N ° 2 Summer 2009

C F M , C F M 5 6 , L E A P, L E A P 5 6 , L E A P - X a n d t h e C F M l o g o a r e t r a d e m a r k s o f C F M I n t e r n a t i o n a l ,
a 50/50 joint company between Snecma (SAFRAN Group) and General Electric Company

The world’s most popular engine

as of June 30, 2009

Around 28,000 CFM56 engines on order

(including options)

500+ customers
8,113+ aircraft / 19,642 engines in service IN THIS ISSUE
448 million flight-hours & 256 million flight cycles The world’s most popular
engine
110,000 more flight-hours every day
The Power of the Future
1 takeoff every 3 seconds... 45 round trips to the moon… daily!
Compressor stall
CFM powers 600 new airplanes each year... equivalent to the entire fleet of a major
Reduced takeoff thrust
airline like Air France/KLM or Southwest

The Power of the Future

The CFM Vision LEAP-X, the revolutionary engine for

Meeting the performance and environmental challenges of next-generation aircraft
future single-aisle commercial jets will require a revolutionary On July 2008, CFM unveiled LEAP-X, an entirely new baseline
engine that provides the right balance between outstanding turbofan engine designed to power the new generation of
operational economics and exceptional reliability. CFM is the single-aisle commercial jets. Based on extensive discussions
company that will deliver that engine. with leading operators, lessors and airframers, CFM has set
For 35 years, CFM has been raising the bar and 10 - 15 db the following ambitious objectives for a LEAP-X
exceeding customers’ expectations. Today, noise reduction engine that could be certified in 2016.
we’re delivering the Power of ”X”. vs. Stage 4

Maintaining the
CFM56 standard 16% lower fuel
for reliability and consumption
maintenance cost vs. today’s current engines

50-60% lower
RTM fan blade, a NOx emissions
revolutionary technology vs. CAEP 6
The fan blade is a proprietary CFM Snecma technology based
on a multidimensional carbon composite which is 3D “woven”
then injected using the RTM process. It produces a light, yet
remarkably robust fan blade at competitive cost, and helps jet
engines meet the strictest new standards for fuel consumption
and noise. This new technology enables composite fan case
technology based on similar process, providing weight savings
of up to 1,000 lb per aircraft.
MASCOT, the full-scale LEAP-X fan demo engine - First run January 2009

CFM International Proprietary Information

The information contained in this document is CFM International (CFM) proprietary information and is disclosed in confidence. It is the property of CFM and shall not be used, disclosed to others or reproduced without the express written consent of
CFM, including, but without limitation, it is not to be used in the creation, manufacture, development, or derivation of any repairs, modifications, spare parts, designs, or configuration changes or to obtain FAA or any other government or regulatory
approval to do so. If consent is given for reproduction in whole or in part, this notice and the notice set forth on each page of this document shall appear in any such reproduction in whole or in part. The information contained in this document may
also be controlled by the U.S. export control laws. Unauthorized export or re-export is prohibited.
 N ° 2 Summer 2009
CFM, CFM56, LEAP, LEAP56, LEAP-X and the CFM logo are trademarks of CFM International, a 50/50 joint company between Snecma (SAFRAN Group) and General Electric Company

The Power of the Future (cont.)

Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) Advanced core technology

a new blade technology for lower emissions
Vanes & blades made of ceramic matrix composites (CMC) CFM is developing an HP core that nearly doubles the core
are not only ultra-lightweight, they can support the extremely pressure ratio, while maintaining high efficiency and durability.
high temperatures found in the high-pressure turbine. Used The core incorporates third-generation 3D aerodynamic
in the high-pressure and low-pressure turbines, CMC technology design airfoils, the advanced TAPS II (twin-annular, pre-swirl)
can provide 500 lbs weight savings per aircraft. combustor, and advanced aerodynamics, materials and cooling
technology in the high-pressure turbine.

TAPS II Combustor

Multi stage turbine

aerodynamic simulation

LEAP-X eCore - First run June 12, 2009

If open rotor proves its feasibility,

CFM will be leading the way
The continued volatility of fuel prices dictates that we keep
our options open. CFM is therefore concurrently examining
two new engine designs: the LEAP-X advanced turbofan
and an open rotor architecture. All the technology
being developed under the LEAP program could also
be incorporated into an open rotor architecture to
decrease fuel burn by up to 26 percent compared to
today’s CFM56 engines.

