Natural frequency is obtained

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CALCULATIONS

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from the undamped free vibration. The determination of natural frequency is important as it helps
to identify the condition of resonance under forced vibration.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Helical spring
2. Weighing pan
3. Weights
4. Stop watch

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the free length of the given spring (L0 ).
2. One end of the spring is fixed to the upper screw. Attach the weighing pan at the other end.
3. Note down the final length of the spring (L1 ). Calculate the deflection ΔL = (L1 − L0).
4. Note down the time period for 10 oscillation of the system.
5. Calculate the stiffness of the spring, time period and frequency of oscillation of the system
using the respective formulas.
6. Repeat the same procedure by adding more weights in the weighing pan.
7. Calculate the theoretical value of time period and frequency and compare with the
experimental result.

RESULTS
Experimental Theoretical Numerical
simulation
(MATLAB)
Frequency of oscillation (Hz)

Time period of oscillation (s)

INFERENCE

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MATLAB program to plot the free vibration response
The equation of motion for undamped free vibration is given by
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
Let m = 2.068 kg and k = 966.0514 N/m
Assume 𝑥(0) = 0.5𝑚 and 𝑥̇ (0) = 0 m/s
MATLAB ODE45 solver is used for the solution purpose. Sample program is given below
function xdot = freevib(t,x) clear all;clc
global m k global m k
xdot = zeros(2,1); m = 2.068; k = 966.0514;
xdot(1) = x(2); [t,x] = ode45(@freevib,[0 10],[0.5 0]);
xdot(2) = -(k/m)*x(1); plot(t,x)
%%

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OBSERVATIONS
1. Mass of weighing platform = 1.488kg
2. Mass of sliding block = 0.434kg

Determination of stiffness of the spring

Free length of the spring (L0) = mm
Sl.No Weight Final length of Deflection of Stiffness Mean stiffness
added(W) spring (Lf) spring ∆=Lf - L0 K=W/∆ (𝐊 𝐦 )
(N) (mm) (mm) (N/mm) (N/mm)
1

Determination of natural frequency of vibration

Distance of spring from pivot (L) = 940mm (Ref: configuration diagram)
Distance of the weight from the fixed end (L1) (Ref: configuration diagram)
𝐿12
Equivalent mass Meq = m ( )
𝐿2
𝐋𝟏 Wt. of Equival Time for Time for Ttheo = Fexpt = Ftheo =
(mm) platform + ent 10 1 𝐌𝐞𝐪 (1/Texp) (1/Ttheo)
Wt. Mass oscillation oscillation 2𝛑√ 𝐤 (𝐇𝐙 ) (𝐇𝐙 )
𝐦
attached (Meq= m s (𝐓𝟏𝟎 ) Texp =
(s)
(m) 𝐋𝟏 𝟐 / 𝐋𝟐 ) (s) (𝐓𝟏𝟎 /10)
(N) (kg) (s)
1

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Date:
Experiment 1(b)
UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION OF AN EQUIVALENT SPRING MASS SYSTEM
AIM
Develop an equivalent spring mass system for a complex system and to compare its natural
frequency with experimental results.
Theory and Experimental setup

kequ

mequ
x
Equivalent system
The experimental setup consists of a cantilever beam of length L whose free end is attached with
a spring of stiffness k N/m. A weighing pan is attached at a distance L1 from the fixed end. The
system is free to oscillate transversally. The aim of the experiment is to derive an equivalent spring
mass system with kequ and mequ as the equivalent stiffness and mass. The system can now be reduced
to a single degree of freedom system whose natural frequency can be easily found out. The
experiment aims in replacing a complex system by a simple system and look for an estimate of the
fundamental frequency of oscillation.
When deriving the equivalent systems, for getting the equivalent mass Meq the kinetic energies of
the actual system and the equivalent system are equated. When it is necessary to find the equivalent
stiffness, the potential energies of the actual system and equivalent system are equated. In the given
experiment it is necessary to find the equivalent mass and therefore the kinetic energies need to be
equated.
The displaced configuration of the system is shown below

xeq

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CALCULATIONS:

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The system is displaced by an angle θ from the mean position. The displacement at the location of
the point load is x and the displacement at the end of the rod is xeq. By equating the kinetic energies
of the actual and equivalent system

From the displaced configuration x = L1θ and xeq = Lθ which can be differentiated to get v and veq.
Therefore the expression for equivalent mass is given by

