How Digestive system of human works

Human digestive system,

system used in the human body for
the process of digestion. The
digestive system is made up of the
gastrointestinal tract—also called
the GI tract or digestive tract—
and the liver, pancreas, and
gallbladder. The GI tract is a series
of hollow organs joined in a long,
twisting tube from the mouth to
the anus. The hollow organs that
make up the GI tract are the
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and anus.

Structures and functions of the

human digestive system

The digestive tract begins at the lips and ends at the anus. It consists of the mouth, or
oral cavity, with its teeth, for grinding the food, and its tongue, which serves to knead
food and mix it with saliva; the throat, or pharynx; the esophagus; the stomach; the
small intestine, consisting of the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum; and the large
intestine, consisting of the cecum, a closed-end sac connecting with the ileum, the
ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon,
which terminates in the rectum. Glands contributing digestive juices include the
salivary glands, the gastric glands in the stomach lining, the pancreas, and the liver
and its adjuncts—the gallbladder and bile ducts. All of these organs and glands
contribute to the physical and chemical breaking down of ingested food and to the
eventual elimination of nondigestible wastes. Their structures and functions are
described step by step in this section.
Digestion in mouth
Little digestion of food actually takes place in the mouth. The oral cavity is bounded
by the teeth, tongue, hard palate, and soft palate. These structures make up the
mouth and play a key role in the first step of digestion: ingestion. This is where the
teeth and tongue work with salivary glands to break down food into small masses that
can be swallowed, preparing them for the journey through the alimentary canal.
Mechanical Digestion Begins When the Teeth Break Down Ingested Food
The movement of the jaw enables the teeth to grind food into small fragments. The
mandible, or jawbone, is the only bone in the head that moves, and the points where
the temporal bones connect to the
mandible make up the only two
movable joints in the head. The
official name for chewing is
mastication. This is the first step
in mechanical digestion.
Saliva Moistens Food and Begins
the Process of Chemical Digestion
Food is tasted and mixed with
saliva that is secreted by several
sets of glands. Besides the many
minute glands that secrete saliva,
there are three major pairs of
salivary glands: the parotid, the
submandibular, and the sublingual
glands. The parotid glands, the
largest of the pairs, are located at the side
of the face, below and in front of each ear. The parotid glands are enclosed in
sheaths that limit the extent of their swelling when inflamed, as in mumps. The
submandibular glands, which are rounded in shape, lie near the inner side of the
lower jawbone, in front of the sternomastoid muscle (the prominent muscle of the
jaw). The sublingual glands lie directly under the mucous membrane covering the
floor of the mouth beneath the tongue. Saliva, secreted from salivary glands, dissolves
some of the chewed food and acts as a lubricant, facilitating passage through the
subsequent portions of the digestive tract. Saliva also contains a starch-digesting
enzyme called amylase (ptyalin), which initiates the process of enzymatic hydrolysis; it
splits starch (a polysaccharide containing many sugar molecules bound in a
continuous chain) into molecules of the double sugar maltose. Many carnivores, such
as dogs and cats, have no amylase in their saliva; therefore, their natural diet
contains very little starch. Substances must be in solution for the taste buds to be
stimulated; saliva provides the solvent for food materials.

The Tongue Creates a Bolus so It Can Travel Down the Pharynx and Esophagus
The tongue manipulates the chewed food into a
small mass called a bolus, then moves it to the
oropharynx. The next steps are involuntary: the
bolus passes through the pharynx, the epiglottis
closes off the trachea and directs the bolus down
the esophagus, and peristaltic waves move the
bolus into the stomach.

Pharynx
The pharynx (throat) is involved in both
digestion and respiration. It receives
food and air from the mouth, and air
from the nasal cavities. When food
enters the pharynx, involuntary muscle
contractions close off the air
passageways. A short tube of skeletal
muscle lined with a mucous
membrane, the pharynx runs from the
posterior oral and nasal cavities to the
opening of the esophagus and larynx.
It has three subdivisions. The most
superior, the nasopharynx, is involved
only in breathing and speech. The
other two subdivisions, the oropharynx
and the laryngopharynx, are used for
both breathing and digestion. The oropharynx begins inferior to the nasopharynx and
is continuous below with the laryngopharynx. The inferior border of the
laryngopharynx connects to the esophagus, whereas the anterior portion connects to
the larynx, allowing air to flow into the bronchial tree.

