M8: DATA COLLECTION AND TECHNIQUES Types of Direct Observation

The primary goal of any researcher is to collect data that are meaningful 1. Structured Observation - the variables or factors for the study are more
and necessary to achieve the purposes of his/her study. Many of the delineated. The researcher has a clear idea of what factors to study and in
techniques in collecting data depend largely on the quality of the what context or event this will be observed. The role of the researcher is to
measurement instrument that will be employed in the research process. The ascertain some key points or issues in conducting observation on the
significance of any research paper or its entirely, for that matter, can be put following: a) observation; b) participants to be observed; c) events to be
to waste if the instrumentation is questionable. As a researcher, you are, observed; and d) how the variable (act) is being measured.
thus, cautioned to exercise extra care in designing the data collection
procedures that will be employed in the research, especially in the Direct observation may also be combined with other techniques of data
construction of the research instruments. collection, particularly interviews and focus group discussions. In this case,
data on some variables derived by structured direct observation could also
An important step in research is the selection of the appropriate technique be subjected to quantitative measure. In general, artifacts or physical
and the corresponding tool for gathering data. This chapter addresses this entities are easier to observe than people. With people, there are ethical
concern by focusing on the detailed discussions of the three most considerations involved especially if observation infringes on their right of
commonly used techniques of data collection, namely: (1) direct privacy (Bautista, 1998).
observation, (2) questioning method (three interviews and questionnaires),
and (3) measurement or scaling techniques. 2. Unstructured Observation - This is more flexible than structured
observation because it lacks specificity in the variables for the study. The
Methods of Collection researcher captures as much as she/he can in the setting and in the event
being witnessed. This is very helpful if the study is still in the exploratory
The researcher determines the data collection approach largely by phase and the researcher has not yet decided on the variables to be
identifying the types of information needed, the investigative questions the investigated. The focus of observation under this type includes setting
researcher should answer, and the data derived or needed to answer the participants, social behavior manifested, and frequency or duration of the
questions raised in the study. The following are the primary methods used behavior.
in the collection of data:
An unstructured observation can be the starting point in the conduct of
A. Data Observation - This is one of the basic approaches in gathering structured observation. The former can provide insights that may help the
information. In this method, the researcher witnesses the event in the researcher spell out what specific variables to measure. A researcher who is
natural setting and thus, gives a firsthand account of the event. The person not yet familiar with the setting of the study will find getting the "feel" of the
is not mediated by other persons who have witnessed the event, as is setting very important.
normally the case in interviews and questionnaires where the personal
experience of respondents is communicated to the researcher (Bautista, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION METHOD
1998).
1. Observation is the only method available to gather certain types of
The main characteristic of direct observation techniques is that researchers information. The study of records, mechanical processes, and young
must rely heavily on their powers of observation rather than actually children, as well as other inarticulate participants fall into this category.
communicating with people to collect primary data. Basically, the researcher 2. Original data can be collected at the time they occur. Researchers do not
depends on watching and recording what people or objects do in many need to depend on the reports of others.
different research situations. A lot of information about the behavior of 3. Researchers can secure information that most participants would ignore
people and objects can be observed. These are: either because it is so common and expected or because it is not seen as
relevant.
● Physical attributes i.e., consumers' shopping patterns or 4. It can capture the whole event as it occurs in its natural environment
automobile driving habits. alone.
● Expressive behaviors i.e., the tone of voice or facial expressions 5. Participants seem to accept an observational intrusion better than they
of respondents during a personal interview. respond to questioning.
● Verbal behavior like telephone conversations by the researcher
to the respondents On the other hand, some of the disadvantages or research limitations of
● Temporal behavior patterns like the amount of time spent online the observation method are:
shopping or at particular websites.
● Special relationships' and locations such as the number of 1. Observation is a slow and expensive process that requires either human
vehicles that move through a traffic light sequence or movements observers or costly surveillance equipment.
of people at a theme park. 2. Most reliable results are restricted to information that can be learned by
● Physical objects ie., which brand name items are purchased in overt action or surface indicators.
the store or which make model SUVs are driven and so on. 3. The research environment is more likely to subjective assessment and
recording of data than controlling and quantifying events.
These types of data can be used to amplify or reinforce other data patterns 4. Observation is limited as a way to learn about the past. It is difficult to
collected through other research designs by providing complementary gather information on topics such as: intentions, attitudes, opinions, or
evidence concerning an individual's true feeling. preferences. Nevertheless, any consideration of the merits of observation
confirms its value used with care and undertaking.
Recording the behavioral patterns of objects, people, or phenomena can be
achieved by using trained human observers or such devices as videotapes, Tools for observation
movie cameras, audiotapes, computers, handwritten notes or some other
tangible recording mechanism. 1) The Tally Sheet or Checklist - This form describes the behavior to be
observed by the researcher in considerable detail to allow him in tallying
The important points to remember here are: and checking the behavior of the participant/respondent whenever it occurs.
(1) observation techniques can be employed in any type of research design The abovementioned observation tool can be used as a guide to observe
that meets certain conditions; and, (2) observation activities may be the behavior of the consumers while purchasing consumer goods in the
appropriately used to collect and describe a wide behavioral data. supermarket.
2) The Observation Rating Scale - This describes the desired behavior little hope of receiving any immediate or direct benefit from this
desired to be observed with the corresponding scale on each item. The cooperation.
observer rates the subject being observed by encircling a number within a
scale that represents the quality of the behavior observed. The two types of research interview are as follows:

3) The Questioning Technique - This method is most effectively used on a) Standardized Interview (Quanti). This is characterized by a set of
the survey approach. This will be more advantageous to the researcher questions formulated in a standardized way, as in questionnaires. It utilizes
since she/he does not need to worry about following up the questions an instrument called interview schedule. This type of instrument is used in
asked. Greater competence and skill are required in free questioning well-structured types of research problems where the variables are
conditions. However, if free questioning technique is competently managed, delineated. This is applicable to quantitative types of research problems.
more meaningful responses are expected to result than from the
standardized structure. Sevilla, et al. 2000. b) Unstructured Interview (Quali). This involves asking a set of questions
derived by the interviewer from a list of key topics or guides. This allows the
Criteria of an Effective Question interviewer freedom to pursue unanticipated topics or directions to arise.
This is particularly helpful in qualitative studies, especially those of an
1) Clarity of Language - Language structure and the conceptual level of exploratory nature. The instrument formulated here is an interview guide.
the question should suit the level of respondents. To ensure clarity of the Bautista, 1998.
questions, these may be tried out on a small sample.
A variant of the unstructured interview is the focus group discussion. This is
2) Specificity of Content and Time Period - The language used is clear often undertaken by an interviewer with a small number of people who
and appropriate but this may have questions which may be ambiguous and share a common interest. Gay, 1996. They meet with the interviewer for
confusing to the respondent. The content and time therefore should be some time and respond to open-ended questions.
indicated in the question.
The examples of structured and unstructured questions indicated three
3) Singleness of Purpose - A single question should seek a single answer. techniques of communicating with the participants. These are personal
A respondent who may have found the technique but he had not been using interviews, and self-administered interviews.
it frequently so he cannot answer with either yes or no: Hence, this question
should be broken down into two separate ones. ❖ In personal interviews, there are real advantages as well as
clear limitations. The greatest value lies in the depth of
4) Freedom from Assumption and Suggestion through Questions - information and detail that can be secured. It far exceeds the
"Will you give an instance in which you believe you have failed as a information secured from telephone and self-administered studies
manager?" This has an attached ungiven question. The ungiven question via intercepts. (ie, in malls, in the office, or other places), mail
here is a "Have you ever experienced failure as a manager?" The first surveys or computers (both intranet and internet). The interviewer
question forces the respondent to answer "yes" to the ungiven question. In can also do more things to improve the quality of the information
other words, the researcher already assumes that the respondent has received than with another method. Interviewer can also do more
experienced failure. An improvement of the first question will be done by things to improve the quality of the information received than with
asking the follow up question: "If you have had such experience, please another method. Interviewers can use special scoring devices and
give an example." visual materials as is done with Computer-Assisted Personal
Interviewing (CAPI). They can also adjust the language of the
5) Freedom from Suggestions - Good questions should be carefully interviewer as they observe the problems and effect the interview
constructed to reduce if not eliminate suggestions from others. Introductory is having on the respondent.
phases such as: "Don't you believe that ...... ". "Isn't it important that.....", ❖ The telephone interview can be helpful in arranging personal
"Can you think of any justification for …" Suggest from some expectations interviews and screening a large population for unusual types of
from the respondents that things are more desirable than the others, Sevilla, participants/ respondents. Studies have also shown that making
et. al. 2000). prior notification calls can improve the response rates of mail
surveys. However, the telephone interview makes it the greatest
Methods and Tools for Questioning combination in survey work as a unique mode of communication
to collect information from the respondent. With the widespread
Other methods for asking information which utilize tools for questioning are use of computers, telephone interviewing can be combined with
interviews and questionnaires. Interviews and questionnaires are very immediate entry of the responses into a data file by means of
common primary techniques of data collection. They both entail drawing terminals, personal computers, or voice data entry. This brings
information from respondents. added savings in time and money.

The difference lies in the fact that interviews encompass a set of questions 1. Self-Administered Questionnaires, on the other hand, have become
raised through person-to-person or telephone interaction between ubiquitous in modern living. Service evaluations of hotels, restaurants, car
interviewers and respondents. The interviewers record the responses dealerships, and transportation providers furnish ready examples of
derived from the respondents. On the other hand, a questionnaire is an questionnaires. Often a short questionnaire is left to be completed by the
instrument that embodies a set of questions asked in a standardized respondent in a convenient location or is packaged with a product.
manner to each respondent. That is, the questions are raised in the same Computer-delivered self-administered questionnaires use organizational
words and in the same order to each respondent. Also, the questionnaire intranets, the Internet, or online services to reach their respondents.
method differs from interviews because it is the respondent who fills out the Respondents may be targeted on (an online-e-business rating services and
instrument. sends e-mail to a registered e-purchaser to participate in a survey), or self-
selecting (as when computer screen up window offers a survey to an
❖ Interview - This is a two-way conversation initiated by an individual who clicks on a particular website or when a potential respondent
interviewer to obtain information from a participant. The respond to a postcard inquiry looking for participants).
differences in the roles of interviewer and participant are
pronounced. They are typically strangers, and the interviewer 2. Questionnaire. It was mentioned earlier that this instrument embodies a
generally controls the topics and patterns of discussion. The set of questions asked in a standardized manner to each participant or
consequences of the events are usually insignificant for the respondent and the researcher asks only questions that are listed in the
participant since he/she is asked to provide information and has interview guide.
In a situation where personal interaction between the researcher and the 6. Avoid influencing respondents to answer in a particular way. The
respondents is not necessary, very often, the interview schedule is readily questions to be raised should not make respondents think that you have
converted into a questionnaire which the researcher submits to the preferences in the way they should answer. The question must be posed in
respondent who in turn writes his responses on the questionnaire itself. a more neutral manner.