Olivier Longeville
GM Commercial Aviation Market
Open Rotor

Page 
 N ° 2 Summer 2009
CFM, CFM56, LEAP, LEAP56, LEAP-X and the CFM logo are trademarks of CFM International, a 50/50 joint company between Snecma (SAFRAN Group) and General Electric Company

Understanding and managing

compressor stalls/surges

Simulator versus real life What’s going on inside the engine?

The modern high bypass turbine engine provides remarkable The compressor section of a turbine engine compresses
reliability and safety. As such, the majority of professional flight and heats air for an optimum mix of fuel and superheated/
crews only experience a loss-of-thrust event in a simulator pressurized air for combustion. The compressor consists of
where they are expecting, and are “primed” for, the inevitable multiple stages of rotors (high rpm) and stators (stationary)
power loss. that progressively increase the pressure and temperature of the
air as it passes axially through the compressor (see Figure 1).
The simulator scenarios usually have the crew shut down
a troublesome engine and continue through the required Each of the rotating rotor stages has blades (see Figure 2) that
checklists and engine-out landing procedures. Time is are actually airfoils in design and, like the wing of an airplane,
rarely allotted to experience and compare different engine can experience similar aerodynamics of wing flow stall or
malfunction scenarios, or to discuss the correct diagnosis separation due to high angle of attack. This separation of
of each scenario. One situation that has caused flight crew
confusion is the proper recognition and response to a
compressor stall/surge event.
Stator stage
The limitations inherent in the simulator environment diminish
the “startle factor” and initial confusion brought about by
the loud bang, vibration and possible inlet or exhaust flames
that may accompany such an event. When a compressor stall/
surge occurs during an actual flight, experience demands that
Rotor Stage
one pilot must remain focused on flying the aircraft and not
become distracted by what can be significant aural, visual and
tactile indications of a compressor stall. Figure 2
Typical compressor
(Stator stage - Rotor stage)

airflow leads to a stall with an associated loss of

dynamic airflow progression, resulting in what
could be a violent redirection of compressed
air. The redirection can progress forward
as well as aft, resulting in a loss of engine
power varying from a momentary drop to
a complete shutdown.

A “rotating stall”, where only a limited

circumferential area of the compressor is
affected by stall conditions, is characterized
by the compressor continuing to operate
but with a considerable drop in efficiency.
sor
p res The term “surge” deals with the ability
C om
of the engine to absorb this stalled
condition as the redirection of energy
rapidly progresses throughout the engine.
The terms “stall” and “surge” are often
interchanged.
Figure 1
CFM56-7 engine cutaway
Compressor

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 N ° 2 Summer 2009
CFM, CFM56, LEAP, LEAP56, LEAP-X and the CFM logo are trademarks of CFM International, a 50/50 joint company between Snecma (SAFRAN Group) and General Electric Company

