*************** My Work The Structure of Metals

**********

.Ionic bonds----When one or more electrons from an

outer orbit are transferred from one material to
another, a strong attractive force develops between the
two ions. -------NaCl .
.Covalent bonds-- ln a covalent bond, the electrons
in outer orbits are shared by atoms to form molecules.
The number of electrons shared is reflected by terms
such as “single bond,” “double bond,” etc.
.Metallic bonds---Metals have relatively few
electrons in their outer orbits; thus, they cannot
complete the outer shell of other self-mated atoms.
Instead, metals and alloys form metallic bonds,
whereby the available electrons are shared by all atoms
in contact. The resultant electron cloud provides
attractive forces to hold the atoms together and results
in generally high thermal and electrical conductivity.
----In addition to the strong attractive forces associated
with electrons, weak or secondary attractions occur
between molecules. Also referred to as
van der Waals forces,
. When metals solidify from a molten state, the
atoms arrange themselves into various orderly
configurations, called crystals; this atomic
arrangement is called crystal structure or crystalline
structure.
.The smallest group of atoms showing the
characteristic lattice structure of a particular metal is
known as a unit cell.

.The following are the three basic atomic

arrangements in metals:---
l. Body-centered cubic (bcc); examples: alpha iron,
chromium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, and
vanadium.
2. Face-centered cubic (fcc); examples: gamma iron,
aluminum, copper, nickel, lead, silver, gold, and
platinum.

3. Hexagonal close-packed (hcp); examples: beryllium,

cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, alpha titanium, zinc, and
zirconium.

.ln the three structures illustrated, the hcp crystals

have the most densely packed configurations, followed
by fcc and then bcc.
Hcp > fcc > bcc
.All three arrangements can be modified by adding
atoms of some other metal or metals, known as
alloying, often to improve various properties of the
metal.
.Allotropism or polymorphism (meaning “many
shapes”) :- The appearance of more than one type of
crystal structure is known as allotropism or
polymorphism .
.However, most metals used in manufacturing are
polycrystalline .
.When a single crystal is subjected to an external
force, it first undergoes elastic deformation; that is, it
returns to its original shape when the force is removed.
. the force on the crystal structure is increased
sufficiently, the crystal undergoes plastic deformation
or permanent deformation; that is, it does not return
to its original shape when the force is removed.
.There are two basic mechanisms by which plastic
deformation takes place in crystal
structures. One is the slipping of
one plane of atoms over an
adjacent plane (called the slip
plane) under a shear stress .
-- The shear stress required to cause slip in single
crystals is directly proportional to the ratio b/a
(where a is the spacing of the atomic planes and b is
inversely proportional to the atomic density in the
atomic plane. )
. Twinning--The second and less
common mechanism of plastic
deformation in crystals is twinning, in
which a portion of the crystal forms a
mirror image of itself across the plane of
twinning .
--Twins form abruptly and are the cause of the creaking
sound (“tin cry”) that occurs when a tin or zinc rod is
bent at room temperature. Twinning usually occurs in
hcp metals.

.Slip Systems :- The combination of a slip plane and

its direction of slip is known as a slip system. In general,
metals with 5 or more slip systems are ductile, whereas
those with fewer than 5 slip systems are not.
1/. In body-centered cubic (BCC )crystals- there are 48
possible slip systems. Because of the relatively high b/a
ratio in this crystal,
---Metals with bcc structures generally have good
strength and moderate ductility, but can have high
ductility at elevated temperatures.

2/.In face-centered cubic (FCC) crystals- there are 12

slip systems. because of the relatively low b/a ratio .
---These metals generally have moderate strength and
good ductility.
3/.The hexagonal close-packed (HCP) crystal-- has 3 slip
systems and therefore has a low probability of slip;
--Metals with hcp structures are generally brittle at
room temperature.

