Federated Faculty for Research in Religion and Culture, Kottayam

Subject: History of Christianity during the Early Medieval Period to the Reformation Period
(600-1700)

Topic: Lutheran Reformation (Life and Work of Martin Luther, Major Theological Themes of
Reformation, Rediscovery of the Gospel, Companions of Luther, The Growth of Lutheranism,
Consolidation of Lutheranism)

Submitted to: Rev. Fr. Dr. Jose John Submitted by: Alex A.

1. Introduction

The act or process of changing a religious, political, or societal institution for the better is called
a reformation. When capitalized, the Reformation refers specifically to the Protestant
Reformation in Europe, which was a religious change instigated in 1517 by Protestants who
wished to reform the Catholic Church. In this paper try to explain life and work of Martin
Luther, major theological themes of reformation, Lutheran reformation and the growth of
Lutheranism.

2. Martin Luther: The Pioneer of Reformation

Martin Luther stands out most vividly among the historical figures associated with the western
reformation. He is known as ‘the father of reformation’. He inaugurated an era of reformation
in Germany which spread to other countries like Switzerland, France, Holland, Sweden,
England and Scotland. Martin Luther was a German, born at Eisleben in Saxony on November
10, 1483.1 He was a priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, professor, and Augustinian friar.
He is the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation whose followers became known
as Lutherans.2 His parents Hans and Margaret Luther named him Martin Luther, because he
was baptized on St. Martin’s Day. Luther’s parents were peasant but following his birth they
moved to Mansfeld.

Luther was ordained to the priesthood in 1507. Luther proposed an academic discussion of the
practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His refusal to renounce

1 Scott H. Hendrix, Luther and the Papacy: Stages in a Reformation Conflict. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981),
1.
2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther. Accessed on 27th February 2023, 9.45pm.
all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X3 in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles
V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and
condemnation as an outlaw by the Holy Roman Emperor. Pope Leo X's excommunicated him
in 1921. Luther died on18 February 1546.

3. Factors Contributing to Reformation

The Protestant reformation in the 16th century was not a result of single event or reason but
numerous complex reasons. The immediate precipitating reason for Protestant Reformation
was religious but there were other factors such as economic, social, political and intellectual.

3.1.Religious and Ecclesiastical Factors

Simply we can say reformation as a reaction to the papal supremacy. The ecclesiastical
supremacy was gradually interpreted to mean that the Bishop of Rome was the one or universal
bishop in whom all spiritual and ecclesiastical powers were summed. 4 During the fourteenth
century the papacy endeavoured to obtain a more complete control over ecclesiastical
appointments 5. The Pope John XXII (1316-1334) belongs the credit or discredit of creating for
the Papacy a machinery for gathering in money for its support. The practice of Indulgences 6
pervaded the whole penitential system of the later mediaeval Church.

3.1.1. Crisis of Indulgence

Indulgences began as gifts of money given to the clergy in appreciation or gratitude for
forgiveness of sins. People would pay for indulgence to prove to the church and others that
they were truly repentant for their sins. John Tetzel, a Dominican monk appointed by
Archbishop Albert von Hohenzollern to sell indulgences to people. 7 He was bishop of
Brandenburg and purchased the archbishopric of Mainz for 10000 ducats borrowing from the
Fugger bank in Augsburg. To repay the funds he borrowed, Pope Leo X authorised him to sell
indulgences in Germany. Albert hired Johann Tetzel who had a great reputation as an

3 Pope Leo X, born December 11, 1475, Florence [Italy]—died December 1, 1521, Rome, one of the
leading Renaissance popes (reigned 1513–21). He made Rome a cultural centre and a political power, but
he depleted the papal treasury, and, by failing to take the developing Reformation seriously, he contributed to the
dissolution of the Western church. Leo excommunicated Martin Luther in 1521.
4 Thomas A. Lindsay, A History of the Reformation. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1917), 7.
5 Thomas A. Lindsay, A History of the Reformation…, 9.
6 An indulgence is the full or partial remission of temporal punishment for sins after the sinner confesses and

receives absolution. Under Catholic teaching, every sin must be purified either here on earth or after death in a
state called purgatory.
7 Andrew Miller, Miller’s Church History Vol.2. (New Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2015), 632.
indulgence seller and sent him near Wittenberg.8 The money he raised would to go paying the
debt of Albert and also to finance the new Saint Peter’s Basilica, which was under construction
in Rome. But we can’t say reformation as a purely religious movement.