Understanding and managing

compressor stalls/surges (cont.)
Without going into detailed engine design, it is important to What are the known causes of
mention that the stator vanes in the forward stages of the
compressor stall/surge events?
compressor are often able to rotate open or close as necessary
to balance the air load required by the aft compressor stages Based on investigations, several situations have been identified
(see Figure 3). as root causes, including:
 Mechanical damage in the turbo-machinery flow path,
such as High Pressure Compressor rotor blade airfoil
damage or material liberation or High Pressure Turbine
airfoil damage
 Foreign Object Damage (or FOD) from objects ingested
into the engine, such as single or multiple bird strikes,
shed ice, runway contamination (slush, snow and ice), or
reverse thrust debris re-ingestion
 High Pressure Compressor VSV system mechanical
damage, including lever arm fractures, or mis-rigged
VSVs
 Significant High Pressure Compressor airfoil erosion and
airfoil chord loss, which reduce the compressor stall
margin and are often associated with low overall engine
health in the form of low EGT margin
 Inflow of bleed air into the compressor through a failed
pneumatic check valve, mostly influencing low speed stall
margin
 Dirt or environmental material build-up on blades and in
cooling holes that allow degradation in airfoil aerodynamic
flow and efficiencies
 Significant crosswind components outside the published
certification limits, which can disrupt stable airflow into
Figure 3
the inlet, usually as the engine accelerates
Variable Stator Vanes (VSV)
 High levels of reverse thrust, well below the recommended
guideline ground speeds, allowing re-ingestion of hot
gases into the engine
These variable stator vanes (VSV) play a large part in
CFM engines are designed to be stall/surge-free and have
maintaining the engine stall-free throughout its operating
adequate stall margin for the on-wing life of the engine
range. Damage to this system or to individual VSVs is a
as long as the engines are maintained in compliance with
major contributor to inadequate airflow dynamics across the
defined maintenance practices and operated according to
compressor stages.
recommended procedures within the certified envelope.
When a stall occurs, it is often characterized audibly by a single Stall margin assessments take into account manufacturing,
or rapid series of bangs or pops, perceived to be coming from assembly, and control tolerances, deterioration allowances,
the general location of the engine. Experience has shown that thermal and elastic response of rotor and stator, inlet distortion,
some stall “bangs or pops” can be extremely loud and startle throttle transients, and horsepower extraction. Figure 4 on the
the crew. next page illustrates this stack-up.
It is important to understand that, although extremely rare,
In general, if a series of stalls/surges lasts longer than two 85% of CFM stall/surge events were caused directly by
seconds, then indications of fluctuating or decreasing N1/N2 some level of mechanical damage or mis-rigging. Therefore,
rotor speeds and fuel flow, as well as increases in EGT, will CFM recommends diligently following engine maintenance
continue until the stall clears. Visual indications could include practices, and troubleshooting engines as needed per the
bright flashes of orange-yellow light or flame from either the applicable aircraft maintenance manuals in order to maximize
core exhaust nozzle or engine inlet for as long as the stall on-wing stall margin and engine performance.
event lasts.

Page 
 N ° 2 Summer 2009
CFM, CFM56, LEAP, LEAP56, LEAP-X and the CFM logo are trademarks of CFM International, a 50/50 joint company between Snecma (SAFRAN Group) and General Electric Company

Understanding and managing

compressor stalls/surges (cont.)

CFM recommends that at the first indication of a stall, the flight

}
"Available Stall Margin" Average New Egine
crew turn off the auto-throttle (if so equipped) and retard the
throttle slowly toward idle. Pay close attention to the engine
Throttle transients (burst, chops, bodes)
parameters and continue the throttle reduction until the stall
indications cease and normal conditions resume. This may
Thermal and rotor/case clearance effects "Stall Margin
Stall Margin