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Rectangular beam (13×26×950 mm)
2. Helical spring
3. Sliding block (0.434 kg)
4. Weighing platform (1.488 kg)
5. Stop watch
6. Known weights

PROCEDURE
1. Find the stiffness of the spring (Repeat the same procedure as in Experiment 1 (a))
2. One end of the rectangular beam is supported in the slot of special attachment and clamped
it by screw.
3. The upper end of the helical spring is attached to the stud and other end of the beam is
attached to the lower end of the spring.
4. The screw hand wheel is adjusted such that to make the beam in horizontal position.
5. A block is kept on the beam, and the weight platform is screwed to the bottom of exciter
unit.
6. The unit is clamped at known distance and length [L1] is measured from the fixed support.
7. This system is allowed to vibrate freely such that there is no movements occur in horizontal
axis. The point at which the force is to be applied, and the amount of force to be applied
should be same for all.
8. Then the time taken for 10 oscillations is noted by using digital stopwatch. The time period
and natural frequency of vibrations are determined by using formulas.
9. The same procedure is repeated by varying length [L1] and by adding weights on the
platform.

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RESULTS
Experimental Theoretical
Frequency of oscillation (Hz)

Time period of oscillation (s)

INFERENCE

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OBSERVATIONS
Distance of the center of gravity of small pendulum from support (L) = 0.2875m
Distance of the center of gravity of big pendulum from support (L) = 0.3875m
Sl.No Length of Locatio Time taken Avg. T=(Tavg/10 kexp (m) ktheo
the n of CG for 10 time ) (s) (m)
pendulum from oscillations taken
(L1)(m) the (s) (Tavg)
support (s)
L, (m)
1

Experimental value of radius of gyration

T – time period of oscillation (s)

k - Radius of gyration about center of gravity (m)
g – Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2 )
L – location of the CG from the knife edge (m)
Theoretical value of radius of gyration

where L1 = Length of pendulum (m)

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Date:
Experiment 2 (a)
DETERMINATION OF THE RADIUS OF GYRATION OF A COMPOUND
PENDULUM
AIM
To experimentally determine the radius of gyration of a compound pendulum using the principles
of small oscillation and compare the results with the theoretical value
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Compound pendulum (Steel bars)
2. Steel rule
3. Stop watch

Theory and Description of setup

Any swinging rigid body free to rotate about a fixed horizontal axis is called a compound
pendulum or physical pendulum. One end of pendulum can be attached to the knife-edge of
the frame and the other end is free to produce oscillation.

CG L1

Fig.1 Bar of length L and mass m considered as a compound pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a small body called a bob (usually a sphere) attached to the end
of a string whose mass is negligible and the string is inextensible. When the dimensions of the
suspended body are not negligible in comparison with the distance from the axis of suspension
to the center of gravity, the pendulum is called a compound, or a physical pendulum. A rigid
body suspended from one end and free to oscillate can be considered as a compound pendulum.
A compound pendulum in its actual position and displaced position are shown in the figure.
The pendulum is suspended at point O and the center of gravity G is at a distance L from the
point O. Let IO be the mass moment of inertia of the rigid body about the axis of rotation. When
the body is displaced θ from the equilibrium position, the free body diagram is shown in the
second figure.
The equation of motion for small θ is given by

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CALCULATIONS:

26
The natural frequency and the time period of oscillation are given by

From the above expression

Let k be the radius of gyration of the rigid body. The mass moment of inertia of the body about
the CG is given by

Using parallel axis theorem,

Substitute for IO and solve for k to get

Fig.2 Compound pendulum (a) equilibrium position (b) displaced configuration

Theoretical value of moment of inertia of a bar of length L and mass m about its CG is given by

From which the theoretical value of the radius of gyration is given by

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PROCEDURE
1. The bar is supported on the knife-edge.
2. The length of suspended pendulum and its distance of center of gravity point from support
are noted.
3. The bar is allowed to oscillate and time taken for 10 oscillations are noted and readings are
tabulated.
4. The same procedure is repeated for a pendulum of different length

RESULTS
Pendulum kexp (m) ktheo (m)
1

INFERENCE

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OBSERVATIONS

Mass of connecting rod (m) = 2.22 kg

Length of connecting rod between small and big ends (L) = 0.27 m

Sl.No Conditions Time taken Avg. time Time for one Center of Mass
for 10 taken (T) oscillation Gravity (R) Moment
Oscillations (s) (T/10) (m) Of inertia
(s) (s) (IG)(Kg𝐦𝟐 )
1 Big end
attached to knife edge