Questionnaire may be classified into two forms. These are the closed or 7. Avoid posing embarrassing questions. The researcher must be sure
the open form. These are the closed or the open form. The questions in the that the questions will not make respondents feel uncomfortable because
closed form permit only certain responses, while those in the open form she or he has indicated some standards of classifying them. Educational
allow the respondents to make any responses he wishes to make in his own attainment is a variable that is commonly posed but it could be
words. Sometimes, a mixture of these two forms may be employed or embarrassing.
constructed in one questionnaire, depending on the objective of the
particular question. 8. Arrange questions in a logical order. The researcher makes sure that
the questions are organized such that similar questions are grouped
1. Open-Ended Format - the respondents are allowed to answer any together. One way is to group the questions according to the time order of
questions they wish to answer based on their understanding. An advantage occurrence.
of this format is the high probability that the respondent will think of a more
authentic answer to the question at hand rather than choosing from a set of 9. The items in the instrument must cover all the variables incorporated in
responses pre-determined by the researcher. On the other hand, the the research proposal.
difficulty lies in the analysis of responses. The difficulty increases as the
degree of variations of the responses also increases. Sevilla, et. al, 2000. 10. Do not forget to translate the instrument into the dialect the
respondents are familiar with. The best way to establish rapport and
2. Multiple Choice Format - This type presents a question which is obtain cooperation from respondents is to use the language that they are
followed by a set of options pre-determined by the researcher or based on a familiar with. This means that the instruments should be suitable to the level
pre-survey. This format is an extremely structured type. Responding is of understanding of the target respondents. They have to be translated and
much easier and data analysis is not also difficult. This is appropriate in a must use words that the target respondents. They have to be translated and
situation where the researcher knows the full range of possible responses to must use words that the target respondents would understand. Let us
all of his questions. remember that our motive is not to impress the respondents by using
sophisticated language. The language that should be used will make the
3. Checklist Format - a questionnaire is considered a totally structured respondents feel at ease to answer the questions and should be readily
format which is used exclusively or with some use of the free response understood. Bautista, 1998.
opinion. The difference of this type from that of the multiple choices is that
the respondents in this technique can answer a single question with one or Pre-testing the Instrument (mandatory)
more options.
Before questionnaires are distributed/disseminated, these should be
Rules in the Formulation of Questions pretested with a group with the same characteristics as the sample. A
pretest is a dry-run of the instrument to be used. Pre-testing can indicate
The formulation of the interview schedule and the questionnaire is a major whether the questions are understood by the respondents. It can also help
responsibility of the researcher. These are the basic instruments that the to determine whether the questions are posed in such a way that
researcher utilizes in gathering data needed in his study. To ensure the respondents are not turned off.
validity and reliability of the instruments, the researchers can be guided by
10 important rules for framing the instrument. A pretest can be administered to the persons from the same locale where
respondents will be chosen. This is a convenient way of doing it since the
1. The purpose must be clearly stated in the instrument formulated. researcher will be proceeding to the same place where it is going to be
The objective should be clearly stated in the letter to the respondent and implemented and therefore, can become familiar with the place. However,
this will be orally expressed by the interviewer in the interviews. There are the samples should be drawn from individuals who are not likely to serve as
times when the real purpose is not openly stated but "softened" through the substitutes in case the samples to be drawn are not available. Another
use of more general statements. option is to select from a group that is outside of the sampling but with the
same characteristics.
2. Directions of how to answer the questions must be clear. As a rule,
the instructions on how to fill out questionnaires must be given to the According to Bautista (1998), faulty structuring of questions in the
respondents. Are they going to check? Will they put an X on their answers? instruments should result to:
Will they check only one category or more than one of them? Will they rank
the categories? All of these should be made clear to them. The interview ❖ Don't know responses - These could be indicative of questions
schedules and the instructions for the interviewer should also be clear. that are vague, embarrassing, or inapplicable to the respondents.
However, questions raised in interviews are different from that in If the first two are the reasons, then the questions need to be
questionnaires. Questions in interview schedules can be raised in a rephrased. If the answer to the question is "not applicable", it is a
conversational way. Questions can be practically oral before they are valid response.
written down. ❖ Refusal to answer - This could be attributed to the inadequacy of
the explanation for conducting the study, lack of trust in the
3. The question must be clear and not ambiguous. As much as researcher, and the respondent being indisposed. The last one is
possible, the questions must be specific in time, place and/or frame of a valid response and a subsequent schedule can be set. The first
reference in terms of the key variables to be measured. two require further explanation of the importance of the research
and the identity of the researcher.
4. A question should cover only one topic at a time. As a rule, the ❖ Irrelevant Answers - These may indicate that the question is
researcher should avoid raising double-barreled questions. Covering two vague or embarrassing. Modification can be made to make it
issues at a time in one question can be confusing to the respondent. more specific if it is vague. If it is embarrassing the questions
should be rephrased.
5. Respondents must be in a position to answer the questions. Make
sure that you are addressing questions to individuals who will be able to
answer them.
Development of Cover Letters Secondary data exist in two forms: internal and external secondary data.
Internal secondary data are collected by the individual company for
A critical aspect associated with questionnaire design is the development of accounting purposes or management activity reports. On the other hand,
an appropriate cover letter. Normally, a cover letter, or letter of introduction, external secondary data are collected by outside agencies such as the
is restrictedly viewed as a letter accompanying a self-administered local and national government, business association or based on
questionnaire (ie., online or direct mail survey) that serves to explain the periodicals, Secondary data may also exist in computerized data sources.
nature of the survey. With personal or telephone interviews, researchers Computerized data sources are usually designed by specific companies and
might not think to use a cover letter. However, cover letters play several include internal and external data combined with online information sources.
important roles in the successful collection of primary raw data, regardless
of the data collection method to be used. Advantages of Secondary Documents

The main role of a cover letter is to win the respondent's cooperation and 1. Secondary documents are economical since the materials have already
willingness to participate in the research project. In other words, the cover to be collected by others. The researcher spends only for moving around to
letter should help persuade a prospective respondent either to fill out the retrieve these materials and for duplicating the materials for personal use.
questionnaire and return it in a timely fashion or to participate in the current 2. The materials can be retrieved anytime at the convenience of the
interview. With self-administered surveys, many times a research project researcher, as long as the gatekeepers of the information will give the
falls short of its goal because the response rate (ie., the number of researcher access to the information..
completed surveys compared to the number of surveys administered) ends 3. Secondary techniques do not result in or lead to reactivity on the part of
up very low (i.e.., 25% or less). the unit of analysis. This is because they are not directly contacted to
provide the information to the researcher. In fact, information that is difficult
Another role of cover letter includes (1) introducing the respondent to the to disclose in a person-to-person such as an interview, can be obtained
research project and the researcher, (2) informing the respondent of the through secondary sources.
importance of the study; and (3) communicating the study's legitimacy and
other particulars such as the deadline for returning the completed survey,
and where to return it. Role of the Researcher

A basic responsibility of the researcher in dealing with secondary sources of

information is to establish rapport with the "gatekeepers of the information".
While there is less pressure in dealing with respondents or the subjects of
the study as the data needed have been collected from them, it is important
for the researcher to explain well to those who have collected the
information how he/she will use the information. Oftentimes, a formal letter
of request is required by the bearers of information. This letter of request
should indicate the following: (1) what specific data are needed; (2) the
purpose of the study; and, (3) the significance of such an investigation to the
institution or individual.

The researcher should also be sensitive to the reliability of the information

collected. He/she should always assume a questioning mind regarding the
accuracy of information. The researcher who is relying on secondary data
should ask how the information was derived. The reputation of the institution
or persons gathering the information plays a critical role in ascertaining
whether the data collected can be relied upon.

Sources of Secondary Data

Using secondary sources is complex and challenging. As discussed earlier,

there are two categories of sources available. These are internal and
external data. There are also three types of sources (primary, secondary,
M9: SECONDARY TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION
and tertiary). Primary sources are original works of research or raw data
without interpretation. Secondary sources are interpretations of primary
The previous chapter dealt on the different primary techniques of data
data. Tertiary sources are interpretations of secondary sources or, more
collection. These techniques enable researchers to witness for themselves
commonly, finding aids such as indexes, bibliographies, and Internet search
how an event occurs by direct observation or by conducting interviews or
engines.
fielding questionnaires to get the testimonies of the persons who
experienced or are experiencing the event. However, there are sources of
Information sources are generally categorized into three levels, these
information already collected the researchers may be able to use in
are:
answering their research questions.

1. Primary Sources - Included are memos, letters, complete interviews or

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY TECHNIQUES
speeches (in audio, video, or written transcript formats), laws, regulations,
court decisions or standards, and most government data, including census,
Secondary techniques of data collection include methods of gathering
economic and employment/labor data. Primary sources are always the most
information obtained by other entities. Unlike in primary techniques where
authoritative because the information has not been filtered or interpreted by
the researcher collects the information directly from the persons who have
a second party. Information from the primary sources will become
knowledge of the events or factors being studied, secondary techniques
secondary literature of the researcher who supports his or her original
depend on the researcher's ability to obtain from other institutions or
research. Internal sources of primary data would include inventory records,
individuals information they keep. Bautista, 1998.
personnel records, purchasing requisition forms, statistical control charts
and other similar data.
Secondary data are more readily available, often more highly valid, and
usually less expensive to secure than primary data gathered from the
company.
2. Secondary Sources - These are interpretation of primary data, These cover information pertaining to institutions or a given population
Encyclopedias, textbooks, handbooks, magazine and newspaper articles, being served by their programs or projects. Institutions normally keep a
and most newscasts are considered secondary information sources. profile of their personnel, financial resources, institutional outputs, and
Indeed, all reference materials fall into this category. Internally, sales impact data. For instance, personal offices are able to release the total
analysis summaries and investor annual reports would be examples of number of employees and the type of positions they occupy. Institutions
secondary sources as they are compiled from a variety of primary sources. also keep track of how much resources they have, especially funding, and
To an outsider, however, the annual report is viewed as a primary source, how these are disbursed. Outputs such as agricultural, health or social
as it represents the official position of the company. welfare services, are often compiled regularly and incorporated in annual
reports.
3. Tertiary Sources - These may be an interpretation of a secondary
source but they are generally represented by indexes, bibliographies, and Macro data on government resources and expenditures are also kept and
other finding aids, i.e Internet search engines. From the beginning, it is reported regularly by the Department of Budget and Management (DBM).
important to remember that all information is not of equal value. As the Thus, it would be easy to report on trends and patterns on how much money
source levels indicate, primary sources have more value than secondary had been spent for particular sectors in development, i.e., economic, social,
sources, and secondary sources have more value than tertiary sources. development administration, military, and debt burden. Social development
Cooper and Schindler, 2003. expenditures could also be disaggregated for health, education, housing,
and social welfare expenditures. The National Statistics Office (NSO)
Types of Information Sources regularly compiles and summarizes census data. Bautista, Victoria.

