Forces Shaping the Earth’s Surface

Internal or Tectonic Forces and Resultant Landforms

Internal forces are forces that come from the inside of the earth.
These forces form the ups and downs on the earth’s crust.
These forces include
1. folding
2. faulting,
3. volcanism and
4. Earthquakes.
I. Folding
 Folding is the bending of rock layers due to earth movements from one or two sides.
 Folds are most visible in rocks that contain layering (sedimentary rocks).
 A monocline is a type of fold in which all rock layers bend in the same direction.
 If the layers of rock bend upward, it is called anticline
 If the layers of rock bend downward, it is called syncline.
Fold Mountains
 Fold Mountains are formed by crust which has been uplifted, and folded by
compressional forces.
 Are usually formed from sedimentary rocks and are usually found along the edges of
continents. This is because the thickest deposits of sedimentary rock are generally
accumulated along the edges of continents.
The following are major Fold Mountains of the world:
1. Andes (South America)
2. 2. Rockies (North America)
3. Alps (Europe)
4. Himalayas (Asia)
5. Atlas (North Africa)
6. Cape Ranges (South Africa)
7. Australian Alps (Australia)
II. Faulting
 Movements in the crust of the earth sometimes make cracks. These cracks are called faults.
 Faults occur due to two basic forces. These are tensional and compressional forces.
 Tension force causes a normal fault
 Compressional force causes a reverse fault.
 Rift valleys and block/Horst/ mountains are major features formed by faulting.
Rift Valleys
  A rift valley is formed when the land between two parallel faults sinks down.
 The largest rift valley in the world is the East African Rift Valley.
 It extends 7200 km from Syria to Mozambique, passing through the Red Sea; it touches
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Rwanda and
Burundi.
 It covers 5600 km in Africa.
 The Ethiopian Rift Valley is part of the East African Rift Valley. It extends from
northeast to south west.
 Features found in the Rift Valley include active volcanoes, lakes, hot springs and
fumaroles.

Block (Horst) Mountains

 Block Mountains are formed by the uplift of land between two parallel faults.
 These mountains are found closer to fold mountains in many parts of the world.
III. Volcanism
 Volcanism is the process by which molten rock (magma) is forced out to the surface of
the earth.
 The high temperature inside the earth changes rocks into molten magma.
 The magma that reaches the surface is called lava.
 The lava may come out on the surface through a single hole called a vent or several
cracks called fissures.
 When a hole is formed at the top of the cone of a volcano it is called crater.
 If the hole or crater is very wide, it is known as caldera. A lake formed in a caldera is
known as Crater Lake.
 Mount Zequala is a very good example of cone-shaped volcanic mountain with a crater
lake.
Volcanic activities may result in two deffrent types of landforms. These are:
A. Extrusive landforms: form on the surface of the earth. They include volcano, crater,
caldera and lava.
B. Intrusive landforms: result from solidified magma before reaching the surface of the
earth. When magma collects in the crust, it forms batholiths, laccoliths, dykes and sills.
Batholith: is a very large mass of magma which accumulates in the crust.
Laccolith: is a mushroom shaped body of intrusive igneous rock smaller than a batholith.
Dyke: is formed when magma solidifies in a vertical or near-vertical crack.
Sill: is a near horizontal intrusion of igneous rock between two rock layers.

Types of volcanoes
i. Active volcanoes:- these types of volcanoes have a recent history of eruptions; they
are likely to erupt again. Example: Erta'li, Fentale Dubbi and Damailai.
ii. Dormant volcanoes:- they have not erupted for a very long time, but they may
erupt at a future time. Example: Tatali, and Dabbahu
 iii. Extinct volcanoes:- they are dead volcanoes that are not expected to erupt in the
future. Example: Mt Ras Dejen, Mt Batu, Mt Zuquala etc

Effects of volcanism on human life

Volcanic eruption has both negative and positive impacts on human life.
Let us look at these impacts as follows:-
i. Advantages of volcanic eruption
Volcanic eruption has the following advantages. It:
 Provides hot water for bathing
 Helps to generate geothermal energy
 Provides fertile soils that is good for farming
 Creates dramatic scenery that can attract tourists
 Forms hard and expensive minerals used as jewelry
 Provides hard rocks for building, etc.
ii. Disadvantages of volcanic eruption
 Volcanoes emit hot, dangerous gases, ash, lava, and rock that are powerfully destructive.
 Volcanic eruptions can result in additional threats to health, such as floods, mudslides,
power outages, drinking water contamination and wildfires.
 It also results in infectious disease, respiratory illness, burns, injuries from falls, and
vehicle accidents related to the slippery, hazy conditions caused by ash.
IV. Earthquake
Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earth’s crust. They are caused by internal movements
deep down inside the earth. Earthquakes are frequently associated with faults.
They take place along fault lines where the earth’s crust is weak.
When an earthquake occurs, vibrations from the centre spread out in the form of waves in all
directions.
The point at which an earthquake originates is called the focus.
The point on the earth’s surface immediately above the focus is called the epicenter.
The intensity of an earthquake is measured by an instrument called a seismometer, and it is
recorded on a seismograph.
The scale which gives the magnitude is called the Richter scale. It ranges from 0 to 9.
The records that range to 5 indicate minor or light; if it is 5 to 7 moderate to strong. If the
range is 7 to 8, it is an indication of major earthquake and if it ranges above 8 or more, it is
considered as a great one.
The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean
characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
The majority of Earth’s volcanoes (75%) and earthquakes (90%) take place along the Ring of
Fire.

Effects of Earthquakes
• Loss of life and destruction of property
• Displacement of parts of the earth’s crust vertically or laterally
• Landslides and deep cracks in surface rocks
• The devastation of cities, fires and diseases
• The rise or lowering of the sea floor