Small end attached

2 to knife edge

Moment of inertia of the connecting rod about CG when the big end is attached to the knife edge

Moment of inertia of the connecting rod about CG when the small end is attached to the knife
edge

IG = Mass moment of inertia of connecting rod about center of gravity (Kgm2)

T1 = Time period when bigger end is attached to the knife edge (s)

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Date:
Experiment 2 (b)
DETERMINATION OF MOMENT OF INTERIA OF A CONNECTING ROD
AIM
To determine the location of the center of mass and the value of mass moment of inertia of a
connecting rod using the principle of small oscillation.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND DESCRIPTION
The experimental setup consists of a connecting rod of mass m, length L and the CG is located at
a distance R from the big end.

θ
CG L
mg R sinθ

Fig1 (a) Connecting rod with big end attached to knife edge (b) Displaced configuration

The setup is same as that of a compound pendulum with connecting rod is assumed as a rigid body.
Let IO be the moment of inertia of the connecting rod about an axis passing through the point of
suspension. The connecting rod is displaced by a small angle θ from the equilibrium position as
shown in the figure. Using Newton’s second law of motion applied to a rotational system, the
equation of motion is given by

The time period of oscillation is given by

From which

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m = Mass of the connecting rod (kg)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/𝑠 2 )
R = Center of gravity of connecting rod from big end (m)
T2 = Time period when smaller end is attached to the knife edge (s)
L = Length of connecting rod between small and big ends (m)
Since T is constant then by equating expressions for IG, find the value of ‘R’ and by substituting the
values of ‘R’ in the expression for IG find the value of ‘IG’.

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

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Using the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia about the CG is obtained as

If the same connecting rod is suspended from its small end, using the same procedure, the equation
for IG can be derived as

Equating the above two expressions for IG, the value of R, the location of the CG from the big end
can be obtained. By substituting the value of R in any one of the expression, the value of IG can be
obtained.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Connecting rod
2. Stop watch
3. Steel rule

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the length of connecting rod (L) between the small and big ends and find the mass
of the rod.
2. Suspend the connecting rod about the big end and find time taken for 10 oscillations.
3. Repeat step (2) with small end suspended.
4. Using the expressions for IG about the big and small end suspended, find the value of the
location of center of gravity (R) and the mass moment of Inertia IG

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RESULTS:
Big end attached to the knife Small end attached to the
edge knife edge
Location of center of gravity
of the connecting rod (R)
Mass moment of inertia of
the connecting rod (IG)

INFERENCE:

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OBSERVATION
Determination of natural frequency of the given spring mass system
Sl. No Mass (m), Time for 10 Time period Natural
kg oscillations (t), s T = t/10, s frequency
ωn=1/T, Hz

Servo 68 oil
Sl. No Mass (m), Time for 5 Time period Damped
kg oscillations (td) ( s) frequency
Td = td/5, (s)
ωd=1/Td, Hz

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Date:
Experiment 3 (a)
DAMPED FREE VIBRATION OF A TRANSLATIONAL SPRING MASS SYSTEM

AIM
To find the logarithmic decrement of viscously damped oscillations experimentally and
computationally and to compare the two.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl.No Name of Equipments/Instruments Specifications

1. Helical spring Tensile type

2. Known masses -

3. Experimental setup -
4. Viscous fluid -
5. Stop watch Digital

DESCRIPTION OF SETUP
The setup mainly consists of a helical spring on which known weights can be hung and
made to oscillate. The viscous fluid whose logarithmic decrement is to be found out is kept in a
container and the system can be made to oscillate inside the fluid. The time period of the oscillating
system can be measured by a digital counter placed close to the oscillating frame.

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CALCULATION

38
PROCEDURE
1. For calculating the natural frequency of the undamped system, a small displacement is
given to the spring-mass system and it is then made to oscillate without the damping
element. Note down the time taken for 10 oscillations. The experiment is repeated 3
times and average value taken.
2. The same system is now made to oscillate inside the viscous fluid (water) and the time
for 5 oscillations are noted. This may be done 3 times and average value may be taken.

Determination of logarithmic decrement of damped oscillations

Logarithmic decrement represents the rate at which the amplitude of free damped vibration
decreases. It is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive
amplitudes.