There are dozens of types of information sources, each with a special B. Personal Records - It serves as a source of raw data about the profile of
function. In this section, five information types commonly used by business people. They are compiled regularly about each person and can be
researchers are discussed below: aggregated by a researcher to serve a particular research purpose. These
include personal data sheets collected by the Human Resources
1. Indexes and Bibliographies - These are the mainstay of any library Department (HRD) office such as those on income, number of absences,
because they help to identify and locate a single book or journal article from training programs attended, educational profile and others. Personnel
among the billions published. The most important bibliography in any library records also include legal documents on certain individuals or institutions for
is its online catalog. Among other information types, there are specialized regulatory purposes such as applications for licenses for a franchise to
indexes and bibliographies unique to business topics. These can be very operate establishments (ie, restaurants, hospitals, taxicabs). These may
useful in a literature search in order to find authors and titles of prior works also cover documents on individuals or entities with legal cases and income
related to the topic of interest of a researcher. tax returns.

2. Dictionaries - These are used to verify spelling, grammar usage or The documents collected from certain groups of people can be used for
definition of terms. In every field of business, there are many specialized both qualitative research problems. Some data sheets may be the source of
dictionaries that define words, terms, or jargon unique to a discipline. Most insights on patterns and sensitive information which may be difficult to
of those specialized dictionaries include in their word lists information on obtain interviews and questionnaires.
people, events, or organizations related to the discipline. They are also an
excellent reference to find acronyms. A growing number of dictionaries and C. Narrative Documents - These documents include those that are
glossaries (terms in specialized field, area or topic plus their definitions) are regularly prepared by agencies or specific individuals within an institution,
now available on the Web. An example of a printed business dictionary is including development plans and annual reports. Annual reports provide
the Dictionary of Business Management. useful information on what institutions would like to accomplish (plans) and
what they are able to accomplish on a yearly basis.
3. Encyclopedias - These can be used to find background or historical
information on a topic or to find names or terms that can enhance the Narrative reports regularly prepared by specific individuals include minutes
search results in other sources. For example, you might use an of meetings, diaries of community organizers, and personal diaries, among
encyclopedia to find when Microsoft introduced Windows, then use that date others.
to draw more information from an index of the period. These are also helpful
in identifying the experts in the field and the key writ- ings on any topic. D. Editors and Publishers Market Guide - This guide provides much the
same information as the Survey of Buying Power, plus some unique city-by-
4. Handbooks - These are collections of facts related to the topics, city variables useful in making comparisons. The guide includes information
Handbooks often include statistics, directory information, a glossary of about infrastructure, transportation, principal industries, banks and retail
terms, and other data such as laws and regulations essential to a field. The outlets. Such information provides the researcher with a detailed profile of
best handbooks include sources and references for the facts they present. economic activity within a given geographic area. These data are normally
used for comparison purposes when selecting markets for new stores or
5. Directories - These are used in finding names and addresses as well as product introduction. Hair, Bush and Ortinau. 2003.
other data. While many are available and useful in printed format,
directories in digitized format can be used for certain characteristics or E. Commercial Publications and Newspapers - these are important
sorted and then downloaded are far more useful. Many are available for free sources of secondary information. These publications i.e., newspapers
through the Web, but the most comprehensive directories are proprietary magazines, business-related commercial newspapers are circulated on a
(ie., it must be purchased). An especially useful directory available in most daily, weekly or monthly basis. The information they contain is extremely
libraries, either in print or electronic format, is the Encyclopedia of recent. In addition, many publications are archived in some manner,
Associations (called Associations Unlimited on the Web), which provides a allowing the researcher access to historical information. The problem with
list of public and professional organizations plus their locations and contact commercial publications and newspapers is volume. A recent estimation
numbers. suggested that more than 700 business-related commercial publications are
in circulation. Many of these publications, especially newspapers, are not
Other Sources of Secondary Data indexed in traditional reference books. Those that do provide indexing are
usually associated with major metropolitan markets.
A. Census Data and Statistical Records - These are often collected
regularly by institutions and have the advantage of enabling the conduct of F. Statistical Sources of Information - It can lead the researcher to
trend studies. They are often aggregated regularly to summarize massive specific statistical publications or can provide actual reprints of data
data drawn from a population. extracted from numerous other secondary data sources. If actual data are
located in the source book, rather than in indexed references, these sources interview form and then skip to the end, omitting questions in
can save considerable research time. other sections.
The following are examples of statistical data sources: (1) Statistical and The interview may then make up answers to the remaining
Marketing Report, (2) Data Sources for Business and Market Analysis, (3) questions. To determine if the interview is valid, the researcher
Price Index, (4) Statistical Reference Index, (5) National Statistical Reports could re-contact a sample of respondents and ask questions from
(on employment, per-capita income, etc.). different parts of the interview form.
❖ Courtesy - A normal assumption is that a respondent is treated
Although this chapter has focused on traditional data sources, ninety with courtesy and respect during the interviewing process.
percent of the information references here currently exist online. As the However, situations can occur where the interviewer may,
technology of information management becomes more acceptable and unconsciously inject a tone of negativity into the interviewing
accessible, more and more secondary data will be available at a push of a process. To establish a positive image with respondents,
computer key. This is already happening. More importantly, as respondent callbacks are common to determine whether the
communication technology begins to merge with computer technology interviewer was courteous. Other aspects of the interviewer
(interactive television and shopping, two-way satellite communications, at checked during callbacks include appearance, pleasantness and
home on-demand shopping or online marketing)., the amount of secondary proper attitude.
data is expected to mushroom.
s 2. Data Editing- Editing is the process whereby the raw data are checked
Although this increase may not be the purpose of the technology, it will be for errors made by either the interviewer or the respondent. Through a
the result of the interaction process. More actual purchase information than manual canning of each completed interview, the researcher can check
ever before will become available. As more and more organizations begin to several areas of concern, such as (1) proper asking of questions; (2) proper
realize the full value of database development and information systems recording of answer; (3) proper screening of respondents; and (4) proper
management, they will be able to customize secondary data sources. recording of open-ended questions.

M10: DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS ● Asking the Proper Questions - One aspect of the editing
process, especially important to interview methods is to make
Data preparation is a process of converting information from a questionnaire certain that the proper questions were asked to the respondent.
so that it can be read by a computer. This process normally follows a five- The normal procedure is to re-contact the respondent in order to
step approach beginning with data validation, then editing and coding of the obtain a response to the questions raised.
data, followed by data entry, error detection, and data tabulation. The ● Proper Recording of Answers - Information gathered from the
purpose of the data preparation process is to take data in its raw form and respondents should be properly recorded based on the questions
convert it so as to establish meaning and create value for the user. asked of them.
● Proper Screening of Questions - All items included in the
CODING, EDITING, AND PREPARING DATA FOR ANALYSIS questionnaire should be properly screened to determine whether
the respondent was able to answer all questions raised or
This section discusses in detail each of the five steps in the data whether he/she is eligible to complete the interview. During the
preparation process. editing phase, the researcher will make certain that only qualified
respondents are included.
1. Data Validation - This is concerned in determining, to the extent ● Proper Recording of Open-ended Questions - Open-ended
possible, whether a survey's interviews or observations are conducted questions when properly answered can provide greater insight
correctly and are free of fraud or bias. It should appear quite obvious that in into the research project than forced choice questions or rating
many data collection approaches (personal interview, mall- intercept, etc.) scales. Highly meaningful data resulting from survey instruments
are not always convenient to monitor in the data collection process. As an are responses to open-ended questions.
attempt to control for the accurate collection of response data, each
respondent's name, address, and phone number may be recorded. While 3. The Coding Process - Data coding involves grouping and assigning.
this information is not used for analysis, it allows the validation process to value of responses to the questions contained in the survey instruments.
develop. Specifically, coding entails the assignment of numerical values to its
individual response for each question within the survey. Typically, these
Generally, the process of validation attempts to cover five areas. codes are numerical - a number from 0 to 9 - because numbers are quick
and easy to input and computers work better with numbers than
❖ Fraud - the following questions should be given proper attention alphanumeric values. Like editing, coding can be very tedious if certain
by the researcher. Was the person actually interviewed, or was issues are not addressed prior to disseminating the survey instrument. A
the interview falsified? Did the interviewer contact the respondent well-planned and constructed questionnaire can reduce the amount of time
simply to get the name and address, and then proceed to spent on coding while increasing the accuracy of the process.
fabricate responses? Did the interviewer use a friend or
confederate to obtain necessary information? 4. Error Detection - The first step in error detection is to determine whether
❖ Screening - Many times an interview must be conducted only the software used for data entry and tabulation will allow the researcher to
with qualified respondents. To ensure accuracy of the data perform "error edit routines". These routines can identify the wrong type of
collected, many respondents will be screened according to some data. Another approach to error detection is by reviewing a printed
pre-selected criteria, such as household income level, a recent representation of the entered data and by producing a data/column list
purchase of a specific product or brand, or even sex or age. procedure for the entered data. Once each error edit routine has been run
❖ Procedure - In any research project, it is very important that data and any obvious errors corrected by viewing the actual data entry output,
to be collected should be validated according to a specific the analyst should request a data/column list table for each individual data
procedure. For example, many customers exit interviews must field.
occur in a designated place as the respondent leaves a certain
retail establishment. A validation callback may be necessary to 5. Data Tabulation - Tabulation is a process of counting the numbers of
ensure that the interview took place at the proper setting and not observations (cases) that are classified into certain categories. There are
in some social gathering area like a restaurant or park. two common forms of data tabulation, these are: (1) one-way tabulation;
❖ Completeness - In order to speed through the data collection and (2) cross tabulation. A one-way tabulation is the categorization of single
process, an interviewer may ask the respondent only a few of the variables existing in the study. In most cases, a one-way tabulation shows
requisite questions. Normally, in such cases the interviewer will the number of the respondents who gave each possible answer to each
ask the respondents a few questions at the beginning of the
question on the questionnaire. The actual number of one-way tabulation is 4. Use light colors for large slices, darker colors for smaller slices.
directly related to the number of variables being measured in the study. 5. In a pie chart of black and white slices, a single red one will command the
most attention and become memorable. Use it to communicate your most
One-way tabulation serves several purposes in the research project. First, important message.
they can be used to determine the degree of non-response to individual 6. Do not show evolution over time pie charts as the only medium. Since pie
questions. Based on the coding scheme used for omitted responses, one- charts represent 100 percent, growth of the overall whole will not be
way tabulation will produce the actual number of respondents who omitted recognized. If a series of pie charts will be used, complement them with an
or failed to answer various questions on the questionnaire. Second, one- area chart.
way tabulations can be used to locate simple blunders in data entry.
STATISTICAL TESTS IN RESEARCH
Cross Tabulation - It is extremely useful when the analyst wishes to study
the relationships among and between variables. The purpose of the cross- Measures of Central Tendency
tabulation is to determine whether certain variables differ when compared
among various sub-groups of the total sample. In fact, cross-tabulation is When we speak of measures of central tendency, it involves not only mean,
normally the main form of data analysis in most marketing research mode, and median but it also serves as an index of the clustering of ¥ -
projects. Two key elements of cross-tabulation are how to develop the values towards the central value.
cross-tabulation and how to interpret the outcome. When constructing the
cross-tabulation table, the analyst must select the variable to use when The mean or average is probably the most commonly used method of
examining relationships. As always, the selection of variables should be describing central tendency. To compute the mean, all you have to do is
based on the objectives of the research project. add up all the values and divide by the number of values. In like manner, the
median is the score found at the exact middle of the set of values. One way
M11: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND DATA to compute the median is to list all scores in numerical order either
ascending or descending order of magnitude, and then locate the score in
Once the data have been collected and prepared for analysis, there are the center of the sample. On the other hand, mode is the most frequently
some basic statistical analysis procedures the researcher wants to perform. occurring value in the set of scores. To determine the mode, you might
An obvious need for these statistics comes from the fact that almost all data again order the scores as shown and count each one. The most frequently
sets are disregarded; that is, it is hard to find out what the entire set of occurring value is the mode. Subong and Beldia, 2005.
responses means because there are "too many numbers" to look at.
Consequently, every set of data needs some summary information
developed that describes the numbers it contains.

