Topic 4:

Waves
4.1
- Oscillations
4.2
- Travelling waves
4.3
- Wave characteristics
4.4
- Wave behaviour
4.5
- Standing waves
4.1 Oscillations
 Nature of Science
Models: Oscillations play a great part in our lives,
from the tides to the motion of the swinging
pendulum that once governed our perception of
time. General principles govern this area of physics,
from water waves in the deep ocean or the
oscillations of a car suspension system. This
introduction to the topic reminds us that not all
oscillations are isochronous. However, the simple
harmonic oscillator is of great importance to
physicists because all periodic oscillations can be
described through the mathematics of simple
harmonic motion.
4.1.1 Kinematics of simple harmonic motion (SHM)

Oscillation is a type of motion in which an object moves back and

forth over the same path repeatedly in a regular manner. Such a
motion is also known as a periodic motion or a vibrational motion.

Examples:
a swinging pendulum
a mass attached to a helical spring
a cantilever
a violin string
atoms or molecules in a solid lattice
air molecules as a sound wave passes by

SHM is the simplest type of oscillatory

motion, where the object oscillates between
two positions with no loss in energy. Such an
oscillation is also known as a free oscillation.
Definitions

Displacement, x:
Displacement is distance the object has moved from its rest position in
a stated direction. It is a vector.
Amplitude, xo:
Amplitude is the maximum magnitude of displacement from the
equilibrium position. It is a scalar.
Frequency, f :
The number of complete oscillations per unit time is called the
frequency. SI unit is hertz (Hz). Note: 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second .
Period, T :
The period T is the time for one complete oscillation. Note: T = 1/f .
Definitions

Angular frequency,  :
The angular frequency  is defined as 2f . SI unit of  is radians per
second (rad s-1) and the unit of frequency f is cycle per second.
Altrenatively,  = 2f = 2 .
T
As  is a constant, period T is a constant and is independent of the
amplitude x0 of the oscillation . This is an important characteristic of
SHM.
Definitions

Simple harmonic motion may be defined as an oscillatory motion

of a particle whose acceleration is directly proportional to its
displacement from the equilibrium position and this acceleration
is always directed towards that position.

a−x

where a is the acceleration,

x is the displacement from equilibrium
and the negative sign implies that acceleration points in the
opposite direction of the displacement vector.

Written in equation form, this is

a = − 2 x , where 2 is the constant of proportionality for

an oscillatory system.
 x/m

+
𝑇ൗ 𝑇ൗ
t/s
4 2

𝑇 3𝑇ൗ
x = -xo 4 x = xo
v=0 v=0 v/m s-1
x=0
a = amax a = -amax
v = vmax
a=0
rightwards t/s
x=0
v = -vmax
a=0
a/m s-2
Leftwards

Graphs of displacement, t/s

velocity and acceleration
against time
 KE/J
+
𝑇ൗ 𝑇ൗ
t/s
4 2

PE (max) 𝑇 3𝑇ൗ PE (max)

4 KE(zero)
KE(zero)
PE PE/J
(zero)
KE(ma
x)

t/s

Graphs of Kinetic TE/J

Energy, Potential Energy
and Total Energy against
time t/s
 Graphs for SHM

(A) Variation of x, v, a with time t

Any SHM can be described in terms of a sinusoidal function. For
instance, the value of the displacement x of an object can be given by
this equation: (Note that t is the angular displacement  of the object)

x = xosin (t) ,
which means the object is at the
equilibrium position at t = 0, i.e. x = 0
𝑑𝑥
then the object’s velocity( 𝑣 = )
𝑑𝑡
v = xo cos(t)

𝑑𝑣
and the object’s acceleration ( 𝑎 = )
𝑑𝑡
a = − xo2 sin(t)

hence a = − 2 x

which agrees with what was shown in the

previous section.
If x = xocos(t) ,
which is for the object starting
at the maximum displacement
or amplitude i.e when t = 0, x
= x

then
v = − xo sin(t)
and
a = − xo2 cos(t ) = − 2 x
(B) Variation of v and a with respect to x

It can be shown that v =   x o2 − x 2 and of course, a = -2 x

From the v - x plot, the velocity of the particle

will be maximum only at x = 0, i.e., when it is
passing through the equilibrium position.