Logarithmic decrement δ = ln (X1/X2), where ln stands for the natural logarithm.

δ can be found using

 = 2 1 −  2 , where ζ is the damping factor which can also be obtained from

𝜔𝑑= 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2
where ωd, which is the damped frequency, can be found from the following observations made by
making the system oscillate inside the viscous fluid.

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40
Calculation of logarithmic decrement using numerical integration
The governing equation for viscously damped oscillations is

x + 2n x + n2 x = 0

Solve this equation using the ODE45 command in MATLAB with (1, 0) as the initial condition
and compare the value with that obtained experimentally.

RESULTS
Natural frequency of the system (ωn) =
Damped natural frequency of the system (ωd) =
Logarithmic decrement (δ)
(a) Experimental value =

(b) From numerical solution =

INFERENCE

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OBSERVATION
Diameter of the shaft (d) = 3 mm
Diameter of the disc (D) = 189.4 mm
Mass of the disc (M) = 1.722 kg
Torsional rigidity of the shaft (G) = 78480 N/mm2

TABULATION

Length of Time taken for 10 Time taken for 1 Frequency of Theoretical

the shaft oscillations oscillation oscillation frequency
L (mm) T(s) Texp = T/10 Fexp =1/Texp Ftheo
(s) (Hz) (Hz)

CALCULATION

42
Date:
Experiment 3 (b)
FREE VIBRATION OF A ROTATIONAL SYSTEM
AIM
To study the undamped free torsional vibration of a single rotor system and to determine its
frequency of oscillation for small angular displacement from the rest position.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
• Shaft
• Shaft
• Stop watch
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

θ
shaft

disc

The experimental setup consists of a disc of mass M and radius R which is allowed to rotate freely
by fixing a shaft of length L and radius r at its center as shown in the figure. When displaced
angularly from its rest position, the disc undergoes back and forth oscillation. The restoring torque
is provided by the shaft. The aim of the experiment is to find the frequency of oscillation / natural
frequency of oscillation of the system. The equation of motion of the system for small oscillation
of the disc is given by,

Where I is the mass moment of inertia of the disc and KT is the torsional stiffness of the shaft. The
system is continuous system but this approximation as a single degree of freedom is valid only for
the fundamental torsional mode of vibration. Natural frequency of the system can be obtained as

43
44
The expression for the torsional stiffness can be obtained from the torsion formula

Where T is the torque applied to the shaft for an angular rotation of θ, G is the torsional rigidity of
the shaft and J is the polar moment of inertia of the shaft.

RESULTS
Length of the Experimental natural frequency Theoretical natural
shaft (Hz) frequency
(Hz)

INFERENCE

45
OBSERVATIONS
Sl.No. Mass Weight at mid Time for 10 Time for 1 Frequency Theoretical
added span oscillations oscillation 1/Tavg value of
m (m+m1)×9.81 (s) Tavg (Hz) frequency (f)
(kg) (N) (s) (Hz)
1

CALCULATIONS

46
Date:
Experiment 4 (a)
VERIFICATION OF DUNKERLY’S FORMULA
AIM
To verify the Dunkerley’s formula experimentally and theoretically to find the approximate
natural frequency for the first mode of a continuous system with a point load at the mid span.
THEORY AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experimental setup consists of a steel rectangular beam which is simply supported. A weighing
platform is attached to the beam to add the weight. The system is free to oscillate in the transverse
direction. Consider a beam of length L which is simply supported with a concentrated load W at
the mid span. It is required to find the natural frequency of the system for small oscillation when
the beam is vibrating at its first mode. The approximate estimate for the natural frequency of the
system can be obtained by the Dunkerley’s method

The Dunkerley’s formula is given by

where f is the natural frequency of the beam, f1 is the natural frequency of the beam considering
the concentrated load W at the mid-span alone and f2 is the natural frequency of the beam
considering the self-weight of the beam alone as a uniformly distributed load (udl)

m1 = mass of the platform = 1.463 kg

m = mass added in kg
W = weight added = (m1+m) ×9.81 N
L = Length of the beam = 1035 mm
E = Young’s modulus of the beam material = 2.15×105 N/mm2

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48
 bh3
I = Moment of inertia of the beam = = 25×63/12
12
g = Acceleration due to gravity
mb = mass of the beam in kg = 1 kg
w = weight per unit length of the beam = mb×9.81/L
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Beam
2. Weights
3. Platform

PROCEDURE
1. Add masses from zero to 2 kg in steps of 0.5 kg.
2. Allow the system to oscillate and note down the time for 10 oscillation.