Some statistics common to all business research projects are described in

this chapter. It also explains how to graphically display the data so decision
makers can understand it. For example, if you conducted a study of people
who buy Yellow Cab's pizza you would be able to effectively show who are
the most frequent purchasers compared to the least frequent purchasers,
and perhaps why.

GUIDELINES FOR GRAPHICS

Graphics should be used whenever practical. They help the searcher to

quickly grasp the essence of the information developed in the search
project. Charts can also be an effective visual aid to enhance the
communication process and add clarity and impact to research reports. In
this section the value of bar charts, pie charts, and line charts will be
presented.

● Bar Charts - It shows the data in the form of bars that may be
horizontally or vertically oriented. Bar charts are excellent tools to In computing for the three central values, the mean, median, and the mode
depict both absolute and relative magnitudes, differences and of the given data for Group A and Group B, you will notice that the three
change. central values were similar, mean = 8, median 8 and mode = 8.
● Line Charts - It simply connects a series of data with a
continuous line. Line charts are frequently used to portray trends We can conclude therefore, that, since the two groups have the same
over several periods of time. In addition, several lines can be central values, we could say that if the variables measured are the scores in
displayed on the same chart, allowing for multiple comparisons by mathematics of the two groups of students, our interpretation is that the two
the viewer. This can be very useful in explaining comparison groups of students have the same level of performance in mathematics.
between variables.
● Pie or Round Charts - It is another form of area chart. They are
often used with business data. However, they can easily mislead
the reader if improperly prepared. Research shows that readers' But with the Administrative Division both employees from the Financial
perceptions of the percentages represented by the pie slices are Division and the employees from the Human Resource Division, both have
consistently inaccurate. the same computed central values, we can conclude that both employees
from different divisions have the same level of job performance. Subong and
When designing a pie chart, the following suggestions must be Beldia, 2005.
considered:
Measures of Dispersion
1. Show 100 percent of the subject being graphed;
2. Always label the slices with "call-outs" or with the percentage or amount Dispersion or variability refers to the spread of the values around the central
that is represented. This allows you to disperse with a legend. tendency. Specifically, measures of dispersion simply serve as an index
3. Put the largest slice at the twelve o'clock position and move clockwise in spread of X- values away from the central value. Spread of x-values away
descending order. from the central value. Spread of x-values away from the central value.
 The standard deviation shows the relation that set of scores has to the
mean of the sample.

Again let us state the set of scores in Group A. To compute the . standard
deviation, we first find the distance between each value and the mean. We
know from the above that the mean 8 and the differences from the mean are
shown by using the equation as the deviation of x which is dx = XI
-Y Notice the values that are below the mean have negative discrepancies
and values above it are positive. If we square each discrepancy and sum up
the value and divide that value by the number of scores minus 1, the value
is known as variance. To get the standard deviation, we take the square
Measures of Dispersion or Variation has four common measures: range, root of the variance.
variance, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation. It serves as an
index of reliability or of the consistency of the data being processed in the Although this computation may seem convoluted, it is quite simple.
sense that it indicates the heterogeneity or homogeneity of the data To see this, consider the formula for standard deviation:
generated from the variates.

Range is a measure of dispersion from which it is the difference from the

highest and the lowest value. In a number line system, it is the absolute
value towards the negative and positive value from which the reference
point is of the origin.

Where:
X1 = each score
X = the mean or average
N = the number of values
Σ = means we sum across the values

FORMULA FOR STANDARD DEVIATION

In the equation for s.d. the top part of the ratio, the numerator, dx = XI
-X, we see that each score has the mean subtracted from it, as in column
for dx =XI-X, then the difference is squared, and the squares are summed
as in column for (dx)2. In the bottom part of the equation, we take the
number of scores minus 1.
The ratio is the variance and the square root is the standard deviation. We
can describe the standard deviations: the square root of the sum of the
squared deviations from the mean divided by the number of scores minus
one.

Although we can calculate these univariate statistics by hand, it gets quite

tedious when you have more than a few values and variables. Every
statistics program is capable of calculating them easily for you. For instance,
if we put the 12 scores of Group A into the SPSS program we get the
following tables as a result.

Which confirms the calculations we did using the equations through manual
computations and by using the SPSS software program as shown above.
You will notice then, that in the measures of central tendency, both groups
have the same central values but in terms of their measures of dispersion The standard deviation allows us to reach some conclusions about specific
they may or may not vary. In this case, since Group B has a wider stance of scores in our distribution. Assuming that the distribution of scores is normal
x - values from the mean, Group B varies widely compared to Group A. or bell-shaped (or close to it), the following conclusions can be reached.

In a descriptive data analysis aside from the frequency, rank, and ❖ approximately 69% of the scores in the sample fall within one s.d.
percentages, the most important tools are the mean and standard deviation. of the mean.
The mean gives the truer picture of the group under investigation. The ❖ approximately 95% of the scores in the sample fall within two s.d.
standard deviation on the other hand, gives the picture of the homogeneity Of the mean
or heterogeneity of a set of data being analyzed. It is a more accurate and ❖ approximately 95% of the scores in the sample fall within two s.d.
detailed estimate of dispersion because an outlier can greatly exaggerate from the mean.
the range as what is true in this example where the outlier value of 6 for
Group A and 10 for Group B stand apart from the rest of the values. For instance, since the mean in our example for Group A is 8.0 and the
standard deviation is 1.65, we can from the above statement, estimate that
approximately 68% of the scores will fall in the range of 8.0 - (1 × 1.65) as
orR to 8.0 + (1 × 1.65) or between 6.35 and 9.65 or a score between 6 to This section provides an overview of statistical tests representative of the
10, this kind of information is a critical stepping stone, enabling us to vast array available to the researcher. After a review of statistical testing
compare the performance of an individual on one variable with their procedures, the two types of sig-ificant test are discussed below:
performance on one another, even when the variables is measured on
entirely different scales. • Parametric Test. A test of significance appropriate when the data
represent an interval or ratio scale of measurement and other assumptions
Hypothesis Testing have been met. Most frequently used parametric tests are the Z, t, and F -
tests. Each of these tests are general tests such that you have to be careful
The purpose of the hypothesis is to determine its accuracy due to the fact as to what specific Z test or t test or F test is most appropriate for your data.
that you have collected a sample of data, not a census.
• Non Parametric Test. A test of significance appropriate when the data
We evaluate the accuracy of the hypothesis by determining the statistical represent an ordinal or nominal scale, when a parametric assumption has
likelihood that the data reveal three differences, not random sampling error. been greatly violated, or when the nature of the distribution is not known.
We evaluate the importance of a statistically significant difference by
weighing the practical significance of any change that we measure. Testing Types of Error
for statistical significance follows a relatively well-defined pattern.
There are two types of error associated with hypothesis testing that the
The following is the six-stage sequence under the statistical testing researcher needs to be aware of when forming conclusions based on the
procedures: data analysis. The first type of error is termed Type 1 Error. This error is
associated with rejecting the null hypothesis and accepting the alternative
1. State the null-hypothesis. While the researcher is usually interested in analysis in error. This type of error is frequently called alpha (a) which
testing hypotheses of change or differences, the null hypothesis is always occurs when the sample data lead to rejection of a null hypothesis that is in
used for statistical testing purposes. fact true.