Then 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =±𝝎𝒙𝝄

Also, the velocity will be zero when the particle

is at the amplitude, i.e., x =  xo .

From the a - x graph, the acceleration is

maximum at x = xo , and is given by
amax = -2xo
Acceleration is zero when the object is passing
through the equilibrium position.
Example 2
The pendulum bob in a particular clock oscillates so that its
displacement from a fixed point is as shown:

By taking the necessary readings from the graph, determine for these
oscillations, (a) the amplitude; (b) the period;(c) the frequency; (d) the
angular frequency; (e) the acceleration (i) when the displacement is
zero; (ii) when the displacement is at its maximum; (f) the maximum
velocity of the pendulum bob.
1
Solution: (a) x = 0.12 m, (b) 2 s; (c) 𝑓 = = 0.5 𝐻𝑧 ;(d)  = 2f = 3.1 rad s-1 ; (e)(i)
𝑇
0 (e)(ii) a =  x = 3.1 0.12 =1.2 m s ; (f) 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑥𝜊 = 3.10.12 = 0.37 m s-1
2 2 -2
(C) Phase Difference

Consider an oscillation given by the equation x = xosin(t)

and a second oscillation represented by x = xosin(t + ) .

They are two different oscillations because at any time t, the second
oscillation will differ by an angle  . This angle represents the phase
difference between the two oscillations. Thus, the phase difference 
is the difference in the phase angle between the two oscillations which
have the same frequency .
Example 4

Phase difference between A and B = 0˚ , they are in phase.

Phase difference between A and C = 180˚ , they are out of phase.
Phase difference between A and D = 90˚, they are out of phase.
Phase difference between B and D = 90˚ , they are out of phase.
Example 5

What are the phase differences between the displacement-time plot,

velocity-time plot and acceleration-time plot for a simple harmonic
motion?

ANS:
Phase difference between x-t
and v-t is = 90˚.
Phase difference between x-t and
a-t is = 180˚.
4.1.2 Energy changes during simple harmonic motion (SHM)

In the absence of external and dissipative forces, there will be no

energy loss to a system in SHM. Hence, the total energy of the
oscillating system is a constant and there is a constant interchange of
kinetic and potential energies.

(A) Kinetic Energy

The K.E. of a particle in SHM is given by ½mv2 = ½m 2(xo2 − x2)

As mentioned, velocity is maximum at the equilibrium position, x = 0.

 maximum K.E. also occurs at x = 0 and is given by ½ m2xo2
Obviously, minimum K.E. is zero at the amplitudes, x =  xo

(B) Potential Energy

The P.E. of an oscillating mass is given by ½m 2x2

Naturally, P.E. = 0 at x = 0
and P.E. is maximum at the amplitudes x =  xo, and is given by ½m2xo2
(C) Total Energy

Total energy = P.E. + K.E.

= ½ m2(xo2 − x2) + ½ m2x2
= ½ m 2xo2

This total energy is a constant and

does not depend on x.

The graph on the right shows the

variation of K.E., P.E. and total
energy with displacement. Both are
parabolic curves and the sum of the
energies at any point is a constant
value.