. Imperfections (defects ) in the Crystal Structure of

Metals :-
1/. Point defects, such as a vacancy (missing
atom), an interstitial atom (extra atom in the
lattice), or an impurity (foreign atom that has
replaced the atom of the pure metal)
2/. Linear , or one-dimensional, defects,
called dislocations
3/. Planar, or two-dimensional, imperfections, such as
grain boundaries and phase boundaries
4/. Volume, or bulk, imperfections, such as voids,
inclusions (nonmetallic elements such as oxides,
sulfides, and silicates), other phases, or cracks.
. structure sensitive :- Mechanical and electrical
properties of metals, such as yield stress, fracture
strength, and electrical conductivity, are adversely
affected by defects; these properties are known as
structure sensitive.
. structure insensitive ;- By contrast, physical and
chemical properties, such as melting point, specific
heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, and elastic
constants (e.g., modulus of elasticity and modulus of
rigidity), are not sensitive to these defects; these
properties are known as structure insensitive.

.Work Hardening (Strain Hardening) :--- The

increased shear stress required to overcome
entanglements and impediments results in an increase
in the overall strength and the hardness of the metal
and is known as work hardening or strain hardening.
--The greater the deformation, the greater is the
number of entanglements and hence the higher the
increase in the metal’s strength.
--Work hardening is used extensively for strengthening
in metalworking processes at ambient temperatures.

. Grains and Grain Boundaries :--

--When a mass of molten metal begins to solidify,
crystals begin to form independently
-- Each of these crystals then grows into a crystalline
structure, or grain.
--Each grain consists of either a single crystal (for pure
metals) or a polycrystalline aggregate (for alloys).
--If the nucleation rate is high, the number of grains in
a unit volume of metal will be large, and thus grain size
will be small.
--Conversely, if the rate of growth of the crystals is high
(compared with their nucleation rate), there will be
fewer grains per unit volume, and thus grain size will be
larger.
--- Generally, rapid cooling produces smaller grains,
whereas slow cooling produces larger grains.
. Grain boundaries --The surfaces that
separate these individual grains are
called grain boundaries.
.Grain size has a major influence on the mechanical
properties of metals.
--At room temperature, a large grain size is generally
associated with low strength, low hardness, and low
ductility.
--Grain sizes between 5 and 8 are generally considered
fine grained.
--A grain size of 7 is generally acceptable for sheet
metals for making car bodies, appliances, and kitchen
utensils .
. Hot shortness :- Hot shortness is caused by local
melting of a constituent or of an impurity in the grain
boundary at a temperature below the melting point of
the metal itself.
--- To avoid hot shortness, the metal is usually worked
at a lower temperature in order to prevent softening
and melting along the grain boundaries.
. Temper embrittlement :- Another form of
embrittlement is temper embrittlement in alloy steels,
which is caused by segregation (movement) of
impurities to the grain boundaries .
. When a polycrystalline metal with uniform
equiaxed grains (grains having equal dimensions in all
directions) is subjected to plastic deformation at room
temperature (a process known as cold working), the
grains become deformed and elongated.
-- plastic deformation at room temperature --- increase
in strength, and a decrease in ductility.
. Anisotropy (Texture) :- plastic deformation, the
grains have elongated in one direction and contracted
in the other. Consequently, this piece of metal has
become anisotropic, and thus its properties in the
vertical direction are different from those in the
horizontal direction.

. Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth :-

. Recovery--During recovery, which occurs at a
certain temperature range below the recrystallization
temperature of the metal
. Recrystallization-- This is the process in which,
within a certain temperature range, new equiaxed and
strain-free grains are formed, replacing the older
grains.
.Grain growth ---If the temperature of the metal is
raised further, the grains begin to grow, and their size
may eventually exceed the original grain size; called
grain growth
---Large grains also produce a rough surface
appearance on sheet metals, called orange peel .
.Cold working refers to plastic deformation that is
usually, but not necessarily, carried out at room
temperature.
.Hot working -- When deformation occurs above the
recrystallization temperature, it is called hot working.
.Warm working-- is carried out at intermediate
temperatures; thus, warm working is a compromise
between cold and hot working .
*************** Heat Treatment ************

. Heat Treatment --- To improves properties (such as

strength, hardness, ductility, toughness, and resistance

to Wear ) by heating and cooling is called heat

treatment .