2. Choose the statistical test. To test a hypothesis, one must choose an The probability of such an error is termed the level of significance. The
appropriate statistical test. There are many tests from which to choose, and level of significance is equivalent to the amount of risk regarding the
there are at least four criteria that can be used in choosing a test. One is the accuracy of the test that the researcher is willing to accept. In other words,
power efficiency of the test. A more powerful test provides the same level of the level of significance is the probability that the rejection of the null
significance with a smaller sample than a less powerful test. In addition, in hypothesis is in error. Usually, researchers accept a level of significance of
choosing a test, one can consider how the sample is drawn, the nature of 10, 05, or 01, depending on the research objectives. This means that the
population, and the type of measurement scale used. For instance, some researcher is willing to accept some risk of incorrect rejection of the null
tests are useful only when the sequence of scores is known or when hypothesis, but that level of risk is pre-specified.
observations are paired. Other tests are appropriate only if the population
has certain characteristics; still other tests are useful only if the The second type of error is termed Type II Error, the error that occurs when
measurement scale is interval or ratio. the sample data produces results that fail to reject the null hypothesis when
in fact the null hypothesis is false and should be rejected. Type I error is
3. Select the desired level of significance. The choice of the level of frequently called Beta (B) . Unlike a, which is specified by the researcher, b
significance should be made before we collect data. The most common is depends on the actual population parameter.
0.5, although 0.1 is also widely used. Other levels such as .10, .025, or .001
are sometimes chosen. The exact level to choose is largely determined by Sample size can help control Type 1 and Type 2 errors. Generally, the
how much a risk one is willing to accept and the effect that this choice has researcher will select a and the sample size in order to increase the power
or B risk. The larger the a, the lower is the B. of the test and b. However, in some research situations, the researcher may
want to manage the type of risk (a and b) to help achieve the best results.
4. Compute for the calculated difference value. After the data are col- For example, if a new drug is being tested with potentially serious side
lected, use the formula for the appropriate significance test to obtain the effects, the researcher would probably want to minimize the possibility of
calculated value. concluding that the drug is effective (i.e., to reject the null hypothesis) when
in fact the drug is not effective.
5. Obtain the critical test value. After we have calculated t, x, or other
measure, we must look for the critical value in the appropriate table for that Other types of Tests
distribution. The critical value is the criteria that define the region of rejection
from the region of acceptance of the null hypothesis. 1. T-test. It is the most commonly used method to evaluate the
differences in means between two groups. It is used to determine
6. Interpret the Test. For most tests, if the calculated value is larger than the statistical significance between a sample distribution mean
the critical value, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the and parameter.
alternative hypothesis is supported (although it is by no means proven). If
the critical value is larger, we conclude we have failed to reject the null. The two types of t-test are discussed below:

According to "the interpret the test" in the statistical step procedure, the A. t-test - one sample case is used in determining the significant
conclusion is stated in terms of rejecting or not rejecting the null hypothesis differences between the sample mean from a standard mean. The
based on a rejected region selected before the test is conducted. A second formula is given below.
method of presenting the results of a statistical test reports the extent to
which the test statistic disagrees with the null hypothesis. This method has
become popular because analyst want to know what percentage of the
sampling distribution lies beyond the sample statistic on the curve, and most
statistical computer programs report the results of statistical tests as
probability values (p-values) • The p value is the probability of observing a
sample as extreme as, or more extreme than, the value actually observed,
given that the null-hypothesis is true. Cooper and Schindler, 2003. B. t-test - two sample cases have two types: the t-test for
independent samples. It is used when there are two data taken
Test of Significance from two distinct different groups. The formula is:
 variable is being tested to a one independent variable with more than two
categories. For example, if the researcher wishes to determine significant
differences in the job performance of the employees as to their gender
(male, female) the one-way analysis of variance will be used in this analysis.
Subong and Beldia, 2005.

Where:

X = mean of x and y
Sx = sum of squares of x
Sy = sum of squares of y
N = number of cases
n1+n2 = degree of freedom (d.f.)

• the t-test for dependent samples. It is used when there are two data
taken from the same group, if there are two data taken from the same
group, such as pretest and post test, pre-evaluation and final evaluation of
the same group, it is appropriate to use the t-test for the dependent sample.

Where:
T = the calculated t-value
D = mean of the difference
Σ D2 = sum of the difference squared
N = number of observation

2. Chi-Square Test. This test is used to determine the strength of

association between two nominal variables. The chi-square test is of two
types: the chi-square test in one sample case and the chi-square test in two
sample cases. The chi-square test has the general equation presented
below.