Esophagus
The esophagus, which passes food from
the pharynx to the stomach, is about 25
cm (10 inches) in length; the width varies
from 1.5 to 2 cm (about 1 inch). The
esophagus lies behind the trachea and
heart and in front of the spinal column; it
passes through the diaphragm before
entering the stomach. The esophagus
contains four layers—the mucosa,
submucosa, muscularis, and tunica
adventitia. Except during the act of
swallowing, the esophagus is normally
empty, and its lumen, or channel, is
essentially closed by the longitudinal folds
of the mucosal and submucosal layers.
Transport through the esophagus is
accomplished by the primary esophageal
peristaltic contractions, originate in the pharynx. These contractions are produced by
an advancing peristaltic wave that creates a pressure gradient and sweeps
the bolus ahead of it. Transport of material through the esophagus takes
approximately 10 seconds. When the bolus arrives at the junction with the stomach,
the lower esophageal sphincter relaxes and the bolus enters the stomach.
Stomach
The stomach receives ingested
food and liquids from the
esophagus and retains them for
grinding and mixing with gastric
juice so that food particles are
smaller and more soluble. The
main functions of the stomach
are to commence the digestion
of carbohydrates and proteins, to
convert the meal into chyme,
and to discharge the chyme into
the small intestine periodically as
the physical and chemical
condition of the mixture is
rendered suitable for the next
phase of digestion. The inner
surface of the stomach is lined by a mucous membrane known as the gastric
mucosa. The mucosa is always covered by a layer of thick mucus that is secreted by
tall columnar epithelial cells. The human stomach is subdivided into four regions: the
fundus, an expanded area curving up above the cardiac opening (the opening from
the stomach into the esophagus); the body, or intermediate region, the central and
largest portion; the antrum, the lowermost, somewhat funnel-shaped portion of the
stomach; and the pylorus, a narrowing where the stomach joins the small intestine.
Each of the openings, the cardiac and the pyloric, has a sphincter muscle that keeps
the neighbouring region closed, except when food is passing through. In this manner,
food is enclosed by the stomach until ready for digestion.Gastric mucus is a
glycoprotein that serves two purposes: the lubrication of food masses in order to
facilitate movement within the stomach and the formation of a protective layer over
the lining epithelium of the stomach cavity. The gastric mucosa secretes 1.2 to 1.5
litres of gastric juice per day. Gastric juice renders food particles soluble, initiates
digestion (particularly of proteins), and converts the gastric contents to a semiliquid
mass called chyme, thus preparing it for further digestion in the small intestine. Gastric
juice is a variable mixture of water, hydrochloric acid, electrolytes (sodium, potassium,
calcium, phosphate, sulfate, and bicarbonate), and organic substances (mucus,
pepsins, and protein). The process of gastric secretion can be divided into three
phases (cephalic, gastric, and intestinal) that depend upon the primary mechanisms
that cause the gastric mucosa to secrete gastric juice. The cephalic phase of gastric
secretion occurs in response to stimuli received by the senses—that is, taste, smell,
sight, and sound. The gastric phase is mediated by the vagus nerve and by the
release of gastrin. Gastric juice secretion continues in the intestinal phase while food is
slowly passing from the stomach into the duodenum.

Protein digestion
The process of protein digestion starts in the stomach. HCl slowly denatures proteins
(for example, actin and myosin from meat), causing structural changes that expose

the peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids. This enhances subsequent
chemical digestion by proteases. Activated pepsin present in the gastric juice cleaves
the initial protein molecules (which can consist of thousands of amino acids) into
smaller chains called polypeptides. Pepsin is referred to as an endopeptidase
because it acts predominantly by attacking the peptide bonds in the centre of
proteins to create polypeptides, which are further broken down in subsequent regions
of the GI tract.

Formation of chyme
When food is present, the muscular layer of the stomach wall – known as the
muscularis – undergoes regular rhythmic contractions that help mix the food with the
gastric secretions to speed up the process of chemical digestion. The muscularis
consists of the same circular and longitudinal layers of smooth muscle found in other
gut regions, but it also possesses an additional inner layer of oblique smooth muscle
fibres. These three layers of muscle allow the stomach to perform the vigorous
churning motions that are essential for efficient mechanical digestion. Gradually, most
solid pieces of food are mechanically and chemically digested, resulting in a semi-
solid, thick and soupy material called chyme.
Small intestine
The small intestine, which is 670 to 760 cm (22 to
25 feet) in length and 3 to 4 cm (about 2
inches) in diameter, is the longest part of the
digestive tract. It begins at the pylorus, the
juncture with the stomach, and ends at the
ileocecal valve, the juncture with the colon.
The main functional segments of the small
intestine are the duodenum, the jejunum, and
the ileum.