3.2.Political Factors

The origins of the transformation of the evangelical movement into Protestantism lie in the
middle years of the 1520s: the beginning of organized Catholic resistance in 1524, the German
Peasants’ War between 1524 and 1526, and the imperial diet of Speyer in 1526.9 At Speyer the
imperial diet (parliament) formulated the kernel of what would become the basis for a political
treatment of the religious schism in the provision that each ruler should act ‘in such a way as
he will be responsible to God and the emperor’

4. Trumpet Call of the Reformation

In 1508, Luther was sent to the University of Wittenberg10 to lecture in arts. While Luther was
teaching in the university, he was also preparing for his doctorate of theology at the advice of
Johann Staupitz.11 After teaching the winter term of 1508 Luther returned to the University of
Erfurt in October 1509 to press on with his theological studies. From November 1510 to April
1511, Luther and a fellow monk from Erfurt journeyed to Rome because Johann Staupitz
wanted to introduce some reforms in the monastery but the other members were not
cooperating with him to solve the issue. They were sent to consult Rome. In Rome Luther was
shocked to see the clergy leading a worldly and scandalous lifestyle unknown to monks in
Germany.12 On October 19, 1512, Luther received his doctorate in theology and was appointed
to succeed Staupitz as professor of theology at Wittenberg. The University of Wittenberg
played an important role in the development of reformation, for it was Luther began to study,
teach and preach the scriptures in their original language. 13 Luther also used the Erasmus’s
Greek Testament which was published in 1516.

The famous image of Luther nailing his 95 Theses to the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg
on 31 October 1517. After 1518, his 95 Theses were translated from Latin to German and

8
A. Jayakumar, History of Reformation Period…, 57.
9 https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-christianity/emergence-and-
consolidation-of-protestantism-in-the-holy-roman-empire-to-1600/8C89FB2E8BBC645C70C9B9B9B4C5EAB3.
Accessed on 27/02/2023, 11.24pm
10 Wittenberg University founded on 18th October,1502 by the elector Frederick the Wise.
11 Andrew Miller, Miller’s Church History Vol.2. (New Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2015), 621.
12
A. Jayakumar, History of Reformation Period. (Kolkatta: SCEPTRE, 2014), 54.
13 A. Jayakumar, History of Reformation Period…, 55.
spread throughout Germany. Ninety-five Theses, propositions for debate concerned with the
question of indulgences,14 This event came to be considered the beginning of
the Protestant Reformation. Many of clergy received hand-written copies of the 95
Theses from December 1517 through March 1518, contradicting Luther's claim that only one
copy of his disputations had been sent to his archbishop and that he only intended the theses
for scholarly debate by local clergy. Evidence suggests that Luther was already presenting
himself as God's instrument in reforming the Church at this time. The 95 Theses were so
instantly popular and influential, Melanchthon may have felt they required a more dramatic
appearance and so created the story.

5. Major Theological Themes of Reformation

Luther developed the theology of the Reformation in Germany, but Melanchthon systematized
and clarified it. The most famous examples of this are the Loci communes rerum theologicarum
seu hypotyposes theological ("Common Places in Theology") of 1521, outlining fundamental
doctrine, and the Augsburg Confession of 1530,15 which became the confession of faith for
Lutherans and the fundamental text of Protestantism.

The reformation theology based on the famous “alone” formulas: faith alone, grace alone,
Christ alone and the scripture alone. 16 Sola fide, sola scriptura, solus Christus, sola gratia:
through Faith alone, by Scripture alone, in Christ alone, by Grace alone! These four maxims,
which had already been developed by 1521, astutely summaries the theology of Martin Luther.