In a simple pendulum, all the energy is kinetic as the bob swings

through the equilibrium position and at the top of the swing it is purely
potential.
(D) Energy variation with time t

It can be shown that for an SHM of equation x = xocos(t)

But total energy is still a constant, given by ½ m2xo2

 4.2
Travelling
Waves
4.2 Travelling Waves
 Nature of Science
• Patterns, trends and discrepancies: Scientists have
discovered common features of wave motion through
careful observations of the natural world, looking for
patterns, trends and discrepancies and asking further
questions based on these findings
4.2.1 Travelling waves
All waves are caused by disturbances, which results in some sort of
oscillation. These oscillations then spread out as waves.
When a wave travels through a medium, the particles of the medium
are set into simple harmonic oscillations about their equilibrium
positions. These oscillations make up the disturbance which is
transmitted to other particles in the medium, but the particles do not
move along with the disturbance. The wave propagates as the
disturbance is moved through the medium and together with this
disturbance, energy is also transported.
An isolated disturbance, traveling
through an otherwise undisturbed
medium is a wave pulse. A pulse occurs
when a medium is disturbed only briefly.

A continuous wave is produced when a

medium is disturbed in a regular,
periodic way. A continuous wave repeats
itself in space and time.
4.2.2 Wavelength, frequency, period and waves speed
Displacement (y):
Displacement is distance of an oscillating particle from its equilibrium
position in a specified direction
Amplitude (A):
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of an oscillating particle from
its equilibrium position.
Wavelength ( ):
Wavelength is the distance between any two successive particles which
are in phase.
(It is thus the distance between two successive crests or troughs)
Period (T):
Period is the time taken for a particle to undergo one complete cycle of
oscillation.
(It is also the time for the wave to travel through one wavelength)
Frequency (f):
Frequency is the number of complete cycles performed by a particle per
unit time .
(It is also the number of wavelengths that pass a given point per unit time)
Unit: Hertz (Hz)
f = 1/T
Wave speed (v):
Wave speed is the distance the wave profile moves per unit time.
(Do not confuse this speed with the speed of the oscillating particles within
the wave!)
Derivation (to memorize)
By definition, speed = distance / time
For one cycle, the time taken is one period (T) and the distance covered is
one wavelength ( ), thus speed =  /T .
Since frequency f = 1/T ,  speed v : v = f
4.2.3 Transverse and longintudinal waves
A progressive or travelling wave is the movement of a disturbance from
a source which transfers energy but not material to places around it.
Mechanical waves (require a medium for propagation) and
electromagnetic waves (do not require a medium) are progressive
waves by nature.
Progressive waves can be further classified into transverse and
longitudinal waves.
(a) Transverse Waves
Transverse waves are waves in which the displacement of the particles
of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of the wave motion.
All electromagnetic waves are transverse.
(b) Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the displacement of the particles
of the medium is parallel to the direction of the propagation of the wave.
All sound waves are longitudinal.

If a spring is repeatedly given a push and a pull, a longitudinal wave is

created. The individual parts of the spring move back and forth about
their equilibrium positions, causing a series of compressions and
rarefactions. Compressions occur where the loops of the spring are
closer together than at equilibrium while rarefactions appear where the
loops are farther apart. All movements are parallel to the direction of
the wave motion as seen in the diagram:
Graphical Representations of Waves
(a) Displacement-distance graph

This shows how the

displacements of particles vary
with the distance from the source
at a particular moment in time.

This graph can be used to

determine the wavelength
(distance between successive
crests or successive troughs).
Graphical Representations of Waves
Longitudinal Wave
Diagram (a) :
In the diagram (a), the particles
of the medium are shown
evenly-spaced in the
undisturbed positions. Diagram (b) :

In diagram (b) The passage of

the wave displaces the particles
to their new positions.

In diagram (c) The displacement

of the particles are represented Diagram (c) :
by the same displacement-time
graph as we used for the
transverse wave. However,
displacements to the right are
given positive values and
displacements to the left are
given negative values.
Graphical Representations of Waves
(b) Displacement-time graph

This shows how the displacement

of a single particle in the wave
varies with time.

This graph can be used to

determine the period (distance
between successive crests or T
(period)
successive troughs).
Example 7
The diagram below shows an instantaneous position of a string as a
transverse progressive wave travels along it from left to right. Which
one of the following correctly shows the directions of the velocities of
the points 1, 2 and 3 on the string?