RESULTS
Natural frequency of beam Theoretical value (Hz) Experimental value (Hz)

INFERENCE

49
OBSERVATION
Rotational speed of the disc (N) =
Length between centre of disc to centre of loading pan (L) = 230 mm
Mass of disc (M) = 4 kg
Diameter of disc (D) = 250 mm
Thickness of rotor: 10mm

Rotation angle and time taken for the rotation of the gimbal assembly
S.No Mass added Angle of rotation and time taken Average Avg.
(kg) angle θavg Time
I II II (deg.) Tavg (s)

Time for 3600 (2π rad) rotation, T = (Tavg/θavg)×360 s

Angular velocity of precision, ωp = 2π/T rad/s

50
Date:
Experiment 4 (b)
STUDY OF GYROSCOPE
AIM
To understand the working principle of a gyroscope and to find the gyroscopic couple
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Weights Motor

Rotor

Gimbal assembly

Pointer

Experimental setup consists of a heavy rotor of mass M and radius R which is mounted on a gimbal
assembly. The rotor is connected to an electric motor which and can rotate about the x axis known
as the spin axis. There is a platform on which weights can be placed and the platform along with
the gimbal assembly can rotate about the y axis known as the precision axis. The angle of rotation
can be measured by the round scale along with the pointer provided at the base. The third axis (z
axis) is known as the torque axis along which the gyroscopic couple acts.
Let I be the mass moment of inertia of the rotor, ω be the angular velocity of the rotor and ω p be
the precision angular velocity of the assembly. The value of ωp can be obtained by noting down
the rotations in the base scale.
The gyroscopic couple produced along the third direction (along z axis) is given by I×ω×ωp.

51
Gyroscopic Couple
Sl.No Load Time taken for Angular velocity Angular velocity Gyroscope
applied 1 rev of gimbal of spin(ω)(rad/s) of precession ωp couple
(kg) ring (s) (rad/s) Iωωp (Nm)

Gyroscope couple (Nm)

C = Iωωp
I = Mass moment of inertia of disc (kgm2)
ω = Angular velocity of spin (rad/s)
ωp = Angular velocity of precession (rad/s)
Mass moment of inertia of disc (kg m2 )
I = MR2 /2
M = Mass of the disc (kg)
R = radius of the disc (m)
Angular velocity of spin (rad/s)
ω = 2𝜋N/60 where, N = speed of rotor (rpm)
Theoretical value of the couple = mass×g× L = Nm
CALCULATION

52
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Gyroscope
2. Tachometer
3. Weights
4. Stop watch

PROCEDURE

1. Weight is added on the apparatus and the angle at which the gyroscope becomes stable
is noted.
2. Time taken for the gyroscope to become steady state is noted.
3. The procedure is repeated for various weights.

RESULTS
Gyroscopic couple Experimental value (Nm) Theoretical value (Nm)

INFERENCE

53
Given data
Mass (m1) = kg
Mass (m2) = kg
Stiffness of spring 1 (k1) = N/m
Stiffness of spring 2 (k2) = N/m
OBSERVATIONS
Period of oscillation Trial 1 (s) Trial 2 (s) Trial 3 (s) Average (s) Frequency
(first mode) (Hz)

Period of oscillation Trial 1 (s) Trial 2 (s) Trial 3 (s) Average (s) Frequency
( second mode) (Hz)

CALCULATION

54
Date:
Experiment 5
UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION OF A TWO DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM
AIM
1. To determine the natural frequencies of a two degree of freedom translational vibration
system experimentally and compare the values with the analytical and numerical results.
2. To find the modes of vibration and plot the corresponding response using a program.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The experimental setup consists of two masses m1 and m2 connected by two springs of stiffness k1
and k2 as shown in the figure. A proximity sensor is provided close to one of the mass to measure
the period of oscillation. The system can oscillate in two modes and each mode is associated with
a frequency of oscillation. In the first mode of vibration both the masses move in the same direction
and in the second mode both the masses move in the opposite direction.
THEORY
The equations of motion for the undamped free vibrations of the two dof system is given by

The natural frequencies and modes of vibration are obtained by solving the matrix eigenvalue
problem