5.1.By Faith Alone

The essential inspiration of the Reformation is to be found in the insistence of the reformers on
the doctrine of justification.17 Faith is the human response to Christ, the acceptance of a

14
Thomas A. Lindsay, A History of the Reformation. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1917), 215.
15 Augsburg Confession, Latin Confessio Augustana, the 28 articles that constitute the basic confession of
the Lutheran churches. The Augsburg Confession was presented June 25, 1530, in German and Latin at the Diet
of Augsburg to the emperor Charles V by seven Lutheran princes and two imperial free cities. The principal author
was the reformer Philipp Melanchthon, who drew on earlier Lutheran statements of faith. The purpose was to
defend the Lutherans against misrepresentations and to provide a statement of their theology that would be
acceptable to the Roman Catholics. On August 3 the Catholic theologians replied with the Confutation, which
condemned 13 articles of the Confession, accepted 9 without qualifications, and approved 6 with qualifications.
The emperor refused to receive a Lutheran counter-reply offered on September 22, but Melanchthon used it as the
basis for his Apology of the Augsburg Confession (1531).
16
Heinrich Bornkamm, Translated by John W. Doberstein, The Heart of Reformation Faith: The Fundamental
Axioms of Evangelical Belief. (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1965), 16.
17 Harold O.J. Brown, Heresis: Heresy and Orthodoxy in the History of Church. (Massachusetts: Hendrickson

Publishers, 1984), 305.

righteousness which cannot come from ourselves and which we do not merit.18 It carries with
it love for him who has given it to us.

5.2.Grace Alone

Luther affirmed that Jesus Christ, without the saviour, there is neither salvation nor deliverance.
Grace is the gift of that deliverance, the divine act by which the holiness with which Christ is
holy overflows on to sinners. 19

5.3.Scripture Alone

Luther emphasized the authority of the scriptures above the Pope. For him Bible was
supreme.20 If the Protestantism was born in a rediscovery of the Bible, it has been nourished
on its study. The Reformation gave an immense impetus to the translation of Scriptures into
the vernacular tongues and the newly invented printing press. All the reformed churches
exerted themselves to see that their people knew their Bibles. The protestant church schools
the Bible is the main text. 21 The reformers read the Bible not only for themselves but in a new
way and with a new understanding. They considered Bible as an ever-living word of God.

5.4.Systematization of Reformation Theology

Melanchthon had embarked on the Loci Communes22 (Common Places), his great work of
systematization of Reformation theology, which would create a doctrinal corpus for the new
movement.23 Luther's respect for the younger man grew, and as he read Melanchthon's drafts
in Wartburg, he would repeatedly state that Melanchthon was the better scholar.

The Loci communes is an in-depth discussion of the major points of Saint Paul's Epistle to the
Romans. It emphasized the importance of faith over good works and noting how medieval

18 George H. Tavard, Protestantism. (London: Burns & Oates, 1959), 19.

19 George H. Tavard, Protestantism…, 19.
20 William G. Chanter, “Protestantism and the Bible.” Edited by William K. Anderson, Protestantism: A

Symposium. (Nashville: Commission on Courses of Study, The Methodist Church, 1944), 138.
21 William G. Chanter, “Protestantism and the Bible”…, 146.
22
Loci communes or Loci communes rerum theologicarum seu hypotyposes theologicae (Latin for Common
Places in Theology or Fundamental Doctrinal Themes) was a work by the Lutheran theologian Philipp
Melanchthon published in 1521. The other, modified editions were produced during the life of the author in 1535,
1543 and 1559. Martin Luther said of it, "Next to Holy Scripture, there is no better book," and its existence is
often given as a reason that Luther never wrote a systematic theology of his own. In an overture to the English
king, Henry VIII, to gain the English crown as converts to Lutheran Protestantism, Melanchthon provided a
dedication to the king in one of his printed editions. The book lays out Christian doctrine by discussing the "leading
thoughts" from the Epistle to the Romans, and they were intended to guide the reader to a proper understanding
of the Bible in general.
23 Thomas Pallippurathukunnel, Church History Christianity Through the Centuries. (Delhi: Media House, 2013),

309.
church policy deviated from scripture. The Loci communes became the systematic theology of
the Protestant Reformation, not only in Germany but also elsewhere. Philip Melanchthon
composed the Augsburg Confession as a statement of faith and tried to compromise on different
points.

6. Companions of Luther

Luther's most important supporters, from Katharina von Bora to Philipp Melanchthon.
Alongside Luther, Philipp Melanchthon24 is the second great reformer from Wittenberg.
Melanchthon Appointed as a professor of Greek at the University of Wittenberg in 1518, the
polymath became Luther's close comrade-in-arms in the Reformation. Philipp Melanchthon
(1497-1560) was a German scholar and theologian who provided the intellectual rationale and
systematized theology for the reformed vision of Christianity of his friend Martin Luther25. He
was always overshadowed by Luther, but the Protestant Reformation would not have
developed or succeeded as it did without him.