.Pure metals :- the atoms are all of the same type

. Alloy :- An alloy is composed of two or more
chemical elements, at least one of which is a metal.
--Alloying consists of two basic forms:
1. solid solutions and 2. interrnetailic cornpounds.
.Solid Solutions :- Two terms are essential in
describing alloys: solute and solvent . In terms of the
elements involved in a crystal structure, the solute
(composed of solute atoms) is the element that is
added to the solvent (composed of host atoms).
–Two Types -- Substitutional Solid Solutions and
Interstitial Solid Solutions
.Substitutional Solid Solutions :- If the size of the
solute atom is similar to that of the solvent atom, the
solute atoms can replace solvent atoms and form a
substitutional solid solution .
Ex—brass ( zinc and copper )

--Two conditions are generally required to form

complete substitutional solid solutions:
1/. The two metals must have similar crystal structures,
2/. The difference in their atomic radii should be less
than 15%.

. Interstitial Solid Solutions :-- If the size of the

solute atom is much smaller than that of the solvent
atom, each solute atom can occupy an interstitial
position; such a process forms an interstitial solid
solution.
Ex--- steel
-- There are two conditions necessary for forming
interstitial solutions:--
1/. The solvent atom must have more than one valence
electron
2/. The atomic radius of the solute atom must be less
than 59% of the atomic radius for the solvent atom.

. Intermetallic Compounds :-- Intermetallic

compounds are complex structures consisting of two
metals in which solute atoms are present among
solvent atoms in certain proportions.
-- This type of atomic bond may range from metallic to
ionic.
-- intermetallic compounds are strong, hard, and
brittle.
-- Because of their high melting points, strength at
elevated temperatures, good oxidation resistance, and
relatively low density .
-- ex--- aluminides of titanium (Ti3Al), nickel (Ni3Al), and
iron (Fe3Al).
. A phase is defined as a physically distinct and
homogeneous portion in a material; each phase is a
homogeneous part of the total mass and has its own
characteristics and properties.