Duodenum
Duodenum, the first part of the small intestine,
which receives partially digested food from the
stomach and begins the absorption of
nutrients. A liquid mixture of food and
gastric secretions enters the superior
duodenum from the pylorus of the
stomach, triggering the release of
pancreas-stimulating hormones (e.g.,
secretin) from glands in the duodenal wall.
So-called Brunner glands in the superior
segment provide additional secretions that
help to lubricate and protect the mucosal
layer of the small intestine. Upon reaching
the ampulla of Vater in the middle of the
duodenum, chyme is mixed with bile from
the liver and gallbladder, as well as
pancreatic juice produced by the
pancreas. These secretions complete the
process of chemical digestion that began in the mouth and stomach by breaking
complex macromolecules into their basic units. Bile produced in the liver and stored in
the gallbladder acts as an emulsifier, breaking lipids into smaller globules to increase
their surface area. Pancreatic juice contains many enzymes to break carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins and nucleic acids into their monomer subunits. For example,
pancreatic lipase breaks triglycerides, or fats, into glycerol and fatty acids that can
be absorbed into the bloodstream by the intestinal wall. These secretions are
thoroughly mixed with the chyme by contractions of the duodenum until all of the
digestible material is chemically digested.
Slow waves of smooth muscle contraction known as peristalsis flow down the length
of the gastrointestinal tract to push chyme through the duodenum. Each wave begins
at the stomach and pushes chyme a short distance toward the jejunum. It takes
many peristaltic contractions over the course of an hour for chyme to travel through
the entire length of the duodenum. Small regional contractions of the intestinal wall,
known as segmentations, help to mix chyme with the digestive secretions in the
duodenum and increase the rate of digestion. Segmentations also increase the
contact of chyme with the mucosal cells to increase the absorption of nutrients
through the intestinal wall.

Jejunum and ileum

The primary function of the jejunum is to absorb sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids.
Both the jejunum and ileum are peritoneal.
The ileum absorbs any remaining nutrients that did not get absorbed by the
duodenum or jejunum, in particular vitamin B12, as well as bile acids that will go on to
be recycled.
Large intestine (colon)
The large intestine, or colon, serves
as a reservoir for the liquids
emptied into it from the small
intestine. The large intestine can
be divided into the cecum,
ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending colon, and sigmoid
colon. The primary functions of the
colon are to absorb water; to
maintain osmolality, or level of
solutes, of the blood by excreting
and absorbing electrolytes
(substances, such as sodium and
chloride, that in solution take on
an electrical charge) from the
chyme; and to store fecal material
until it can be evacuated by
defecation. The large intestine also secretes mucus, which aids in lubricating the
intestinal contents and facilitates their transport through the bowel. The colon also
contains large numbers of bacteria that synthesize niacin (nicotinic acid), thiamin
(vitamin B1) and vitamin K, vitamins that are essential to several metabolic activities
as well as to the function of the central nervous system.
Rectum
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is
an 8-inch chamber that
connects the colon to the anus.
It is the rectum's job to receive
stool from the colon, to let you
know there is stool to be
evacuated, and to hold the
stool until evacuation happens.
When anything (gas or stool)
comes into the rectum, sensors
send a message to the brain.
The brain then decides if the
rectal contents can be released
or not. If they can, the sphincters
(muscles) relax and the rectum
contracts, expelling its contents.
If the contents cannot be
expelled, the sphincters contract
and the rectum
accommodates, so that the
sensation temporarily goes
away.

Anus

The anus is the last part of the

digestive tract. It consists of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters
(internal and external muscles). The lining of the upper anus is specialized to detect
rectal contents. It lets us know whether the contents are liquid, gas, or solid. The pelvic
floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from
coming out when it is not supposed to. The anal sphincters provide fine control of
stool. The internal sphincter keeps us from going to the bathroom when we are
asleep, or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool. When we get an urge to go to
the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to keep the stool in until we can get
to the toilet.
Accessory organs of digestion
Chemical digestion in the small intestine relies on the activities of three accessory
digestive organs: the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder (see Figure 15.8). The digestive
role of the liver is to produce bile and export it to the duodenum. The gallbladder
primarily stores, concentrates, and
releases bile. The pancreas produces
pancreatic juice, which contains
digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions,
and delivers it to the duodenum.
Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body,
weighing about three pounds in an
adult. It is also one of the most important
organs. In addition to being an
accessory digestive organ, it plays a
number of roles in metabolism and
regulation. The liver lies inferior to the
diaphragm in the right upper quadrant
of the abdominal cavity and receives
protection from the surrounding ribs.