After Luther died in 1546, Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation in Germany,
though his position was challenged as he was thought to have compromised with the Catholic
Church. He continued to write and carry on the work of the Reformation until his death in 1560.
Melanchthon is remembered as the stabilizing force counterbalancing Luther's passionate call
for reform and, later, break with the Church.

7. Growth of Lutheranism

Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the
theology of Martin Luther. During the Reformation, Lutheranism became the state religion of
numerous states of northern Europe, especially in northern Germany, Scandinavia and the
then-Livonian Order26. Lutheran clergy became civil servants and the Lutheran churches
became part of the state.

24 Melanchthon was the great-nephew of the humanist scholar Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522) who influenced his
love of learning and was instrumental in securing Melanchthon's position as Professor of Greek at Wittenberg in
1518. Melanchthon already knew of Luther by reputation, but at Wittenberg, they would become close friends
and co-reformers.
25 Schaff Philip, History of the Christian Church, Volume VII. The German Reformation. (Grand Rapids: Christian

Classics Ethereal Library, 1882), 110.

26 The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after their defeat by Samogitians

in 1236 at the Battle of Schaulen (Saule). They were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights and became known
as the Livonian Order in 1237.
The split between the Lutherans and the Roman Catholics was made public and clear with the
1521 Edict of Worms: the edicts of the Diet condemned Luther and officially banned citizens
of the Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas, subjecting advocates of
Lutheranism to forfeiture of all property, half of the seized property to be forfeited to the
imperial government and the remaining half forfeit to the party who brought the accusation.
According to Alister E. McGrath, “the Lutheran Reformation really began in 1522, when
Luther returned to Wittenberg from his enforced isolation in the Wartburg. Luther had
been condemned by the Diet of Worms in 1521.”27 Fearing for his life, certain
well-placed supporters removed him in secrecy to the castle known as the
“Wartburg,” until the threat to his safety ceased.

Lutheranism had success where there was a strong Germanic element the Scandinavian
countries, where the king of Denmark and Sweden imposed Lutheranism on their churches in
1537 and 1540 respectively. In 1525 the Teutonic King proclaimed himself Duke Albert and
turned his new duchy Lutheran. 28

8. Consolidation of Lutheranism

When the Reformation king, Christian III, died in 1559, an era had come to an end. By then
most of the evangelical/Lutheran theologians who had worked for the Reformation in Denmark
had either died or were to pass away within the next couple of years.

Christian III was succeeded by his son, Frederik II (1559–88), who differed substantially from
his father. Christian had been a godly and politically cautious monarch, whose reign had been
determined to a large extent by the economic restraints imposed by the civil war (1534–6)
which had preceded his accession to the throne in 1536. Frederik II proved both politically and
militarily far more adventurous. He may not have differed from his father in religious outlook,
but in personal commitment he did, and he was less directly involved in the affairs of the new
Lutheran church in Denmark and Norway than his father had been. Frederik's reign was
characterised by the growing influence of the nobility, which was the only estate represented
on the Council after the Reformation. In spite of having been hailed as his father's successor in
Denmark in 1542, and in Norway in 1548, Frederik II had to accept a coronation charter in
August 1559 which confirmed and augmented the power of the nobility.

27 Alister E. McGrath, Reformation Thought: An Introduction. (Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1988),
7.
28 A. Jayakumar, History of Reformation Period..., 72.
German Protestantism formed, instead, two communities of religious belief and practices, or
confessions, the Lutheran and the Reformed or ‘Calvinist’. Their legal coexistence with the old
church was framed in 1555 by the Religious Peace of Augsburg and revised in 1648 by the
Peace of Westphalia. This outcome was essentially complete by 1600.

9. Conclusion

The Reformation was the start of Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into
Protestantism and what is now the Roman Catholic Church. It is also considered to be one of
the events that signified the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern
period in Europe.The Protestant Reformation led to modern democracy, skepticism, capitalism,
individualism, civil rights, and many of the modern values we cherish today. The Protestant
Reformation impacted nearly every academic discipline, notably the social sciences like
economics, philosophy, and history.
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