. Phase Diagrams :--

. A phase diagram, also called an equilibrium or
constitutional diagram,
. Pure metals have clearly defined melting or freezing
points, and solidification takes place at a constant
temperature .
. alloys solidify over a range of temperatures .
-- Solidification begins when the temperature of the
molten metal drops below the liquidus; it is completed
when the temperature reaches the solidus.
-- Within this temperature range, the alloy is in a
mushy or pasty state;
. binary phase diagram -- because there are two
elements .
.Iron-iron-carbide phase diagram :----- *****
.The iron-carbon system is described, including the
techniques employed to evaluate and modify the
properties of these important materials for specific
applications.
. Various forms of Iron in phase Diagram – i.e
1./ Alpha ferrite ( α-ferrite )
2/. Delta ferrite ( δ-ferrite)
3/. Austenite ( gamma iron ('y-iron ))
4/. Cementite ( Fe3C )
. eutectoid point :-- In the Fe-C system, there is a
eutectoid point at approximately 0.8wt% C, 723°C. The
phase just above the eutectoid temperature for plain
carbon steels is known as austenite or gamma. We now
consider what happens as this phase is cooled through
the eutectoid temperature (723°C) .
. Commercially ---
--pure iron contains up to 0.008% C,
--steels up to 2.11% C,
--cast irons up to 6.67% C, although most cast irons
contain less than 4.5% C.
-- pure graphite --- 100% C
. Ferrite –
1./ Alpha ferrite and
2/. Delta ferrite ( δ-ferrite)
. Alpha ferrite , also denoted a-ferrite or simply
ferrite .
-- solution of body-centered cubic (BCC) iron;
-- it has a maximum solid solubility of 0.022% C at a
temperature of 727°C.
-- Ferrite is relatively soft and ductile .
. Delta ferrite , (δ-ferrite) is another form that is
stable only at very high temperatures and is of no
practical significance in engineering.
. Austenite ( gamma iron ('y-iron )) :- Within a certain
temperature range iron under goes a polymorphic
transformation from a bcc to an fcc structure,
becoming gamma iron ('y-iron), or, more commonly,
austenite .
--This structure has a solid solubility of up to 2.11% C at
1148°C. Because the fcc structure has more interstitial
positions,
--Austenite is an important phase in the heat treatment
of steels .
--It is denser than ferrite,
--its single-phase fcc structure is ductile at elevated
temperatures; consequently, it possesses good
formability.
. Cementite ( Fe3C ) :-
-- It is 100% iron carbide (Fe3C)
--having a carbon content of 6.67%
--Cementite is a very hard and brittle .
--Cementite, from the Latin caementum (meaning
“stone chips”), is also called carbide.
(This iron carbide should not be confused with other
carbides used as dies, cutting tools, and abrasives, such
as tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, and silicon
carbide )
. Hypo-eutectoid temperature :- Less than eutectoid
temperature (7230C )
. Hyper-eutectoid temperature :- More than
eutectoid temperature
.Iron with less than 0.77% C , The ferrite in the
pearlite is called eutectoid ferrite .
. Curie temperature :- Ferrite is magnetic from room
temperature to 768°C, the so-called Curie temperature
. Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys :--
.phase transformations --The various
microstructures described thus far can be modified by
heat-treatment techniques-that is, by controlled
heating and cooling of the alloys at various rates ,
These treatments is called phase transformations .
--phase transformations that greatly influence such
mechanical properties as the strength, hardness,
ductility, toughness, and wear resistance of the alloys.
--The processes of recovery, recrystallization, and grain
growth are examples of thermal treatment, involving
changes in the grain structure of the alloy.
. By Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys , we can find
various forms i.e Pearlite , Spheroidites , Bainite,
Martensite , Retained Austenite , Tempered Martensite
. Basic Heat treatment Processes ---
1/.AnnealingSlow cooling(furnace)Coarse pearlite
2/.Normalizing—Fast cooling(air cooling)—fine pearlite
3/. Aus-tempering—Interrupted Quenching—Bainite
4/.Tempering—Reheating quenched specimen—
----………………………………………………Tempered martensite
5./Quenching—Very fast cooling(water)—Martensite
. Pearlite :-- Austenite is transformed into pearlite.
--if cooling is slow (as it is in a furnace), coarse pearlite
is produced
--If the rate of cooling is relatively high (as it is in air),
fine pearlite is produced;
. Bainite :-- similar to pearlite , is generally stronger
and more ductile than pearlitic steels at the same
hardness level.
. Martensite :-- When austenite is cooled at a high
rate, such as by quenching it in water, its fcc structure is
transformed into a body-centered tetragonal (bct)
prism structure.
--it is extremely hard and brittle .
. Tempered Martensite :--
-- Martensite is tempered in order to improve its
mechanical properties.
--Tempering is a heating process by which hardness is
reduced and toughness is improved .
--The body-centered tetragonal martensite is heated to
an intermediate temperature, typically 150°-650°C .
. Retained Austenite :-- If the temperature to which
the alloy is quenched is not sufficiently low, only a
portion of the structure is transformed to martensite.
The rest is retained austenite .
. Hardenability of Ferrous Alloys :-- The capability of
an alloy to be hardened by heat treatment is called its
hardenability .
--The term “hardenability” should not be confused with
“hardness,”
. The End-quench Hardenability Test -- commonly
used Jominy test .
. Quenching Media :-- Quenching may be carried out
in water, brine (salt water), oils, molten salts, or air;
caustic solutions, polymer solutions, and gases are also
used.
--the cooling capacities of several quenching media are
as follows: agitated brine, 5; still water, 1; still oil, 0.3;
cold gas, 0.1; still air, 0.02.
. In tool steels, the quenching medium is specified by
a letter .
--W for water hardening,
--O for oil hardening,
--A for air hardening

. Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Alloys and Stainless

Steels :----
. Nonferrous alloys and some stainless steels cannot
be heat treated by the techniques used for ferrous
alloys.
. The reason is that nonferrous alloys do not undergo
phase transformations .