Where:
X2 = the chi-square value
fe = the expected frequencies
f = the actual observation frequencies The ANOVA technique focuses on the behavior of the variance within a set
of data. The variance of a variable is equal to the average squared deviation
a) The Chi-square test in a One Sample Case. It is used to determine from the mean of the variable. The logic of the ANOVA technique says that
whether a significant correlation or a significant difference exists between if we calculate the variance between the groups and compare it with the
the observed frequency with that of the expected frequency distribution. It is variance within the groups, we can make a rational determination as to
a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data expected to whether the means (attitudes towards the advertising campaign) are
obtain according to a specific hypothesis. significantly different.
In determining statistical significance in ANOVA, the F-test is used to
b) The Chi-square Test in Two Sample Cases. This will be used only in statistically evaluate the difference between the group means. For example,
determining the degree of association or determining significant differences suppose the heavy users of Starbucks coffee rate the advertising campaign
between two variables with two or more categories. The data to be used in 4.4 in a five-point scale, with 5 = very favorable. The medium users of
this kind of statistical tool should be nominal for both of the variables, Chi Starbucks coffee rate the campaign 2.5. The F-test in ANOVA tells us if
square in two sample cases can either be used, in testing significant these observed differences are meaningful.
association or significant differences between two variables with two or The total variance in a set of responses to a question can be separated
more categories. between group and group variance. The F-test distribution is the ratio of
One-Way ANOVA. This is used to test the difference of a certain intervallic Lese two components of total variance and can be calculated as follows:
scale dependent variable to another variable with three or more categories.
It is also called as one factor analysis of variance because one dependent F = variance within groups / variance between groups
 8. 8. The telephone interview can be helpful in arranging personal interviews and
screening large populations for unusual types of participants/respondents.
The larger the difference in the variance between groups, the larger the 9. Self-administered questionnaires have become ubiquitous in modern living.
Fratio. Since the total variance explained or accounted for by considering 10. In multiple choice format of question, the respondents are allowed to answer any
differences between groups than there is within groups, then the questions they wish to answer based on their understanding.
11. A letter accompanying a self-administered questionnaire.
independent variable probably has a significant impact on the dependent 12. It is a dry-run of the instrument to be used.
variable. Larger F ratios imply significant differences between the groups. 13. In this format, the questionnaire is considered as a totally structured format which is
The larger the F ratio, the more likely it is that the null hypothesis will be used exclusively or with some use of the few response opinions.
14. This instrument embodies a set of questions asked in a standardized manner to each
rejected. respon- dent or participants and the researcher asks any only questions that are listed
in the interview guide.
4. Pearson Correlation Coefficient. It measures the degree of linearity. 15. In this format, the respondents are allowed to answer any questions they wish to answer
based on their understanding.
association between two variables. It varies between - 1.00 or + 1.00, with 16. This is characterized by a set of questions for- mulated in a standardized way, as in a
O representing absolutely no association between two variables, and - 1.00 questionnaire.
and + 1.00 representing a perfect link between two variables. The higher the 17. In this method, the researcher witnesses the event in the natural setting and thus gives
a firsthand account of the event.
correlation coefficient, the stronger the level of association. 18. In this type of direct observation, the variables or factors for the study are more
The correlation coefficient can be either positive or negative, depending on delineated.
the direction of the relationship between two variables. As explained earlier, 19. This is more flexible than structured observation because it lacks specificity in the
variables for the study.
if there is a negative correlation between Y and X, that means that increase 20. This describes the desired behavior, desired to be observed with the corresponding
in the value of Y is. scale on each item.
21. These are collections of facts related to the topics.
22. These are used in finding names and addresses as well as other data.
5. Associated with decreases in the value of X, and vice versa. The null 23. These can be used to find background or historical information on a topic or to find
hypothesis for the Pearson correlation states that there is no association names or terms that can enhance the search result in other sources.
between the two variables in the population and that the correlation 24. These are used to verify spelling, grammar usage or definition of term.
25. These are the mainstay of any library because they help to identify and locate a single
coefficient is zero. For example, one may hypothesize that there is no book or journal article from among the billions published.
relationship between Starbucks Coffee consumption and income levels of 26. Serve as a source of raw data about the profile of people.
buyers. 27. These documents include those that are regularly prepared by agencies or specific
individuals within an institution, including development plans and annual reports.
If you take measures of two variables (coffee consumption and income) 28. This guide provides much the same information as the survey of buying power, plus
from a sample, the basic question is "what is the probability that I would get some unique city-by-city variables useful in making comparisons.
a correlation coefficient of this size in my sample if the correlation coefficient 29. These are memos, letters, complete interviews or speeches, laws, regulations, court
decisions, etc.
in the population is actually zero?" That is, if you calculate a large 30. These are collected by the individual company for accounting purposes or management
correlation coefficient between the two variables in the sample, and this activity reports.
sample was properly selected from the population of interest, then the 31. Secondary data are more readily available, often more highly valid and usually less
expensive to secure than primary data gathered from the company.
chances that the population correlation coefficient is really zero are 32. Computerized data sources are usually designed by specific companies and include
relatively small. Therefore, if the correlation coefficient is statistically internal and external data combined with online information sources.
significant, the null hypothesis is rejected, and you can conclude with some 33. The reputation of the institution or persons gathering the information plays a critical role
in ascertaining whether the data collected can be relied upon.
confidence that the two variables being examined do have some 34. Using secondary sources is complex and challenging.
association in the population. In other words, Starbucks coffee consumption 35. Primary sources are original works of research or raw without interpretation.
is related to the income of the consumers. The formula of Pearson 36. Secondary sources are interpretations of secondary sources or more commonly, finding
aids such as indexes, bibliographies, and internet search engines.
correlation is given below. 37. Another secondary source of information is census data.
38. Statistical sources of secondary data can lead the researcher to specific statistical
publications or can provide actual re- prints of data extracted from numerous other
secondary data sources.
39. Newspapers and commercial publications are important sources of secondary
information.
40. Personal records serve as a source of raw data about the profile of people.
41. The purpose of the data preparation process is to take data in its raw form and convert it
Where: so as to establish meaning and create value for the users.
42. An interview must be conducted only with qualified respondents..
43. Interviews should take place at the proper setting and not in some social gathering area
rp = Person's coefficient of correlation like a restaurant or park.
Σdxdy = the sum of the product of the deviation of x and y variables 44. Normal assumption is that the respondent is treated with courtesy and respect during
the interviewing process.
(sdx) = standard deviation of x 45. One aspect of the editing process is to make certain that the proper questions were
(sdy) = standard deviation of y asked to the respondent.
N = number of subjects 46. Information gathered from the respondents should be properly recorded based on the
questions asked of them..
47. First step in error detection is to determine whether the software used for data entry
Z- test. It is used with large sample sizes (excluding 30 for both and tabulation will allow the researcher to perform "error edit routines".
independent samples) or with smaller samples when the data are normally 48. The purpose of cross-tabulation is to determine whether certain variables differ when
compared among various sub- groups of the total sample.
distributed and population variances are known (Cooper and Schindler, 49. One-way tabulation can be used to determine the degree of non- response to individual
2003). questions.
50. Open-ended questions when properly answered can provide greater insight into the
research project than forced choice questions or rating scales.
51. It is concerned in determining, to the extent possible, whether a survey's interview or
obser- vations are conducted correctly and are free of fraud or bias.
52. It is the process whereby the raw data are checked for errors made by either the
interviewer or the respondent.
53. In this area, questions should be given proper attention by the researcher, as the person
actually interviewed.
54. The process of converting into a questionnaire so that it can be read by a computer.
55. Involves grouping and assigning value of responses to the questions contained in the
1. An important step in research is the selection of the appropriate technique and the
survey instruments.
corresponding tool for gathering data.
2. Data observation is one of the basic approaches in gathering information.
3. In structured observation, the variables or factors for the study are more delineated.
4. Interview is a two-way conversation initiated by an interviewer to obtain information from
a participant.
5. The tally sheet or checklist describes the behavior to be observed by the researcher in
considerable detail to allow him in tallying and checking the behavior of participants
respondents whenever it occurs.
6. A critical aspect associated with questionnaire design is the development of an
appropriate cover letter.
7. A pretest is a dry-run of the instrument to be used.
 Kinds of business research
Module 1: Introduction to Business Research
1. Conclusive (for quantitative business research) – designed to
What is business research?
help managers make decisions based on the information provided
Business research is a type of scientific research that tries
by business research. Through it, the manager or decision
to address the concerns of the firm and/or the industry.
maker makes informed decisions. Informed decisions rely on
It offers (recommends)solution/s to the affected functional area
researched information as basis for making decisions. Conclusive
(marketing, management, human resource, finance,
research can be applied through descriptive research,
entrepreneurship, etc.) or analysis about the perception,
correlational research, causal research, or a combination
preference, and behavior of the customers, employees,
of descriptive research with correlational or causal research.
and other stakeholders. The processed result of the business
a) Descriptive research – is a kind of quantitative
research (information)becomes the basis for making
research that describes the problem or phenomenon that
decisions. If the result of the business research is
the researcher or client wants to address or know. It
intended only for a particular company use, then it is a
answers the questions who, what, when, where, why, and how
contracted business research. If the result is intended for general
in the statement of the problem. Most business studies are done
application and appreciation of the business, the industry, and the
using descriptive research. If the client would want to address
academic community, then it is an institutional research.
many of the areas of business operations through descriptive
Difference between qualitative and quantitative research
research, then this kind of research would be lengthy and time
Basic business quantitative research uses survey
consuming. The results are presented through frequency count,
questionnaire for collecting primary data (perception and
percentage, ratio, rank, some descriptive statistics, or mean (by
preference of respondents), whereas business qualitative
interpreting the scale, its level and meaning)
research uses observation (behavior of respondents) or depth
b) Correlational research – is a kind of quantitative
interview (opinion and ideas of respondents) for collecting
research that measures the relationships of variables statistically
data. However, the findings of qualitative business research
to determine its dependence or interdependence. It could simply
cannot be generalized across the population, as it is treated
be done using correlations or t-test and ANOVA. It could also be
like a case study; meanwhile, quantitative business research
done using some multivariate techniques like factor analysis,
can be generalized across the population, if the sampling method
multiple regression analysis, cluster analysis, perceptual
was done randomly.
mapping, or conjoint analysis. The results can be inferred (deduce
Can quantitative and qualitative business methods be
and conclude with statistical basis). In most business studies,
combined?
descriptive research and correlational research are combined to
Yes. The result of qualitative business research can be
have a comprehensive result.
used to validate the result of quantitative business research.
c) Causal research – is a kind of quantitative research
This process is called triangulation. An example of
that hypothesizes the cause and effect of variables. It is
triangulation is the use of survey to respondents and interview
intended to address the complicated relationships of
to another group of respondents within the same study. A
variables. It uses multivariate tools like covariance-based
specific example is when a researcher tries to evaluate the Human
structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) or partial least squares
Resource Practices of a certain company. Employees will
structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM).
evaluate the services and functions of the HR Department
using a survey questionnaire, and HR Practitioners will be
2. Exploratory (for qualitative business research) – is designed to
interviewed to check on the details of their services and functions
find more information about the problem, issue, or
rendered to employees. The researcher will compare the results
phenomenon. It is also intended to reduce the research
of the study and will have to come up with various levels of
options to a manageable size. Exploratory research can be applied
analysis
through depth interview, focus group discussion, and
Difference between basic business research and applied
ethnographic research.
business research
a) Depth interview – is a kind of exploratory research
Basic (Academic) business research is strict on APA
where the researcher conducts a detailed personal interview
compliance, whereas applied business research is lenient
(with guide questions that the respondent is aware of earlier)
and would depend on the preference of the client (for their
with the respondent. The activity is normally recorded so
easy interpretation and decision).Basic business research is
that the transcript can be printed and used as a support for the
dependent on the problematic situation Identified by the
depth interview. The raw transcript will be summarized and
researcher and the findings are expected to be generalized across
interpreted by the researcher. Because the activity relies on
the population of the study. Applied business research is
the expert opinion of the respondents, only a handful of
dependent on the problem that the client would want to be
respondents are included in the interview – around 8–10. If a
solved and the findings cannot be generalized as it is just a case
quantitative research is done with similar concerns or problems,
study.
the result of the depth interview(qualitative research) can be
used to validate the result of the quantitative research. The 2. It must contribute to the advancement of
process is called triangulation. knowledge in business and management.
b) Focus group discussion (FGD) – is a kind of exploratory 3. It results in scientific knowledge that is ethically
research where the researcher solicits ideas about a particular neutral (not offensive).
topic or problem from the target respondents. The researcher 4. For qualitative basic business research, the
selects around 10–12 respondents(representing the population) observation could be interpreted by the experts
in one area and serves as the facilitator. The researcher asks (psychologist, sociologist, or anthropologist).Their
questions to the respondents and allows them to process the interpretation serves as the basis for the managers to understand
questions, while recording it for documentation purposes. There the customers to pave the way for a correct strategy.
must be some identifier for the respondents (but not the name of
the respondent) for purposes of documentation. The raw Format of a business research. In general, the format for
transcript is summarized and used as basis for qualifying a basic business research is still based on the traditional format,
particular concern (e.g., a product, idea, or variable) in the which is known as Format A. Format A has five chapters. The
quantitative research American Psychological Association (APA) has come up with its
c) Ethnographic or observation research – is a kind of format called Format B. Format B, meanwhile, has four chapters.
qualitative research where the researcher observes the The chapters 1 and 2 in format A are merged into one chapter
respondent or respondents directly. Itis done through: in format B; that is why it is comprised of four chapters only.
1. direct observation (with the respondent informed Some schools are also modifying the research format to suit
beforehand of such observation) their specific research requirements. There is no standard format
2. direct observation (with the respondent for applied research. It still incorporates some chapters and
uninformed of such observation) components of the traditional format, but it is much more
simplified to suit the needs of the clients. In addition, the
There are issues and concerns here: institutional format of the university has to be observed by the
1) If the respondent is made aware of such observation, students.
he or she may be conscious of his or her behavior, thus
defeating the purpose of observing the behavior normally. CHAPTER 2: The research proposal
2) If the respondent is not made aware of such
Proposal- an offer to produce a research product or render a
observation (assuming a spy eyeglasses with video-recording
service to the potential buyer or sponsor. The research proposal
capability is applied), there is an ethical issue involved – intrusion presents a problem, discusses related research efforts, outlines
of privacy. the data needed for solving the problems and shows the design
3) If the observation is successful, could the used to gather and analyze the data.
researcher interpret the observed behavior? In this regard, we
need experts like a psychologist to interpret perception, Importance of research proposal
motivation, etc.; we need a sociologist to interpret social  A useful tool to ensure that the sponsor and investigator
or researcher agree on the research question
behavior; and we need an anthropologist to interpret culture and
symbols. Components of research proposal
3. Business case analysis – involves the study of a The proposal tells us what, why, how, where, and to whom the
particular company, group, or person through personal interviews research will be done. It must also show the benefit of doing a
and published literature. The personality of those involved in the research.
case (company officers or personnel) is reflected and discussed in
the case to make it interesting. The case is written for purposes 1. PURPOSE OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH PROJECT
- A researcher's proposal must present the
of class discussion. The case is intended to elicit the students’
plan, services and credentials in the best
participation by applying whatever concepts they have learned possible way to encourage the proposal's
from the business courses they have taken. It cannot be selection over competitors.
generalized as it is about a particular company only.
Criteria for a good business research THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL IS AS FOLLOWS:
1. For quantitative basic business research, it must be
grounded on theory and empirically verifiable, especially if the 1) to present the management question to be researched to be
researched and to relate its importance.
research model is confirmatory in nature, where the findings
should validate the variables of the theory; if it is exploratory in 2) to discuss the efforts conducted by other researchers who have
nature and no existing theory is available, then some valid worked on related management question
explanation would suffice, but subject to hypothesis testing and
more empirical testing (to avoid accidental generalization).
3) to suggest the data necessary for solving the management - Self-selection (volunteer) sampling
question and how the data will be gathered, treated, and - Snowball sampling
integrated. - Purposive (judgmental) sampling

2. TYPES OF STUDY 5. SPECIFIC RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

TWO TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH. QUANTITATIVE AND The specific methods that will be used to collect the data
QUALITATIVE. (personal interviews, self-administered survey, disguised/non-
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS – Research techniques that disguised observation, focus group etc.)
deal with numbers are known as quantitative research methods. · A personal interview is a two-way conversation initiated by an
It can systematically measure variables and test hypotheses using interviewer and participants.
quantitative methods. · Self-administered survey is a primary data collecting approach it
Survey Research - most widely used methods to gather data is more efficient and economical than observation.
especially for conducting business research. The two ways of collecting data is using questionnaire are as
Correlational Research - Correlational study is done to determine follows:
how two things are related to one another and how each one 1. Self-administered questionnaire requires the individual
affects the other. respondents to answer questions without assistant of a proctor.
Causal-Comparative Research - The method of causal- 2. Group administered questionnaire requires groups of
comparative research is focused on comparison. It is applied to individuals to fill out a questionnaire with the assistant of proctor
infer the causal connection between various variables. who stands by for any question that arises from the respondents.
Online Research or Literature Research - One of the earliest
techniques still in use is literature research. Such research is A. Potential Managerial Benefits of the proposed Study.
incredibly cost effective and can yield a wealth of data - This section presents the potential managerial benefits of the
study, along with the limitations that might exist.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS - In business research, the B. Propose Cost Structure
use of qualitative research is highly valued. In order to collect data - The cost structure section of the research proposal allows the
for qualitative research, open-ended conversational methods of researcher and the decision maker to determine what activities in
communication are used. the research process which will cost the most. This will also
Interviews - Surveys and interviews can occasionally employ the address the decision marker's overall budget concerns; the reader
same questions, which is one way they are comparable. may make his or her final decision on whether to undertake the
Focus Groups - Focus groups are groups of people chosen research endeavor based on the content of this section.
specifically so that their ideas and actions can be studied.
3. DEFINITION OF THE TARGET POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE
The entire group about whom you want to make conclusions is
referred to as a population.
- The higher the sample size required, the more variable the traits
must be.
- The larger the sample size required, the higher the level of
confidence.
- The required sample size must be between smaller and larger
depending on how precise the results of the sample are.
4. SAMPLE DESIGN TECHNIQUE AND DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
The term "sample design methods" often refers to a process for
choosing sample units for measurement or locations to sample
within a study area.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- Random selection is a key component of probability
sampling, which enables you to draw robust statistical
conclusions about the entire group.