For a non-trivial solution

55
56
Solve the determinant to get the eigenvalues (natural frequencies). Corresponding to each
eigenvalue there is a particular value of 𝑋̅ (eigenvector) which corresponds to the mode of
vibration.
The MATLAB function eig(K,M) can be used to verify the theoretically obtained natural
frequencies and modes of vibration

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Standard mass
2. Spring
3. Stand

PROCEDURE
1. Fix the spring in the holder with two mass given
2. Attach the spring 2 at the end mass attached with two masses given
3. For the first mode, pull both the spring in same direction
4. Note down the readings, and take three sets of readings
5. For the second mode, pull the spring 1 and compress the spring 2.
6. Note down the readings, and take three sets of readings

57
58
RESULTS
Natural frequency Experimental Theoretical Numerical
(Hz)
1st mode

2nd mode

INFERENCE

MATLAB program to get the time history of free vibration for a 2 dof system
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
function xdot = twodoffreevib(t,x)
global m1 m2 k1 k2
xdot = zeros(4,1);
xdot(1) = x(2);
xdot(2) = (1/m1)*(k2*x(3)-(k1+k2)*x(1));
xdot(3) = x(4);
xdot(4) = (1/m2)*(-k2*x(3)+k2*x(1));
%%--------------------------------------------
clear all;clc
global m1 m2 k1 k2
m1 = 0.5;
m2 = 0.5;
k1 = 56.64;
k2 = 56.64;
%%
[t,x] = ode45(@twodoffreevib,[0 20],[-0.7435 0 -1.2030 0]);
plot(t,x(:,1))
hold on
plot(t,x(:,3))
%----------------------------------------------
Change the initial conditions to [-1.2030 0 0.7435 0] to get the
response for the second mode of vibration.

59
60
MATLAB Program to find the eigenvalues (square of natural frequencies and eigenvectors
(modes of vibration)
clear all;clc
m1 = 0.5;
m2 = 0.5;
k1 = 56.64;
k2 = 56.64;
M = [m1 0; 0 m2];
K = [k1+k2 -k2; -k2 k2];
[u,v] = eig(K,M);
NF = sqrt(v)

61
OBSERVATIONS
Length of the shaft (l) = 1 m
Diameter of the shaft (d) = 6 mm
Young’s modulus of the material of shaft (E) = 200 GPa
Density of the shaft material (ρ) = 7.85 g/cm3
Moment of Inertia (I) = (π/64)×d4
Cross sectional area (A) = (π/4)× d2
Weight/ unit length of shaft (w) = ρ×A×g = N/m
Critical speed for the first mode of vibration (n = 1) = rps
Critical speed for the second mode of vibration (n = 2) = rps

TABULATION
Sl. No Experimental value of critical Theoretical value of critical
speed (rpm) speed (rpm)

First mode

Second mode

CALCULATION

62
Date:
Experiment 6
WHIRLING OF SHAFTS
AIM
To demonstrate the phenomenon of whirling of shafts and to find the critical speed of the shaft
for first two modes. The observed critical speed are to be compared with the theoretical values.
THEORY
Many mechanical systems involve a heavy rotating disk known as a rotor attached to a flexible
shaft mounted on bearings. Examples are electric motors, turbines and compressors. If the mass
center of the disk does not coincide with the geometric center, then the rotation produce a
centrifugal force causing the shaft to bend. The rotation of the plane containing the bend shaft
about the bearing axis is known as whirling.

Fig. Rotor on a rotating shaft

At resonance conditions, the vibration become violent and may lead to the failure of the shaft. The
speeds at which the system vibrates violently are known as the critical speeds. Determination of
critical speeds is therefore essential to avoid failure in shaft rotor systems.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experimental setup consists of a shaft of length l and diameter d is held in position by two
bearings. The end conditions can be changed by changing the bearings. One end of the shaft is
connected to a motor and the speed can be varied. The speed of rotation of the shaft is measured

63
64
by using a tachometer. The critical speeds for the first two modes are calculated theoretically and
compared with the experimentally observed value.
Protection shaft
bearing
guards
motor

Fig.2. Representative picture of whirling of shaft apparatus

(Courtesy: Acumen Labware)
THEORY
Consider a shaft of length l and diameter d. The shaft is simply supported at the end. Let w be the
mass per unit length of the shaft, E is the Young’s modulus of the material of the shaft and I be the
mass moment of inertia of the shaft. The shaft being a continuous system and can have infinite
number of natural frequencies. The expression for the natural frequency of shaft with simply
supported end condition is given by

where n = 1, 2, 3… When n = 1, the shaft vibrates in the first mode and n = 2 corresponds to the
second mode of vibration. The acceleration due to gravity is given by g.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Shaft
2. Flexible bearing
3. Holder
4. Tachometer