. Heat-treatable aluminum alloys, copper alloys,

martensitic stainless steels, and some other stainless
(types 304, 409 and 405 )steels are hardened and
strengthened by a process called precipitation
hardening.
. Precipitates :-- This heat treatment is a technique in
which small particles of a different phase, called
precipitates .
. Solution Treatment :-- In solution treatment, the
alloy is heated to within the solid-solution kappa phase
say, 54O°C - and then cooled rapidly-for instance, by
quenching it in water.
--The structure obtained soon after quenching consists
only of the single phase kappa; this alloy has moderate
strength and considerable ductility.
. Precipitation Hardening :--- In this process, the
alloy is reheated to an intermediate temperature and
then held there for a period of time, during which
precipitation takes place.
. Aging :--- Because the precipitation process is one
of time and temperature, it is also called aging, and the
property improvement is known as age hardening.
. Artificial aging -- If carried out above room
temperature, the process is called artificial aging.
. Natural aging -- However, several aluminum alloys
harden and become stronger over a period of time at
room temperature; this process is called natural aging .
. Maraging :- This is a precipitation-hardening
treatment for a special group of high strength iron-base
alloys.
--The word maraging is derived from martensite age
hardening,

. Case Hardening ::::::------- for improving resistance

to surface indentation, fatigue, and wear , only The
surface properties , is called case hardening .
--Typical applications for case hardening are gear teeth,
cams, shafts, bearings, fasteners, pins, automotive
clutch plates, tools, and dies.
. Several case-hardening processes are available –
a/. Carburizing (gas, liquid, and pack carburizing)
b/. Carbonitriding;
c/. Cyaniding;
d/. Nitriding
e/. Bromizing ;
f/. Flame hardening;
g/. Induction hardening; and
h/. Laser-beam hardening.
. Outline of Heat-treatment Processes for
Surface Hardening -------
. Carburizing :--
-- Metals hardened-- Low-carbon steel (0.2% C),
alloy steels (0.08-0.2% C)
-- Element added to surface—C
--Procedure --Heat steel at 870-950°C in an atmosphere
of carbonaceous gases (gas carburizing) or carbon-
containing solids (pack carburizing). Then quench.
--General characteristics --A hard, high-carbon surface
is produced. Hardness 55 to 65 HRC. Case depth<0.5 to
1.5 mm. Some distortion of part during heat treatment.
--Typical applications--Gears, cams, shafts, bearings,
piston pins, sprockets, clutch plates.
. Carbonitriding :--
-- Metals hardened -- Low-carbon steel (0.2% C)
-- Element added to surface-- C and N
-- Procedure-- Heat steel at 700-800°C in an
atmosphere of carbonaceous gas and ammonia. Then
quench in oil .
-- General characteristics -- Surface hardness 55 to 62
HRC. Case depth 0.07 to 0.5 mm. Less distortion than in
carburizing.
-- Typical applications-- Bolts, nuts, gears

. Cyaniding :--
-- Metals hardened -- Low-carbon steel (0.2% C), alloy
steels(0.08-0.2% C)
-- Element added to surface-- in a bath of sodium
cyanide and C .
-- Procedure-- Heat steel at 760-845°C in a molten bath
of solutions of cyanide (e.g., 30% sodium cyanide) and
other salts .
-- General characteristics-- Surface hardness up to 65
HRC. Case depth 0.025 to 0.25 mm. Some distortion.
-- Typical applications-- Bolts, nuts, screws, small gears .