4 types of Probability sampling techniques are frequently used

- Simple random sampling,
- Stratified sampling,
- Systematic sampling, General Outline of a Research Proposal
- Cluster sampling TITLE OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
I. Purpose of the Proposed Research Project
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING - This includes a clear expression of the decision problem,
- entails non-random selection based on practicality or information research problem, and specific research objectives.
other factors, making it simple to gather data. II. Type of Study
- This includes the discussions of the type research design
5 Types of Probability sampling techniques are frequently used (exploratory, descriptive, causal), and secondary versus primary
- Convenience sampling data requirements, with some justification of choice.
- Quota sampling
III. Definition of the Target Population and Sample Size overcome, or a perplexing topic that appears in academic
- This describes the overall target population to be studied literature, in theory, or in practice and necessitates thoughtful
determination of the appropriate sample size, including the analysis and study.
justification of the size. 5 factors to consider to determine that a problem is
IV. Sample Design, Technique, and Data Collection Method researchable or not.
-A substantial discussion regarding the sampling technique used 1. The problem exists in the locality or country but has no known
to draw the required sample, the actual method for collecting the solution.
data, incentive plans and justification. 2. The solution can be answered by using statistical methods and
V. Specific Research Instrument techniques.
- This discusses the method used to collect the needed raw data; 3. There are probable solutions but they still need to be tested.
includes discussions of the various types of scale measurement 4. The occurrence of phenomena requires scientific investigation
requirement. to arrive at a precise solution.
VI. Potential Managerial Benefits of the Proposed Study 5. Serious needs/problems of the people where it demands
-This discusses the expected values of the information to research.
management and how the initial problem might be resolved; - THE RESEARCH PROBLEM SHOULD BE STATED VIVIDLY AND
includes a separate discussion on the possible limitations of the EXPLICITLY EXPRESSED IN INTERROGATIVE FORM FOR
study. “QUESTIONS HAVE THE VIRTUE OF POSING A PROBLEM
VII. Proposed Cost Structure DIRECTLY.” (KERLINGER, 1996)
-This itemizes the expected costs associated with conducting the - A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM SHOULD BE SMART WHETHER IT IS
research project; includes a total cost figure and any pricing policy HISTORICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, EXPERIMENTAL, OR CASE STUDY
for changes, as well as appropriate completion time frames. Characteristics of a Research Problem
VIII. Profile of the Research and Company - CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PROBLEM POSSESS THE
-This briefly describes the main researcher’s and their ACRONYM- SMART
qualifications; includes a general assessment of the company’s
profile. SMART
XI. It offers example of how the data might be presented in the S- Specific. THE PROBLEM SHOULD BE SPECIFICALLY STATED
final report M – Measurable. IT IS EASY TO MEASURE BY USING
- Textual or Descriptive RESEARCH INSTRUEMENTS
- Tabular Presentation A – Achievable. DATA ARE ACHIEVABLE USING CORRECT
- Diagrammatic Presentation STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES TO ARRIVE AT PRECISE RESULTS
R – Realistic. REAL RESULTS ARE NOT MANIPULATED
T - Time-Bound. TIME FRAME IS REQUIRED IN EVERY
TEST 1- TRUE OR FALSE ACTIVITY BECAUSE THE SHORTER THE COMPLETION OF THE
FALSE 1. research proposals are valuable only to research sponsor ACTIVITY THE BETTER
(BOTH RESEARCH SPONSOR AND THE RESEARCHER) SOURCE OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
FALSE 2. Research proposals should not always begin with a - THERE ARE SEVERAL SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS
section on purpose of the research. (ALWAYS) THAT A RESEARCHER CAN INVESTIGATE. IT IS SAID THAT
FALSE 3. many students and researchers view the proposal as a “RESEARCH WAS BORN OUT OF MAN’S PROBLEMS AND
necessary work. (UNNECESSARY) MAN’S MAJOR PROBLEM DEMAND RESEARCH” (GOOD
FALSE 4. determining the appropriate sample size is an easy task. AND SCATES, 1972)
(NOT EASY) - EXISTING AND PAST RESEARCHES ARE RICH SOURCES OF
FALSE 5. the greater the variability of the characteristics, the RESEARCH PROBLEMS EVEN USING RESEARCH
smaller the size of the sample necessary. (THE GREATER THE SIZE REPLICATION UTILIZING THE SAME INSTRUMENT BUT
OF SAMPLE NECESSARY) ADMINISTERED TO DIFFERENT FROUP OF SUBJECTS AND
TRUE 6. a proposal is an offer to produce a research product or AREA IN ORDER TO COMPARE THE SIMILARITIES AND
render a service to the potential buyer or sponsor DIFFERENCES OF THE FINDINGS
TRUE 7. both the overall problem and it’s implication are - OTHER SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS ARE THESES,
emphasized in research proposal DISSERTATIONS AND RESEARCH JOURNALS. THE
TRUE 8. the more inexperienced a researcher is, the more RESEARCHERS OF THESE MATERIALS RECOMMEND
important it is to have a well-planned and adequately PROBLEMS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH WORKERS TO
documented proposal INVESTIGATE INTO IT
TRUE 9. a well-prepared proposals include potential problem that RESEARCH OBJECTIVES- DEFINED AS STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
may be encountered along the way and methods for avoiding or FOR WHICH THE INVESTIGATION IS TO BE CONDUCTED. IT HAS
working around them THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS, SMART, WITH RESEARCH PROBLEM
TRUE 10. research proposal is essentially, a road map showing - Describe what your research is trying to achieve and
clearly that location from which a journey begins and destination explain why you are pursuing it.
to be reached. - Describe what your research project intends to
accomplish
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES - Statement or purpose for which the investigation is to be
A research problem is a statement about an area of interest, an conducted
issue that needs to be resolved, a challenge that needs to be
 - Outcomes that you aim to achieve by conducting
research

WHY ARE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES IMPORTANT?

- 01 Establish the scope and depth of your project
- 02 Contribute to your research design

THE HYPOTHESIS- a wide guess that is formulated and

temporarily adopted to explain observed facts covered by the
study.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Null hypothesis (H0) - are used to test the claim that "there is no
difference between two groups of data". IT IS ALWAYS STATED IN
NEGATIVE FORM SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Alternative hypothesis (H1) – test the claim that "there is a - It is an important section of a thesis, dissertation and
difference between two data groups". IT IS STATED IN POSITIVE research paper.
FORM - This includes the coverage of the study are, the subjects,
NOTE; IN PRACTICE, NULL HYPOTHESIS IS COMMONLY USED the research instruments, the research issues or
BECAUSE IT IS EASY TO REJECT AND CCEPT IT. FOR INSTANCE, IF concerns, the duration of the study, and the constraints
THE RESULT IS SIGNIFICANT, REJECT HO; IF INSIGNIFICANT, that have direct bearing on the result of the study.
ACCEPT IT - SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY IS PRESENTED EITHER IN THE
INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE PERSPECTIVE
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPPTUAL FRAMEWORK INDUCTIVE PERSPECTIVE- THE RESEARCHER MOVES FROM THE
THE THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK PARTICULAR TO GENERAL.
- SHAPES THE JUSTIFICATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM/ - IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY>TARGET
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES IN ORDER TO PROVIDE THE LEGAL BENEFICIARIES>RESEARCHER>PEOPLE OF
BASIS FOR DEFINING ITS PARAMETERS. IT IS DERISARBLE COMMUNITY>PEOPLE IN PROVINCE, REGION AND
FOR AN INVESTIGATOR TO IDENTIFY KEY CONCEPTS THAT NATION
ARE USED IN THE STUDY FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING
OF THE ROLE OF THE THEORY IN RESEARCH DEDUCTIVE PERSPECTIVE- GENERAL TO PARTICULAR
- It is a symbolic construction which uses abstract - DISCUSS THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY>STARTS FROM
concepts, facts or laws, variables and their relations that THE NATIONAL LEVEL>RESEARCHER HIMSLEF>TARGET
explains and predicts how an observed phenomenon BENEFICIARIES
exists and operates.
The researcher should prove that the study has important
- An investigator is required to formulate existing theories
contributions in relation to
which link his study.
(a) solving the problem and need,
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK (b) bridging a knowledge gap,
- IT PRESENTS SPECIFIC AND WELL-DEFINED CONCEPTS (c) improving social, economic and health conditions,
WHICH ARE CALLED CONSTRUCTS. ITS FUNCTION IS (d) enriching research instruments and methods, and
SIMILAR WITH THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK BECAUSE THE (e) supporting government thrusts.
CONSTRUCTS USED ARE DERIVED FROM ABSTRACT
CONCEPTS OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
- It shows the relationship between the variables of your The scope discusses the inclusion and coverage of your study.
study. It includes a visual diagram or a model that The coverage of the study is in terms of:
summarizes the concepts of your study and a narrative 1. Brief statement of the general purpose of the study
explanation of the model presented. 2. The subject matter and topics discussed.
- Most researchers used the input-process-output (IPO) 3. Population or sample
model of research in illustrating the conceptual 4. Area or locality
framework. The IPO model represents the summary of 5. Time or duration
various related articles that explains the processes LIMITATIONS
involved. - The limitations are exclusions from the study that were
beyond the control of the researcher. Potential weakness
of the study.
- These factors could include things like time, access to
funding, equipment, data or participants.