including transients requirement" require a reduction in power to flight idle. If EGT is stabilized or
Including a
Manufacturing, assembly and controls tolerances
decreasing and other parameters are normal, follow the QRH
Worst
Combination procedures, which may have the crew turn on all available bleed
Performance and Stall Line Deterioration
Inlet distortio
for the engine, or manage pack flow prior to slowly advancing
n
Horsepower extraction
Airflow
the throttle. Check that thrust, engine N1 and N2 speeds
Design Limit (%RPM) and EGT accurately follow thrust lever movement with
Airflow
all other indications remaining within limits. Continue to operate
the engine within limits and below any stall/surge level.
Figure 4
The “Available Stall Margin” Must Cover the If a stall occurs as the throttle is advanced, attempt to continue
“Stall Margin Requirements” for a “Worst operations below the stall-onset throttle setting. Watch the
Combination of Engine and Operating Conditions“
event engine carefully, as possible internal damage may worsen
during continued use and the stall margin may change due to
Flight crew response
damage.
How a crew handles the time during or immediately following
a stall/surge event may dictate the continued usefulness of the Isolating a momentary compressor stall to a specific engine
engine during the remainder of the flight, as well as the level can be difficult if it is not accompanied by fluctuating engine
of mechanical damage that may result from the stall. There are indications. In this case, a malfunctioning engine may be
two stall scenarios: isolated by noting step increases in EGT and fuel flow, as well
as step shifts in N2 (core speed) and vibration levels, when
 Self-clearing, single-event stalls that do not require crew
compared to steady state levels prior to the stall. In all cases,
action the continued operation of an engine that has stalled must be
 Non-recovering stalls that require crew action to clear done with caution and vigilance. If high EGT becomes evident,
Self-clearing, single events do not require crew action and if a rapid EGT rise occurs during a slow power advance, or if an
usually allow continued and normal operation afterwards. excessive increase in vibration level is noted, the engine should
However, if the stall does not self-recover or clear, proper be returned to idle or shutdown. If a shutdown for suspected
operation of the throttle is necessary to clear the stall. mechanical damage or exceeding a limit is performed, the
engine should not be restarted. As always, report all stall/surge
Continued operation of an engine that is cleared by a throttle events to maintenance with as much event detail as possible.
reduction is allowable, but added vigilance is needed when
power is re-advanced. Should another stall occur, operate the Although the initial indications of a compressor stall/surge may
engine at power levels that remain below the stall level. be significant, a basic understanding of what is causing the
engine to react in such a fashion will prove helpful in crew
Note that if mechanical damage has occurred, the region of diagnosis and response. Compressor stalls are rare events that
stall-free operation may change over time. often clear themselves. When this is not the case, flight crews
Flight crews must understand how to properly manage an need to be confident in their ability to handle the engine in
engine stall in order to avoid an in-flight shutdown (IFSD) a fashion that allows continued operation below the stall
and to maintain the redundancy available through an engine threshold (if present), allowing added thrust and redundant
operating at possibly lower thrust. This scenario is significant systems for a continued, safe flight.
to ETOPS operations.
Captain Andy Mihalchik
GE, Technical Pilot / Program Manager

Page 
 N ° 2 Summer 2009
CFM, CFM56, LEAP, LEAP56, LEAP-X and the CFM logo are trademarks of CFM International, a 50/50 joint company between Snecma (SAFRAN Group) and General Electric Company

Reduced Takeoff Thrust

P rior to about 1965, all takeoffs were

performed at full thrust. At that
time engine and aircraft manufacturers
When actual takeoff weight is less than MTOW,
it is possible to determine the temperature
at which the required thrust would be the
suggested to aviation authorities that maximum. Figure 2 shows how to determine
reduced takeoff thrust could extend engine this “Assumed” or “Flexible” temperature.
life and increase safety. The authorities The assumed temperature method can be
allowed a reduction in takeoff thrust of no used under the three following conditions:
more than 25% under maximum, which is
still the case today.  Assumed or Flex Temp > Corner Point ( CP),
Flat Rated Temperature (FRT) or Reference
When the aircraft’s takeoff weight (TOW)
temperature ( TRef)
is lower than maximum (MTOW), which
often occurs, it is both possible and  Assumed or Flex Temp > OAT (Outside Air
recommended to take off at less than Temperature)
maximum thrust, a level referred to as  Assumed or Flex Temp < Max Assumed or
TOGA (Takeoff and Go Around). FlexTemperature
Reduced thrust takeoffs are relatively easy to apply, offer Note that CP, FRT and TRef have the same definition, and are
significant benefits and can also reduce engine related events, based on the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). e.g:
thus increasing safety for a given takeoff. a CFM56-7B CP is ISA+15°C, which means 30°C at Sea Level,
but 26°C at 2000 ft.
Two reduced thrust categories At the brake release, the throttles must be pushed to the
The reduced thrust concept uses a theoretical temperature reduced thrust N1. TOGA thrust remains available at any given
method called “assumed temperature”, “flexible temperature“ moment during the takeoff phase; however in the event of
or “flexible takeoff thrust”, or a preset thrust reduction known one engine out after V1, full thrust selection is not required.
as “Fixed Derate” or “Derated Takeoff”. These two reduced
thrust categories are clearly defined in AMJ 25-13 and AC 25-13. Sea Level / .25M / Corner Point Takeoff, Nominal HPX, Flight Inlet Ram Recovery

0%
Assumed or Flex Temperature Method (ATM or FTM) -5%
CFM56-7B18, CP=ISA+15
CFM56-7B22, CP=ISA+15
Delta% Thrust Reduction

This method refers to takeoff thrust under full takeoff thrust. -10%
CFM56-7B27, CP=ISA+15