. Nitriding :--
-- Metals hardened --Steels (1% Al, 1.5% Cr,0.3% Mo),
alloy steels (Cr, Mo), stainless steels, high-speed tool
steels
-- Element added to surface---N
-- Procedure --Heat steel at 500-600°C an atmosphere
of ammonia gas or mixtures of molten cyanide salts. No
further treatment.
-- General characteristics--Surface hardness up to 1100
HV. Case depth 0.1 to 0.6 mm and 0.02 to 0.07 mm for
high speed steel.
-- Typical applications --Gears, shafts, sprockets, valves,
cutters, boring bars, fuel-injection pump parts

. Bromizing :--
-- Metals hardened--- Steels
-- Element added to surface--B
-- Procedure --art is heated using boron-containing gas
or solid in contact with part.
-- General characteristics--Extremely hard and Wear
resistant surface. Case depth 0.025 to 0.075 mm.
-- Typical applications--Tool and die steels
. Flame hardening:--
-- Metals hardened --Medium-carbon steels, cast irons
-- Element added to surface--None
-- Procedure --Surface is heated with an oxyacetylene
torch , then quenched with Water spray or other
quenching methods.
-- General characteristics-- Surface hardness 50 to 60
HRC . Case depth 0.7 to 6 mm. Little distortion.
-- Typical applications--Gear and sprocket teeth, axles,
crankshafts piston rods, lathe beds and centers

.Induction hardening :--

-- Metals hardened -- Medium-carbon steels, cast irons
-- Element added to surface—
None
-- Procedure -- Metal part is
placed in copper induction
coils and is heated by high
frequency current, then quenched.
-- General characteristics-- Surface hardness 50 to 60
HRC . Case depth 0.7 to 6 mm. Little distortion.
-- Typical applications-- Gear and sprocket teeth, axles,
crankshafts piston rods, lathe beds and centers.
.Laser beams and electron beams :-
--are used effectively to harden both small and large
surfaces, such as gears, valves, punches, and
locomotive cylinders.
. Advantages :-
1/.The main advantages of laser surface hardening are
close control of power input,
2/. low distortion,
--the depth of the case-hardened layer is usually less
than 2.5 mm.
. Surface-hardening techniques can also be used for
tempering .

. Decarburization :- Decarburization is the

phenomenon in which alloys containing carbon lose
carbon from their surfaces as a result of heat treatment
or of hot working in a medium, usually oxygen that
reacts with the carbon.
--It also adversely affects the hardness, strength, and
fatigue life of steels .
. Annealing :--
--for instance, to increase ductility (and hence
formability) and reduce hardness and strength, or to
modify the microstructure of the alloy.
--is also used to relieve residual stresses in a
manufactured part, as well as to improve machinability
and dimensional stability.
.The term “annealing” also applies to the thermal
treatment of glasses and similar products,
--An annealing temperature may be higher than the
material’s recrystallization temperature .

. Types of Annealing :--

A/.Full Annealing --
Full annealing is used to soften steel, create the
second-most ductile condition, and create a stable and
uniform microstructure. Following are the three stages
in the full annealing of steel.
1/.Heat the steel 30 to 500C above the highest critical
temperature for hypoeutectoid steel.
Heat the steel 30 to 500C above the lowest critical
temperature for hypereutectoid steel.
2/.Hold the steel at the aforementioned temperature
for a while (this is referred to as "soaking") to cause a
change in the composition. For every millimetre of the
big section of the component's thickness, it takes about
3-4 minutes.
3/.Cool the metal gradually. The pace of cooling varies
depending on the steel's composition and ranges from
about 100C per hour.

B/. Process Annealing :--

--also called intermediate annealing, subcritical
annealing, or in-process annealing
In this process, metal is heated below the critical metal
temperature or very near to it, held at this temperature
for a while, and then slowly cooled.
Process annealing for steel is done at temperatures
between 260 and 7600C. In the annealing procedure,
there is no phase transformation crystal.
This procedure is frequently used in the sheet and wire
sectors as well as on cold-worked steels.
Subcritical or intermediate annealing are other names
for process annealing. Low-carbon steel is a good
candidate for this procedure.
. Stress Relief Annealing :--
In stress relief annealing, the metal is heated to a lower
temperature, around 650 degrees, and held at this
temperature in the furnace for a period of time to
remove the metal's internal stress. After this, the metal
is slowly cooled.
Large castings or welded constructions frequently
have internal stresses, which are primarily the result of
uneven cooling and production processes.
Stress reduction annealing does not involve any phase
transformations.
The main aim of stress relief annealing is to remove the
internal stresses produced in the metal due to
1/. i) Plastic deformation.
2/. ii) Non-uniform cooling
iii) Phase transformation