Point 1 Point 2 Point 3

A → → →

B →  →

C   

D   

E    Ans : D
Example 8
The same progressive wave is represented by the following graphs.

Which of the following gives the speed of the wave?

A. pq B. p/q C. q/p D. 1/pq

Ans : C
 Example 9
The displacement x of the particles in a longitudinal wave motion are
represented by the displacement-time graph as shown below. Displacements
of particles to the right are given positive x-displacements and displacements
of particles to the left are given negative x-displacements.

At which instant of time will there be a compression along the wave?

A. ½T B. 0 C. ¾T D. T

Ans : A
4.2.4 The nature of electromagnetic waves
An oscillating electric charge produces sinusoidally varying electric
& magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each other, & to the
direction of propagation.
These propagating fields are called electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves - are transverse waves

- can travel in a vacuum
The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is related to its

v = f
wavelength:
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

7 frequency regions of the spectrum are given below:

 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Region Frequency/Hz Source/s

radio 102 - 108 oscillating electrons - oscillators
waves
micro 108 - 1012 oscillating electrons - vacuum tubes
waves (klystrons)
infra red 1010 - 1014 oscillating molecules - hot objects
radiation
visible (4-7.5) x 1014 movement of outermost electrons -
light fluorescent tubes
ultra violet 1015 - 1017 outermost electrons changing energy levels
radiation - sun, sun beds
X rays 1016 - 1020 very fast moving electrons bombarding
heavy metals
gamma > 1018 radioactive decay
rays
Electromagnetic waves
EM waves exhibit the following properties:

1. They consist of two sinusoidal fields – the E-field and B-field,

which are oscillating in phase and at right angles to each other.
2. They are transverse waves.
3. All electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum(or free space).
4. In vacuum, they travel with the same speed c = 3.00 x 108 ms-1.
5. All em waves undergo reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction
and polarization.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum:

Radiation Approximate Range of 

Gamma Rays 10-14m - 10-11 m
X-rays 10-11 m - 10-9 m
Ultra-violet 1 nm - 0.4 m
Visible Light 400 nm - 700 nm
Infra-red 0.7 m - 1 mm
Microwaves 1 mm - 0.1 m
Radio waves 0.1 m - 10 km
4.2.4 The nature of sound waves

What is sound?

• Sound is a form of energy

• It is passed from one point to another as a wave.
• It is an example of a longitudinal wave and comprises of a series of
compressions and rarefactions in the medium.

How is sound produced?

• Sound is produced by vibrating sources placed in a medium.

• A vibrating object in air causes shifting of layers of air particles.
• Longitudinal sound waves are produced.
How does sound travel?
• The direction of vibration of air molecules is parallel to the
direction of wave motion.

As a tuning fork vibrates, it shifts layers of air inward and outward,

creating a series of compression (C) and rarefactions (R).
Measuring the speed of sound in air

The direct method of measuring the speed of sound

 4.3
Wave
Characteristics
4.3 Wave characteristics
 Nature of Science
Imagination: It is speculated that polarization had been
utilized by the Vikings through their use of Iceland Spar over
1300 years ago for navigation (prior to the introduction of the
magnetic compass). Scientists across Europe in the 17th–19th
centuries continued to contribute to wave theory by building
on the theories and models proposed as our understanding
developed.
4.3.1 Wavefront and rays
Wavefront:
Wavefront is a line or surface joining points of a wave that are in phase,
e.g. a line joining crest to crest in a wave.
The distance between 2 successive wavefronts is one wavelength.

Ray :
Ray is the path taken by the wave and is used to indicate the direction
of wave propagation.
Rays are always at right angles to the wavefronts
4.3.2 Amplitude and intensity

Intensity (I):
Intensity of a wave is defined as the rate of energy flow per unit
cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation.
Unit : W m-2.