The airplane’s takeoff performance and thrust setting are -15%

established by approved methods, such as making simple -20%
adjustments to the takeoff thrust setting and performance. -25%

The takeoff thrust is not considered as an operating limit. V- -30%

speeds protect minimum control speeds (VMCG, VMCA) and -35%

are calculated for full thrust. Thrust cannot be reduced by more -40%
than 25% of maximum takeoff thrust (Figure 1). However, 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

some aircraft configurations can be certified for takeoff with Delta Assumed Temperature Beyond Corner Point (deg C)

an “Extended Flexible Temperature” of up to 40% thrust

Figure 2
reduction.
In case of differences with the chart baseline conditions
(QNH, air conditioning, etc.), corrections have
T/OFF GW Flat Rated T° THRUST
(CP) to be applied to the Assumed Temperature.

Today Derated Takeoff

Max Thrust
25%
Thust reduction Max
Today
“Derated Takeoff” refers to a thrust level less than full takeoff
Today Max GW
Reduced
Thrust thrust, for which the limitations and performance data are
specified in the Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM). This corresponds
Today Real GW
to the basic maximum thrust reduced by a given percentage
or an existing thrust level on the engine model. The derated
thrust is considered a normal operating limit, TOGA thrust
T° must never be selected until the aircraft is airborne and above
Real T° Assumed Max Assumed
Temp the minimum flap retraction speed. This is because the V-
speeds used for performance calculation protect minimum
Figure 1 control speeds for this derated thrust level.
Thrust Reduction versus Assumed Temperature

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 N ° 2 Summer 2009
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Reduced Takeoff Thrust (cont.)

Figure 3 shows that a reduction in the minimum control parameters, and therefore reduces engine deterioration.
speeds sometimes provides a takeoff performance benefit on a
Operating under less severe conditions tends to reduce engine
limited runway (short and/or contaminated). A reduced thrust
wear. Operating longer at very high temperatures can result in
A321-231 MESSIER
degradation of the thermal coating, which thus increases blade
SL / ISA / Cf.3 / water 1/2
8000
TOGA stress and can result in loss of turbine airfoil material. The EGT
D04
D08 increases as fuel flow increases, thereby exposing the turbine
7500 D12
D16 blades to even higher temperature. As EGT deteriorates, so
7000 D20
D24 does fuel flow.
MTOW (Kg)

6500

6000 * No clearway/stopaway In general, for a given flight profile, an engine that is regularly
* slope 0%
*
*
RWY width : 45m
CONF3
operated at higher thrust levels will burn more fuel than a
5500
*
*
ISA, No wind, QNH 1013.25 hPa
Sea level airport similar engine operated at reduced thrust levels. Lowering
5000 * RWY state : Slush 1/4, Slush 1/2,
Water 1/4, Water 1/2 the EGT deterioration rate can increase the Time On Wing as
4500
1200 1300 1400 3000 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
shown in figure 4.
Runaway lenght (m)

60
Figure 3 55
Highest Thrust Rating
Example of derated takeoff 50
Takeoff EGT Increase - °C

45
40
takeoff is not authorized on a contaminated runway and if 35
the anti-skid function is inoperative. These restrictions do not 30
25
apply to a derated takeoff. Flight ops documents indicate the Next Lower
20 Thrust Rating
performance requirements for a reduced thrust takeoff on 15
wet runways, whereas ATM is forbidden on a contaminated 10
5
runway. In some configurations, a combination of derated
0
takeoff and ATM can be used, thereby increasing the potential 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Cycles Since Installation
thrust reduction to 40% from maximum thrust rating.
Remember that, on average, 1%N1 gives 3% thrust, 3°C Figure 4
flexible temperature and 10°C EGT. For the same level of EGT deterioration an engine operated at a lower
thrust rating can stay on-wing longer. In this case, nearly 2,500 cycles
longer, or essentially one year for a typical operator.
Decreased Engine Deterioration
The three engine parameters that determine the degree
Improved Takeoff Safety
of engine wear are rotor speeds, internal temperature and
internal pressure. Full-thrust takeoffs, particularly at high Reducing thrust on a given takeoff reduces stress and
ambient temperatures, result in engine components operating therefore the likelihood of an engine event. A study in the
late 1990’s of engine-related events for the entire high-
bypass commercial transport fleet came to some interesting
conclusions, as summarized in the table on the next page. The
study considered an average turbofan mission of 2 hours, the
type of event and the percentage of time spent in a particular
flight phase (takeoff or climb). The results show that an IFSD
A high pressure turbine (inflight shutdown) is twice as likely to occur in the takeoff
(HPT) blade with significant
high-temperature wear (higher thrust) phase as in the climb (lower thrust) phase.
To understand why an engine event is less likely at reduced
thrust, consider the takeoff phase as “full thrust” and the
climb phase as “reduced thrust”. The data shown in Figure 5
very near their maximum operating limits. Operating an engine show a significantly higher chance of an engine event at full
at a lower thrust rating or at reduced thrust decreases these thrust compared to reduced thrust.