. Tempering :--
--- also called drawing .
--Tempering is the process of annealing martensite at
low temperatures.
--Tempering is a heat-treatment process consisting of
reheating the hardened steel to a temperature below
4000C, followed by cooling.
--Steel in its hardened condition is generally too brittle
to be used for certain functions. Therefore, it is
tempered.
.The aims of tempering are: ------
--to relieve the internal stresses
--to regulate the hardness and toughness
--to decrease the brittleness
--to restore some ductility
--to induce shock resistance .

. Austempering :---
--- also called Isothermal quenching
--In this process, steel is heated above the austenitizing
temperature (9230C). It is then quenched in the bath
maintained at the temperature above the martensite
start temperature within the Bainitic range (200—
4000C generally).
--The final structure is Bainite in austempering.
--Bainite has higher toughness and ductility than
martensite but its hardness and strength are less
compared to martensite.
--In isothermal quenching or austempering, the steel is
heated to the required hardening temperature in the
same manner as in martempering but the quenching
time in the salt bath is longer.
--Another difference in this method is that the salt bath
temperature for austempering is above the
martensite point to ensure a sufficiently complete
austenite decomposition into bainite.

. Martempering (Mar-quenching) :--

--In martempering, the steel or cast iron is first
quenched from the austenitizing temperature in a hot-
fluid medium, such as hot oil or molten salt.
--Next, it is held at that temperature until the
temperature is uniform throughout the part; then it is
cooled at a moderate rate, such as in air .
--Martempered steels have less tendency to crack,
distort, or develop residual stresses during heat
treatment.
--The process is suitable for steels with lower
hardenability.
. Aus-forming :--
--also called thermomechanical processing .
--the steel is formed into desired shapes within
controlled ranges of temperature and time, to avoid
formation of nonmartensitic transformation products;
--Aus-formed parts have superior mechanical
properties.

. Spheroidizing Annealing :--

Spheroidizing Annealing is a process used to increase
the machinability of high carbon and alloy steel. During
spheroidizing annealing, the steel is heated to a
temperature below A1 (temperature at which the
eutectoid reaction occurs), maintained there for a
while, and then slowly cooled.
The storage period ranges between 15 and 25 hours.
Eutectoid and hypereutectic steel, including carbon
tool steel, alloy tool steel, bearing steel, etc., are its
primary uses. The steel's internal structure is improved
by this procedure.
This can be done by two methods:
1/. The substance is heated to just above its lower
critical temperature of about 700 degrees, where it is
kept for hours before cooling down.
2/. Alternately heating and cooling the substance
between the ranges just above and below the lower
critical temperature.
Spheroidizing heating is primarily used to increase the
steel's machinability.
This procedure prepares the substance for quenching
while reducing hardness and uniform structure.
Cementite is transformed into a spherical form
through this procedure.

D/. Isothermal Annealing :--

The steel is heated above the maximum critical
temperature during the isothermal annealing
procedure.
The steel quickly transforms into an austenite structure
when heated above the top critical temperature. The
steel is then chilled to a temperature between 600 and
7000C lower than the lower critical temperature. Force
chilling techniques are used to cool things down. In
order to create a homogeneous structure in the
substance, this temperature is sustained for a
predetermined amount of time.
 Low carbon and alloy steels are typically subjected to
the isothermal annealing procedure to increase their
machinability.