P E where P is the power of the energy source

I = =
S tS and S is the perpendicular cross-sectional area

It can be shown that the energy transported by a wave is proportional to

the square of its amplitude,

i.e. E  A2

From the above energy relation, the intensity of a wave is also proportional
to the square of its amplitude.

I  A2
Inverse square law

• As the distance of an observer from a point energy source

(light/sound) increases, the intensity received by the observer will
decrease as energy spreads out over a larger area.
Inverse square law

• The surface area S of a sphere of radius r is calculated using 𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

• If the point source radiates a total power P in all directions, then the
power received per unit area (the intensity, I) at a distance x away is

𝑃
𝐼=
4𝜋𝑥 2

For a constant P, 𝐼 ∝ 𝑥 −2

• The inverse square law can be used to calculate the intensity of the
Sun’s radiation incident on a planet.
Example 9
A sound wave of amplitude 0.20 mm has an intensity of 3.0 W m-2.
What will be the intensity of a sound wave of the same frequency
which has an amplitude of 0.40 mm?

Since I  A2

I1 A12 3.0 0.20 2 −2

= 2 = 2
 I 2 = 12 Wm
I 2 A2 I 2 0.40
4.3.3 Principle of Superposition
When two or more waves of the same kind exist simultaneously at a point
in a medium, the resultant displacement of waves at a given point in time
and space is the vector sum of the displacement due to each wave acting
independently.

In the following diagram, wave A and wave B are superposed together to

give the resultant wave. Notice how the individual displacements of A and
B are added to give the resultant displacement at various points.
4.3.4 Polarization
Electromagnetic Waves
EM waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The
electric field vector is perpendicular to the magnetic field vector.
The oscillations of the fields are confined to the plane of the
wavefront. If we consider just the electric field vector, then the
angle of vector within this plane can take any value between zero
and 360˚. This angle is continually changing as the wave
advances.

Light in which the plane of

vibration of the electric
vector is continually
changing is said to be
unploarized.
Polarization
Light is polarized
when its electric fields
oscillate in a single
plane, rather than in
any direction
perpendicular to the
direction of
propagation.

Polarized light will not

be transmitted through
a polarized film whose
axis is perpendicular to
the polarization
direction.
 Polarization – Malus’s Law
When light passes through a polarizer, only the
component parallel to the polarization axis is
transmitted. If the incoming light is plane-
polarized, the outgoing intensity is:
 Polarization – Malus’s Law

 : angle between th e polarizati on

axis and the Electric Field direction
of the incident plane polarized light
I 0 : Intensity of incident plane polarized light beam
I : Intensity of transmitt ed plane polarized light beam
 Polarization

This means that if initially unpolarized light

passes through crossed polarizers, no light
will get through the second one.

Io
Io
2
Optically Active Substances (optional)
Optically active substances rotate the plane of polarization of a
beam of polarized light.
This means that the plane of polarized light is rotated as it passes
through the material. This rotation is a result of the interaction
between the molecules in the material and the incident light. This
occurs when the molecular structure of the compound is not
symmetrical. These materials include sugar solutions, corn syrup,
turpentine, amino acids, and some crystals.
The degree of rotation of the plane of
polarization depends on the depth of the
liquid. Therefore, different depths of
solutions will exhibit different colors
when viewed through a stationary
polarizing filter. In the photo, pieces of
glass placed in Karo syrup create a
variety of depths, and hence different
colors.
 Polarimeter (optional)