Page 
 N ° 2 Summer 2009
CFM, CFM56, LEAP, LEAP56, LEAP-X and the CFM logo are trademarks of CFM International, a 50/50 joint company between Snecma (SAFRAN Group) and General Electric Company

Reduced Takeoff Thrust (cont.)

Maintenance costs are reduced because of the longer time

Phase of Flight In-Flight Power
and % of Time Shutdown
Fire
Loss
between shop visits and the lower labor and material costs to
Factor
Exposure Factor Factor restore the engine to a specified condition. While the takeoff
Takeoff
phase is very short compared to the total flight time, the
(1% of Flight) 4 12 8 impact on maintenance cost is very high (Figure 7).
Climb
(14% of Flight) 2 3 1.6
100 T/OFF

% Engine Maintenance Cost

Takeoff vs. Climb CLIMB
2 4 5 80
Factor CRUISE

60
Figure 5 40
Data for entire commercial transport fleet powered by
high-bypass engines. 20
Source: “Propulsion Safety Analysis Methodology for
0
Commercial Transport Aircraft,” 1998 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Flight Leg

Reduced Maintenance Costs

A reduction in engine thrust during the takeoff phase will Figure 7
reduce fuel flow, but the use of reduced thrust with either the Although taking only about 1 minute, the takeoff
accounts for at least 45% of engine maintenance costs
assumed temperature or derated takeoff method will often
increase overall fuel burn. However, even with today’s high fuel
prices, this is more than offset by the reduction in engine stress Reduced Thrust delivers aircraft
and wear and consequent reduction in maintenance cost that performance margins
thrust reduction entails. We are often asked if a small reduction For a given takeoff, there is obviously more performance

Design and Conception: Studio Graphique Snecma - NLI 292/09 - Copyright: Max Moutoussamy/Snecma, Iens Berlinson/Snecma
in thrust is worth the effort. Basically, any reduction in thrust margin at full thrust than at reduced thrust; however, reduced
will lower engine wear, and therefore engine maintenance thrust takeoffs meet or exceed all performance requirements
cost as shown below. The biggest impact is typically in the first stipulated by regulatory agencies. For a reduced-thrust
few percentage points of reduction (Figure 6). takeoff at a given assumed temperature, the performance
margin is greater than for a full-thrust takeoff at an ambient
temperature equal to this assumed temperature. In the case of
CFM56 Engines
reduced thrust, V-speeds are based on assumed temperature,
110%
while the aircraft is operating under ambient temperature
100%
conditions, which means that, for a given V-speed,TAS (True
90%
% $/EFH*

Air Speed) is lower. The result is a significant improvement in

80%
field length performance and no significant impact on climb-
70%
out performance.
60%

50% As you can see, there are many good reasons for using
70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100% 105% reduced-thrust takeoffs.
% thrust

*Engine Flight Hours Captain Max Moutoussamy

Snecma, Flight Operations Support Senior Manager
Figure 6
Assumed Temp 30°C at Sea Level is basically Full Thrust. 5% thrust
reduction from TOGA (Assumed temp 35°C) lower cost by 10%

Flight Operations Newsletter is published by Snecma Flight Operations Support Phone: +33 (0) 1 64 14 80 79 or +33 (0) 1 64 14 86 37
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