. Diffusion Annealing :--

Diffusion annealing is the name of the procedure
because during this process, iron and carbide diffuse
with one another. Steel is heated above the upper
critical temperature because diffusion requires a
greater temperature. It is almost between 1000 and
12000C. In this procedure, the heat is preserved for
almost 10 to 15 hours. After diffusion annealing, the
tissue is refined with full annealing and normalizing.
This method is used to separate significant alloy steel
castings and ingots from high-quality steel. Diffusion
annealing's primary goals are to homogenize the
composition and organization and to remove dendritic
and regional segregation from the solidification
process.

. Incomplete Annealing :--

In this incomplete annealing process, the steel is
heated to about upper critical temperature. The heat
treatment process is obtained by slow cooling after
thermal insulation.
This process is mainly used to obtain spherical pearlite
tissues for the hypereutectoid steel to eliminate the
internal stress, reduce the hardness and improve the
machinability.

. Advantages of Annealing :--The advantages of

annealing are as follows:
1/.Annealing makes the metal softer.
2/.It lessens thermal stresses brought on by
temperature differences.
3/.It increases and strengthens the steel's
machinability.
4/.The metal becomes more ductile as a result.
5/.Annealing increases the metal's tensile strength.
6/. It enhances the metal's uniformity.
7/.The steel has a finer particle size.
8/.Annealing gets the steel ready for additional thermal
treatment.
9/. It results in a particular substructure.
. Disadvantages of Annealing :---Some major
disadvantages are as follows:
1/.The major drawback of annealing is that it needs
exact temperature .
2/.Additionally, some materials might need multiple
cycles to produce the best results, which increases the
time and expense involved in carrying out this
operation.
3/.Annealing may not be effective on all materials.
4/. Annealing can cause defects.
5/.Annealing may alter the properties of a material.

. Difference between Annealing and Normalizing :-

Annealing Normalizing
After annealing, the After normalizing, the
metals are cooled in metals are cooled in
controlled cooling inside ambient air outside the
the furnace furnace
The cooling rate after The cooling rate after
annealing is normalizing is
comparatively slower comparatively faster
Results in relatively higher Results in relatively lower
ductility ductility

Annealing results in Normalizing results in

relatively lesser hardness, relatively higher
strength, and toughness hardness, strength, and
toughness
Annealing results in a Normalizing results in a
coarse and less uniform fine and more
grain structure. uniform grain structure.
Internal Stresses after Internal Stresses after
annealing are Minima normalizing are
slightly higher
The cost of annealing is The cost of normalizing is
high Low
Metals and metal alloys Mainly stainless steel,
like steel, aluminium, aluminium, brass, and
brass, and copper copper undergo
undergo annealing. normalizing.
Applications: Mechanical Applications: Automotive
components, electrical industry, nuclear
components and industry, and construction
household items industry

. Applications of Annealing :--Common applications

for annealed metals include:
1/. Work hardened materials such as sheet metal that
has undergone a stamping process or cold- drawn bar
stock.
2/.Metal wire that has been drawn from one size to a
smaller size may also undergo an annealing process.
3/. Machining operations that create high amounts of
heat or material displacement may also warrant an
annealing process afterwards.
4/. Welded components can create residual stresses in
the area of the material exposed to elevated
temperatures; to recreate uniform physical properties,
annealing is often used.

. Heat-treating Furnaces and Equipment :--

--Two basic types of furnaces are used for heat
treating: batch furnaces and continuous furnaces.
. Salt-bath Furnaces :-- Because of their high heating
rates and better control of uniformity of temperature,
salt baths as are commonly used in various heat-
treating operations .
. Fluidized Beds :-- Dry, fine, and loose solid
particles, usually aluminum oxide, are heated and
suspended in a chamber by an upward flow of
hot gas at various speeds.
The parts to be heat treated are then placed
Within the floating particles-hence the term
fluidized bed.
. Furnace Atmospheres :-- The atmospheres in
furnaces can be controlled so as to avoid (or
cause) oxidation, tarnishing, and decarburization
of ferrous alloys heated to elevated temperatures.
** Bluing :-- The term bluing is used to describe
formation of a thin blue film of oxide on finished
parts to improve their appearance and their
resistance to oxidation.