DELIMITATIONS
- Are the parameters set by the researcher to determine
what to include and what to leave out of the research
study, Things that researchers could control. It also
defines the scope of the study.
 - is composed of discussion of facts and principles to which
DEFINITION OF TERMS the present study is related. These materials are usually
- An alphabetical list of important terms or acronyms that printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional
you define, particularly ambiguous terms or those use in journals, magazines, newspaper, and other publications.
special way gives your readers an understanding of the
concepts or factors that will be discussed throughout These materials are classified as:
your study, as well as contextual information as to how 1. Local, if printed in the Philippines
you will be using those concepts in your study. 2. Foreign, if printed in other country
RELATED STUDIES
There are two ways to define the key terms used in the study: - Are studies, inquiries or investigations already conducted
1. Conceptual definition - based on concepts or hypothetic ones to which the present proposed study is related or has
which are usually taken from the dictionary. some bearing or similarity
2. Operational definition - based on observable characteristics - review of all the studies around a particular research
and how it is used in the study. problem. An RRS helps justify the need for studying the
TEST 1- TRUE OR FALSE problem in the first place
FALSE 1. Research objectives are the same as instructional
objectives
FALSE 2. real results are manipulated in research. (NOT Sources of Related Studies
MANIPULATED) - Manuscripts
FALSE 3. the specialization of a researcher is not an impetus - Thesis
towards research. (IT IS AN IMPETUS TOWARDS RESEARCH) - Dissertation
FALSE 4. in practice, the alternative hypothesis is commonly used - Case Study
because it is easy to accept and reject it. NULL HYPOTHESIS) - Concept Papers
FALSE 5. Theoretical framework presents specific and well-defined Where to locate the Sources of Related Literature and Studies:
concepts which are called constructs. (CONCEPTUAL - Libraries
FRAMEWORK) - Government and private offices
TRUE 6. significance of the study in thesis/ dissertation or in - The National Library
research is a must - Online websites
TRUE 7. scope and limitations of the study is an important section
of a thesis/dissertation or research paper Classification of Related Studies
TRUE 8. majority of the thesis writer and beginners in research Local - if the inquiry in conducted in the Philippines
find difficulty in formulating research problems and objectives. Foreign - if conducted in foreign lands
TRUE 9. a good research problem should be SMART
TRUE 10. research was born out of man’s problems and man’s Characteristics of related literature and studies for your
major problem demands research guidelines:
- The related materials should be as recent as possible.
CHAPTER 4: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE - Reviewed materials should be objective and unbiased.
- RESEARCHERS NEEDS TO REVIEW, WRITE-UPS, READINGS - Surveyed materials should be related to the study.
AND STUDIES RELATED TO HIS PRESENT STUDY TO - Reviewed materials should not be too few and too many.
DETERMINE THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF THE
FINDINGS BETWEEN THE PAST AND THE PRESENT Justification of the present study/ Synthesis
STUDIES - A writer of a thesis/ dissertation or research paper
- IT AIMS TO GAIN INSIGHT INTO THE ASPECTS OF THE should justify in this section the bearing of the related
PROBLEM THAT ARE CRITICAL AND CONTROVERSIAL studies upon the present study.
- THE RESEARCHER SHOULD HAVE THE ABILITY TO - The reason why you have conducted your study in the
COMPARE BETWEEN WHAT SHOULD READ AND INCLUDE first place. This part of your paper needs to explain the
IN HIS STUDY AND WHAT HE SHOULD NOT READ uniqueness and importance of your research.
- RELATED- READINGS, LITERATURE, AND STUDIES WHICH TEST II- FILL IN THE BLANKS
HAVE BEARING OR RELATION TO HIS STUDY. RELATED STUDIES 1. an inquiries, or investigations already
RRL IS DIVIDED INTO 2 PARTS conducted to which the present proposed study is related or has
- RELATED LITERATURE bearing or similarity
- REATED STUDIES LITERATURE 2. a written works collectively, especially those of
enduring importance, exhibiting, creative imagination and artistic
RELATED LITERATURE skill which are written in a particular period, language and subject
- LITERATURE “written works collectively, especially, those RELATED LITERATURE 3. It is composed of discussion of facts and
enduring importance, exhibiting creative imagination and principles to which the present study is related
artistic skill which are written in a particular period, RELATED 4. it means the readings, literature and studies which
language, and subject”. ( Funk and Wagnalls dictionary) have direct bearing or relation to the present study
- ANY WRITTEN MATERIAL SUCH AS BOOKS, JOURNAL, SYNTHESIS 5. justifying the differences of the present study to the
MAGAZINE, NOVEL, POETRY, YEARBOOK, AND past study
ENCYCLOPEDIA ARE CONSIDERED AS LITERATURE TEST III-ENUMERATION
SECTION OF REVIEW AND RELATED LITERATURE
 1. RELATED LITERATURE - The analysis involves exploring the relationships between
2. RELATED STUDIES concepts
3. JUSTIFICATION OF THE PRESENT STUDY/ SYNTHESIS
C. CASE STUDY
MEANING OF THE WORD RELATED
- it means the readings, literature and studies which have Used when an extensively thorough and comprehensive study of a
direct bearing or relation to the present study particular individual, group or institution or situation is involved
over a period of time.
CLASIFFICATION OF RELATED LITERATURE D. FEASIBILITY STUDY
1. Local, if printed in the Philippines
2. Foreign, if printed in other country Involves an extensive systematic analysis of all factors affecting
the possibility of success of a proposed project.
CLASIFFICATION OF RELATED STUDIES Used to find the viability of a proposed undertaking on the
1. Local - if the inquiry in conducted in the Philippines establishment of a certain institution, an infrastructure or a
2. Foreign - if conducted in foreign lands business venture.
The four main elements of a Feasibility Study
CHAPTER 5: THE RESEARCH DESIGN - Financial Feasibility
- The research design serves as a master plan of the - Technical Feasibility
methods and procedures that should be used to collect - Operational Feasibility
and analyze the data needed by the researcher. - Market Feasibility
Determining the most appropriate research design is a
function of the information research objectives and the 2. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
specific information requirements. - Focused on collecting either primary or secondary data
Classification of Research Design and using the unstructured formal or informal
DESCRIBE SOMETHING 1 Descriptive Research Design procedures to interpret them.
2 Exploratory Research Design - Can be somewhat intuitive and is used by many decision
3 Historical Research Design makers who monitor the performance measures
4 Causal Research Design pertinent to their company or industry.

METHODS AVAILABLE FOR COLLECTING DATA

1. Descriptive Research - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
- Descriptive research uses a set of scientific methods and - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
procedures to collect raw data and create data structures that
describe the existing characteristics of a defined target QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
population. - Aimed at discovering how many people think, act or feel
- Descriptive research design is appropriate when the research in a specific way
objectives include determination of the degree to which the - Places heavy emphasis on using formalized standard
research variables are related to actual phenomena. questions and predetermined response options in
The following types of descriptive research widely used by the questionnaires or surveys administered to a large
researchers are: number of respondents.
A. SURVEY - These methods are more directly related to descriptive
and causal research designs than exploratory designs.
This is used when the objective of the study is to see the general
or specific picture of the population under investigation in terms QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
of knowledge about or behavior towards a certain phenomenon - Concerned with establishing answers to the why’s and
concerning either relatively large population under investigation how’s of the phenomenon in question
called census or with a limited scope which covers only a portion - To gain preliminary insights into decisions problems and
of population under study called sample survey. opportunities
B. CONTENT ANALYSIS - Focused on the collection of detailed amounts of primary
data from relatively small samples of subjects by asking
This is used to describe objectively, systematically and questions or observing behavior.
quantitatively the content of documents found in business 3. HISTORICAL RESEARCH DESIGN
records, minutes of the meeting, speeches, newspapers, journals,
or magazines. A systematic collection and evaluation of data related to past
TYPES OF CONTENT ANALYSIS occurrence which describes causes, effects, or trends that may
Conceptual Analysis help to explain present events and anticipate the future.
- The concept is chosen for examination and the analysis To gather, verify, and integrate data from the past to gain an
involves quantifying and counting its presence. The main understanding of the events and defend or refute a hypothesis
goal is to examine the occurrence of selected terms in given about the time period.
the data. Procedures of historical Research
A. Formulating the problem
Relational Analysis
 - There are several motivations for undertaking historical a.) the project engineer of Toyota company wishes to identify
research. One of these is your doubt about some event, meaningful design changes to be integrated into 2017 toyota
development or experience in the past. corolla car
- Another reason for a historical study may be your
b.) the research and development director of tommy Hilfiger
discovery of new source materials the meaning of which
suggest a new type of cologne for women that could be promoted
will supply answers about past events when you make
your interpretations. by singer like sara Geronimo
- Another source of your problem may be a question
regarding an old interpretation of an existing data; you CHAPTER 6: QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
may want to evolve a new hypothesis which will offer a
more satisfactory explanation of past events.
B. Gathering the Source Materials
- One of your important initial tasks as a historical
researcher is the gathering of the best available data to
solve your problem.
- It is useful to look out for the many varied pieces of
evidence of the activities engaged in by people who lived
in the past.
- It is necessary at this point to be familiar to the different
types of historical sources which you may avail of as you
conduct your data collection.
- Historical sources may be classified as primary or
secondary
C. Criticizing the Source of Materials
- One of the essential responsibilities of a researcher is to
be able to detect whether a document is unintentionally
erroneous or deliberately produced to misinform.
4. CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Designed to collect raw data and create data structures and

information that will allow the researcher to model cause- and-
effect relationships between two or more variables. Seek to
discover the effect that a variable (a) has on another (or others) or
why certain outcomes are obtained. A “produces” B or “forces” B
to occur.
Causal variable or Independent variable
- The “cause:” or it need not be the sole reason for the
“existence of ” , or “ change in “ dependent variable.

Dependent Variable
- The “effect “ the result or the variable that is altered as a
result of the manipulation of the independent variable.

1. what are the 3 critical components for determining data

quality? How does achieving data quality in person-administered
surveys and self-administered surveys?
2. identify the fundamental differences between qualitative
research designs and explain their appropriateness in creating
useful managerial information
3. researches seek causal relationship by either experimental or
ex-post-facto research design. In what ways are these two
approaches similar? In what ways are they different?
4. what impact, if any, will advances in telecommunication and
computer technologies have on survey research practices?
Support your answers
5. what type of exploratory research design (observation, in-depth
international view, and focus group) would you suggest for each
of the following situations and why?