The liver is divided into two primary lobes: a large right lobe and a much smaller left
lobe. In the right lobe, some anatomists also identify an inferior quadrate lobe and a
posterior caudate lobe, which are defined by internal features. The liver is connected
to the abdominal wall and diaphragm by five peritoneal folds referred to as
ligaments.

The porta hepatis (“gate to the liver”) is where the hepatic artery and hepatic portal
vein enter the liver. These two vessels, along with the common hepatic duct, run
behind the lateral border of the lesser omentum on the way to their destinations. The
hepatic portal vein delivers partially deoxygenated blood containing nutrients
absorbed from the small intestine and actually supplies more oxygen to the liver than
do the much smaller hepatic arteries. In addition to nutrients, drugs and toxins are also
absorbed. After processing the bloodborne nutrients and toxins, the liver releases
nutrients needed by other cells back into the blood, which drains into the central vein
and then through the hepatic vein to the inferior vena cava. With this hepatic portal
circulation, all blood from the alimentary canal passes through the liver. This largely
explains why the liver is the most common site for the metastasis of cancers that
originate in the alimentary canal.

Bile produced by the liver is a mixture secreted by the liver to accomplish the
emulsification of lipids in the small intestine.

Bilirubin, the main bile pigment, is a waste product produced when the spleen
removes old or damaged red blood cells from the circulation. These breakdown
products, including proteins, iron, and toxic bilirubin, are transported to the liver via
the splenic vein of the hepatic portal system. In the liver, proteins and iron are
recycled, whereas bilirubin is excreted in the bile. It accounts for the green color of
bile. Bilirubin is eventually transformed by intestinal bacteria into stercobilin, a brown
pigment that gives your stool its characteristic color! In some disease states, bile does
not enter the intestine, resulting in white (‘acholic’) stool with a high fat content, since
virtually no fats are broken down or absorbed.

Between meals, bile is produced but conserved. The valve-like hepatopancreatic

ampulla closes, allowing bile to divert to the gallbladder, where it is concentrated
and stored until the next meal.
Pancreas
The soft, oblong, glandular pancreas lies
transversely in the retroperitoneum behind
the stomach. Its head is nestled into the “c-
shaped” curvature of the duodenum with
the body extending to the left about 15.2
cm (6 in) and ending as a tapering tail in
the hilum of the spleen. It is a curious mix of
exocrine (secreting digestive enzymes) and
endocrine (releasing hormones into the
blood) functions
The exocrine part of the pancreas arises as
little grape-like cell clusters, each called an
acinus (plural = acini), located at the
terminal ends of pancreatic ducts. These acinar cells secrete enzyme-rich pancreatic
juice into tiny merging ducts that form two dominant ducts. The larger duct fuses with
the common bile duct (carrying bile from the liver and gallbladder) just before
entering the duodenum via a common opening (the hepatopancreatic ampulla).
The smooth muscle sphincter of the hepatopancreatic ampulla controls the release
of pancreatic juice and bile into the small intestine. The second and smaller
pancreatic duct, the accessory duct (duct of Santorini), runs from the pancreas
directly into the duodenum, approximately 1 inch above the hepatopancreatic
ampulla. When present, it is a persistent remnant of pancreatic development.

Scattered through the sea of exocrine acini are small islands of endocrine cells, the
islets of Langerhans. These vital cells produce the hormones pancreatic polypeptide,
insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin.
Gallbladder
The gallbladder is 8–10 cm (~3–4 in) long
and is nested in a shallow area on the
posterior aspect of the right lobe of the
liver. This muscular sac stores,
concentrates, and, when stimulated,
propels the bile into the duodenum via the
common bile duct. Bile helps break down
the food you eat.

Bile’s most important role is breaking down

fats. This is the hardest part of food to
digest. Carbohydrates and proteins tend
to break down more easily. Fats need
more chemical interaction in order to be changed into energy.

When you digest fatty food, your gallbladder releases bile. This digestive juice passes
down a narrow tube (the cystic duct). It goes straight into the first section of your small
intestine, just underneath your stomach (the duodenum). There, the strong chemicals
go to work. They break down fatty bits into a liquid form that you can digest.

Group members-Yin Nwe Oo ,Ye Lin Thu ,Ye Myat Thu

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