The degree of rotation for a given substance is measured using two

polarizers. The first one is called a Polarizer and it produces plane
polarized light. A second polarizer is called the Analyzer. The
polarizer and analyzer are initially aligned without the sample tube.
A sample tube with an optically active substance is then introduced.
The analyzer is viewed and rotated an angle α until maximum
intensity of transmitted light is seen.
The angle through which the plane of polarization of light is rotated
depends on the length of the sample and its concentration.
http://scholar.hw.ac.uk/site/chemistry/activity5.asp
 Polarization by reflection – Brewster’s Law
A ray of light incident on the boundary between two media will, in
general, be reflected and refracted. The reflected ray is always
partially plane-polarized preferentially in the plane parallel to the
surface. If the reflected ray and the refracted ray are at right angles
to one another, then the reflected ray is totally plane-polarized. The
angle of incidence for this condition is known as the polarizing
angle or Brewster’s angle  . This angle is related to the index of
refraction of the two materials on either side of the boundary by the
equation:

n2  : Brewster' s
Electric field oscillation into the paper

tan  =
 n1 Angle
n1

n2
If n1 = 1 (air) , then
r
tan  = n
Electric field oscillation in the plane of the paper
 Polarization by reflection
Polaroid sunglasses are made with the axes
vertical to eliminate the more strongly reflected
horizontal component, and thus reduce glare.
 4.4
Wave
Behaviour
4.4 Wave behaviour
4.4 Wave behaviour
 Nature of Science
Competing theories: The conflicting work of Huygens and Newton on
their theories of light and the related debate between Fresnel, Arago
and Poisson are demonstrations of two theories that were valid yet
flawed and incomplete. This is an historical example of the progress of
science that led to the acceptance of the duality of the nature of light.
4.4.2 Snell’s law, critical angle and total internal reflection

Refraction: Snell’s Law

The angle of refraction

depends on the refractive
index, & is given by
2
Snell’s law:
1
1

n1 sin  2 v2
= =
n1 n2
n2 sin 1 v1
Critical angle
1. When a ray of light is
directed
perpendicularly
through the
semicircular glass
block, the light ray
will pass through
without deviation.

2. When the light ray is

directed at an angle i at
point O, the light ray is
refracted away from the
normal when it travels
from the glass into air.
3. As the incident angle is
increased, the refracted ray
is seen to bend further
away from the normal. It
comes a point when the
refracted ray is 90° to the
normal.

Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the optically

denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the less
dense medium is 90°.
When the angle of incidence
is increased beyond the
critical angle, the light ray
will be reflected back into
the glass block. No light ray
is refracted through. This is
known as total internal
reflection.

Total Internal Reflection takes place only when

1. a ray of light travels from an optical denser medium to a less
dense medium
2. The angle of incidence in the optically denser medium is greater
than the critical angle.
To determine the critical angle of a medium?

When the angle of incidence is at the critical angle c, then the
angle of refraction r = 90o. Since the light ray is from the
medium into air, we use the principle of reversibility. Hence

sin 90o 1
n= =
sin c sin c

1
sin c =
n
4.4.3 Diffraction through a single-slit and around objects
Diffraction

Diffraction refers to the phenomenon of

bending or spreading of waves when they
pass an obstacle or through an aperture.

Diffraction is relatively more important when

the wavelength is comparable to the size of
the aperture or obstacle.
Diffraction

Sound has long wavelengths and can diffract after passing through
doorways about a metre wide. A person talking loudly in a room can be
heard round a corner without being seen.

Light has a very short wavelength such as 600 nm and so light waves are
diffracted appreciably only through very small openings. When the light
source is far away and the openings are small like pinholes and slits,
diffraction effect is noticeable. Eg. view a distant street lamp through a
pinhole in a card, or through a fine silk handkerchief, or through a slit
between two fingers.
Diffraction of waves can
be demonstrated with
the help of a ripple tank

If a plane wave produced in a ripple tank is allowed to pass through a

slit (see figure below), the following are observed:
Interference
Interference is said to occur when waves from two or more coherent
sources superpose with one another producing a resultant wave.

Interference of water waves can be demonstrated using a ripple tank with

two vibrating dippers.(see figures below) The two dippers send our
circular waves that are in phase and of the same frequency. An
interference pattern consisting of easily observed lines of constructive
and destructive interference is seen.