65
 Modes of vibration
a – first mode, b – second mode and c – third mode

66
PROCEDURE
1. Fix the shaft in the holder with the flexible bearing
2. Increase the speed of the motor until reaching the first mode
3. Note down the RPM using tachometer
4. Now increase the RPM until reaching the second mode
5. Note down the RPM using tachometer

RESULT
Sl. No Experimental value of critical Theoretical value of critical
speed (rpm) speed (rpm)

First mode

Second mode

INFERENCE

67
DIMENSIONS (corresponding to Hartnell Governor)
1. Length a = 0.077 m
2. Length b = 0.102 m
3. Weight of ball W = 0.6 kg
4. Initial radius of rotation r0 = 0.165 m
5. Spring stiffness K = 5kg/cm
6. Free length of spring = 0.13 m

OBSERVATION
Sl.No Speed N (rpm) Sleeve displacement x Radius of rotation r Force = mω2r
(m) (m)

CALCULATION

68
Date:

Experiment 7
STUDY OF GOVERNORS
AIM
To understand the working principle of Watt, Proel, Porter and Hartnell governors and plot the
characteristic curve for a Hartnell governor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Governor setup
2. Tachometer

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the initial compression of the spring
2. Go on increasing the speed gradually and take reading for a speed of rotation N, the
corresponding sleeve displacement x

RESULTS
1. Plot force vs radius of rotation
2. Speed vs sleeve displacement

INFERENCE

69
Technical Specifications:
Mass of the Beam Mb = Kg
Total length of the beam (L) = m
Mass of the Exciter (ma) = 6.5 Kg Exciter
Position from one trunion end a= mm
TABULATION

Sl.No Time Taken for Time Taken for 1 Frequency W=2πf

10 Oscilation Oscilation(T/10) (1/T) (Hz)
(T)(sec) (sec) (Hz)

Speed Time(sec) Cycle Amplitude Angular Frequency

(RPM) distance (mm) frequency (fn)(Hz)

(mm) (𝝎n)(Hz)

70
Date:

Experiment 8
FORCED VIBRATION

Aim: To determine of forced vibrations and to analyze all types of vibrations with its
Frequency and amplitude
Description:
When external forces act on a system during its vibratory motion, it is termed forced
vibration. Under conditions of forced vibration, the system will tend to vibrate at its own
natural frequency superimposed upon the frequency of the excitation force. Friction and
damping effects, though only slight are present in all vibrating systems; that portion of the
total amplitude not sustained by the external force will gradually decay. After a short time,
the system will vibrate at the frequency of the excitation force, regardless of the initial
conditions or natural frequency of the system. In this experiment, observe and compare the
natural frequency of the forced vibration of a rectangular section beam with the analytical
results.

71
CALCULATION

72
Construction:
The system consists of a regular rectangular cross-section beam of mass Mb,length L , width
W and thickness t ; pinned at one end to the main frame at point O ,Where its free to rotate
about ,and suspended from point S by a linear helical spring of stiffness K at distance b from
point O.A motor with mass (M=6.50Kg ) is fitted on the beam at distance a from pivot point
O,and drives two circular discs with total eccentric mass m at distance e from the centre of
the disc (the eccentric mass is obtained from a hole in each disk with radius r and thickness
td).When the motor rotates these discs with speed ω, a harmonic excitation is established on
the beam ,and as a result of that ,the beam vibrates in the vertical plane with angle θ(t)
measured from the horizontal reference direction. The bottom of the beam carries vibrating
recorder and a pencil with a strip of paper covering it, so that you can draw vibration of the
beam for a given period of time.

PROCEDURE
1. Attach the vibrating recorder at suitable position with the penholder slightly pressing
the paper
2. Start the exciter motor and set at required speed and start the recorder motor
3. Now vibrations are recorded over the vibration recorder, Increase the speed and note
the vibrations
4. At the resonance speed, the amplitude of the vibrations find out
5. Hold the system and cross the speed little more than the resonance speed
6. Analyze the recorder frequency and amplitude of un-damped forced

RESULT

INFERENCE

73