The lines of constructive interference (maxima) are places where the

resultant amplitude is double the amplitude of one wave. The lines of
destructive interference (minima) are places where the waves cancel out
and the resultant amplitude is zero.
(a) Constructive Interference
For constructive interference to occur at a point, the two waves must
arrive in phase at the point.This means that the wave crest from one
source always meet the wave crest of the other. This can only occur if the
path difference of the waves from the two sources is zero or they differ
by an integral multiple of wavelength.

Path difference S2 P – S1 P = n where n = 0,1,2,3…….

(b) Destructive Interference
Destructive interference occurs if the waves from the two sources arrive
exactly out of phase, i.e. the wave crest always meets the trough. This
happens when the path difference of the waves is (n + ½).

Path difference S2 P – S1 P = (n + ½). where n = 0,1,2,3…….

The figure below illustrates the production of an interference pattern by two point sources A
and B. The point C is equidistant from A and B. A wave travelling from A to C will cover the
same distance as the wave from B to C. If the waves started out in phase at A and B, they
will arrive in phase at C and interfere constructively. A maxima is obtained at C.

At other places such as D, the waves will have travelled different distances from the two
sources. There is a path difference between the waves arriving at D. If this path difference is
a whole number of wavelengths (., 2., 3.,..or n.) the waves will arrive in phase and
interfere constructively, producing regions of maxima.

However at places such as E, the path difference is odd number of half-wavelengths (./2,
3./2, 5./2…or (n+½ ) .). The waves arrive at E out of phase, and interference is
destructive, producing regions of minima. The collection of maxima and minima is called an
interference pattern.
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

Conditions:
-Coherent sources
(constant phase
difference)
 Interference – Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment
The interference occurs because each point on
the screen is not the same distance from both
slits. Depending on the path length difference,
the wave can interfere constructively (bright
spot) or destructively (dark spot).
 Interference – Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment
We can use geometry to find the conditions for
constructive and destructive interference:

d sinθ =nλ, n = 0,1,2,……. Constructive

Interference

d sinθ=(n+1/2)λ, n = 0,1,2,……. Destructive

Interference
 Interference – Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment (optional)
sin  = p/d = n/d
tan  = Xn/D

Since  is usually very

small,
tan   sin 
Xn/D = n/d
Xn = nD/d
Xn+1 = (n+1)D/d

Fringe width
s = Xn+1 - Xn = D/d
 Interference – Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment
𝝀𝑫
Fringe width/separation 𝒔 = where s is the
𝒅
fringe spacing, D is the horizontal distance from
screen to double slits and d is the separation
between the slits.
If the slit width is sufficiently narrow (an
assumption), the bright fringes will be equally
bright (or the maxima have the same intensity.)
 4.5
Standing
Waves
4.5 Standing Wave
 Nature of Science
Common reasoning process: From the time of Pythagoras
onwards the connections between the formation of standing
waves on strings and in pipes have been modelled
mathematically and linked to the observations of the
oscillating systems. In the case of sound in air and light, the
system can be visualized in order to recognize the
underlying processes occurring in the standing waves.
Nature of Standing (stationary) waves
A standing wave is formed by the superposition (i.e. vector
addition) of two waves that are:
• the same type of wave
• of the same amplitude
• of the same frequency
• travelling in the opposite direction with the same speed
Nature of Standing (stationary) waves
Although each of the individual waves is still travelling in their
separate directions, the result of the superposition of these waves is
a new wave. The phase of each point on the new wave remains
fixed with time but the amplitude of the resultant wave varies with
time. We say that this wave is fixed in place or, in other words, is a
standing wave.
The points that always show no displacement are called nodes. The
points that reach maximum amplitude of displacement are called
antinodes.
Boundary Conditions
In many situations, one of the waves that is involved in
the creation of the standing wave results from a reflection
of a travelling wave.
The processes involved in causing the reflection at the
surface mean that a boundary condition is known to
apply to the wave. The boundary conditions of the
system specify the conditions that must be met at the
edges (the boundaries) of the system when standing
waves are taking place.
Any standing wave that meets these boundary conditions
will be a possible resonant mode of the system. A
boundary condition is any principle known to apply to an
end point of the wave.
Boundary Conditions – Reflection

Reflection
at fixed
end

Reflection
at free end
Standing Waves in stretched strings
When both ends of the vibrating
string are fixed, standing waves
will occur.

The boundary condition in this

case is that each end of the
string is fixed and cannot move,
so the standing wave that is
created must have a node at the
fixed end. Another condition is
that transverse waves travelling
along the string meeting a fixed
boundary at each end will be
reflected.
Standing Waves in stretched strings

Points of destructive
interference (zero
amplitude) are nodes.
Points of constructive
interference (maximum
amplitude) are antinodes.
Standing Waves in stretched strings
Interference between
travelling waves and
reflected waves can result
in vibration of the string as
a whole and the seeming
standing still of the waves.
The frequencies of the
standing waves on a
particular string are called
resonant frequencies.
They are also referred to
as the fundamental and
harmonics.
Standing Waves in stretched strings

f n = nf1
where n = 1, 2, 3 ...
Vibrating Air Columns
Wind instruments create sound through
standing waves in a column of air.
Stationary longitudinal waves are set up in a
column of air as a result of interference
between sound waves travelling in opposite
directions.
In a pipe, air blown across one end cause
progressive sound waves that travel to the far
end of the pipe where they are reflected and
superpose with the incident waves to form
stationary longitudinal waves.
Vibrating Air Columns

A tube open at both ends has displacement

antinodes at the ends.
Vibrating Air Columns
In a pipe open at both ends, all harmonics are
present. Therefore resonant frequencies are
integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

f n = nf1 where n = 1, 2, 3 ...

1
L=  1 = 2 L
2
v v
f1 = =
1 2 L
Vibrating Air Columns

A tube closed at one end has a displacement

node at the closed end.
Vibrating Air Columns

In a pipe closed at one end, only odd harmonics

are present. Resonant frequencies are always
odd integers of the fundamental frequency.

f n = nf1 where n = 1, 3, 5 ...

1
L=  1 = 4 L
4
v v
f1 = =
1 4 L
Vibrating Strings and Air Columns

Resonant frequency Strings/Open pipes Closed pipes

Fundamental frequency/  1 = 2L f1 = v/2L  1 = 4L f1 = v/4L

1st harmonic
2nd or 3rd harmonic 2 = L f2 = v/L  3 = 4L/3 f3 = 3v/4L

3rd or 5th harmonic  3 = 2L/3 f3 = 3v/2L  5 = 4L/5 f5 = 5v/4L

nth harmonic  n = 2L/n fn = v/ n  n = 4L/n fn = v/ n

All n = 1,2,3… Odd n = 1,3,5…

harmonics harmonics
 Comparison between standing waves and
travelling waves
Stationary Wave Travelling
Wave
Frequency All points oscillate with the All points oscillate
same frequency. with the same
frequency.
Wavelength This is twice the distance from This is the shortest
one node (or antinode) to the distance along the
next node (or antinode). wave between two
points that are in
phase with one
another.
Phase The phase of all points All particles along a
between two nodes are wavelength have
identical. difference phases.
 Comparison between standing waves and
travelling waves
Stationary Wave Travelling
Wave
Amplitude All points on the wave have All points on the wave
different amplitudes. At any have the same
particular point on the wave, the amplitude (provided
maximum amplitude is fixed energy is not
between zero (at the nodes) to dissipated).
twice the amplitude of the
component waves (at the
antinodes).

Energy Energy is not transmitted by the Energy is transmitted

wave, but it does have an energy by the wave.
associated with it.
Wave Does not move. Moves.
pattern